The Eden of Labor or, The Christian Utopia by T. Wharton Collens
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Title:The Eden of labor; or, The Christian utopia. By T. Wharton Collens …

Author:Collens, T. Wharton (Thomas Wharton), 1812-1879.

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Print Source:The Eden of labor; or, The Christian utopia. By T.

Wharton Collens …

Collens, T. Wharton (Thomas Wharton), 1812-1879.

vii, [1]-228 p. 20 cm.

Philadelphia,

H. C. Baird & co.,

1876.

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THE EDEN OF LABOR; TIlE CHRISTIAN UTOPIA. BY T. WHARTON COLLENS, AUTHOR

OF‘“HUMANICS,” “THE HISTORY OF CHARITY,” ETC. And Je.us beholding said to them: With men this is impossible; but withl God all things are possible.

MATT. XIX. 26. …. without me ye can do nothing.-JOIHN xv. 6.

PHI1LAI)ELPH IA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., lNDUSlTRIAL P’UBLISItERS, BOOKSELLERS, AND IMPORTERS, 810 WALNUT STREET. 1 8 7 6. 0I.t,

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COPYRIGHT, T. WUtARTON COLLENS, 1876. PHII,AI)ELPITIA: COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 Jayue Street.

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PREFACE. TO-DAY, I receive a letter fi’om the pLTblishers, whlo say they are impressed with the necessity of a Preface, which is not with the copy.

They ask for one; and I hasten to comply with their request. I call think of no better Preface, than a brief statement of the design of the work the reader is about to peruse. It resolves itself into two points. To carry to legitimate and ultimate consequences, the fundamental principle admitted by all political economists, viz., “Labor is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities and services.” A plan is proposed for a practical application of this principle. To show that the principle and its application rest, still deeper, upon the rights of God, and the law of neighborly love pro

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PREFACE. pounded by our Lord Jesus Christ; and, therefore, that in his name only, and by the self-denial which that name implies, can this law, with its blissful operation, be realized in this world. I have attempted to develop these two points in the form of a narrative; and have placed the scene of imagined events of that narrative, in the world before the Flood. In doing this, I found it difficult to ol)serve a due proportion between theoretical discussion, and the requirements of a concrete relation of the circumstances which I suppose would take place fi’om the realization of the temporal ireign of Christ. I fear there is too much about the theory, and too little about what one might imagine would be the actions, events, and state of society, to which the application of the theory would give existence and body. I could not remedy the defect without producing a much larger and a too costly book, though it would perhaps have been more entertaining. The reader will not fail to see that the history of Nodland, which follows that of the iv

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PREFACE. Eden of Labor, is an appropriate counterpart. It is an exposition of the known effects of the selfish7 principle which has prevailed in the world, but wvhich the name of Jesus will necessarily overcome. Towards the end, the appropriateness of the “Introduction” will, I hope, be appreciated by the reader. If he is a working man, he will certainly feel how rest of mind and body is happiness; and be glad to understand 7how these may be procured, by diminishing, instead of increasing, the excessive toil and allxiety to which he is now subjected. The Postscript and Appendix will be found useful in this respect. T. WHARTON COLLENS. NEW

ORLI.EANS, 16th January, 1876. Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus. V

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CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. rAOI An Essay on Happi,iess, or Edenic Peace and Rest.. 13 CHAPTER I. God’s Share and Man’s Share of Values… 37 CHAPTER

II. Adam……… 47 CHAPTER III. The Reductions; their Currency and Exchanges… 57 Labortime Measure of Value…. 66 CHAPTER IV.

Reductionism, its Operation and Effects…. 68 CHAPTER V. Other Effects: from Skill, Cooperation, Abundance, Com merce, etc…… 77 Formiula of the Reductionese Currency… 89 CHAPTER VI. Personal Service and its Reward 9… 90

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CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGE . 113 Nodland; its Landlords and Tenants.

CHAPTER VIII. Mines, Machines, Wages, Money, and Finance CHAPTER IX. Caste and Oppression; War and Conquest.. 140 Reign of Enos…… 140 Schedule of Castes….. 141 First General Division: Lords and Gentry. 141 Second General Division: Independents.. 143 ‘I’hird General Division: Vassals…

144 Fourth General Division: Wagemen or Serfs. 145 Fifth General Division: Outcasts.. 146 CHAPT’ER X. Degradation and Reaction. CHAPTER XI. The Deluge of Sin and Death. POSTSCRIPT. New Eden, or How to be Happy on Earth. APPENDIX. Explanation of the Monogram viii . 126 . 160 . 173 . 192, . 207

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. IN T RO D U CT ION. AN ESSAY ON HAPPINESS, OR EDENIC

PEACE AND REST. ASK the philosopher, the moralist, the politician, the economist, or the sociologist, what practical end or result hlie expects from all liis researches and me(litationis; and if lie knows whlat hlie is labout, lie will answer: I aspire to lhappiness; happiness for rnyself; happiness for all. The man of small intellect and selfish feeliing will seek his own happiness, distinctly and independently, dismissing all care or consid(eration for the happiness of others or of the State; but enlarged( min(ls, seeing that there is rio severance from society, knowe that the only avenue to private happ)iness is througl-public happiness.

I-Hence, they posit the general question what is happiness, and its corollary, what wvould be the }lappiness of the State? To answer these questions they ransack all history, all literature, all science, the world. They take great pains and perform much fruitless labor, which might have been saved by doing what ought to have been obvious to a Christian believer. They should have gone at once to the b)eyinaiig of all philosophical truth, the first, second, and third chapters of Genesis; and, with the help of tl-he chlurch, meditating on those chapters of Holy Writ, they would have founid a fundamental answer to their question.

Indeed, on tlhis, as on every other question of civil or domestic polity, the replies of the Bible wvill always be found infinitely more profound, satisfactory, and 2

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. practical than those of philosophers, mortlists, and jurists, who have preferred to trust in their own shortsig;hlted wisdom, or in the speculations of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and their successors in Greece, Rome, and Modern Europe. In their writings and those of their apish admirers, we frequently come across dolcances on account of their inability to define happiness, their ignorance of what are its proper constituents, and the impossibility of ever attaining it in this world. If they ever offer to say wherein true happiness conIsists, they not only disagree but every one delivers hiimself of some vapid sentimentality.

Thus eachl according to his fancy, thiniks he sees happiness in the gratification of his own peculiar desire such as it is at the time he writes, and none are able to state a general and at the samte time specific term, denoting the universal and essential condition of happiness… a term whilch eachl of us would be willing to accept as the true name of a state of happiness. If asked in what happiness is to be found, what cont’ers it, their answers are: Riclies, Glory, Powei, Virtue, Retirement, Colnpetence, Gastronomy, Wine and Women, Farming, Books, Shaidy Groves, Scenery, Sport, Music F’estivals, Palaces, Friendship, Love, Piety, or other things too numerous to mention. The inijority seem to be in favor of Content; but what will afford contentment? They do not perceive that they have only substituted another word for happiness, remindillg us of the lines of Pope: ” WVho tilat defi,Ie it, say they more or less, Than tlhis:: that lai,p,lness is happiness.” Wre want a definition that points to something we can identify as the substance of happiness. We want an objective point, determining its location-a beacon guidiig us to the entrance of its empire-a sion practically usef’ul to all of us in our search and pirtisuit-a precise test, universally applicable.

T’urning, therefore, to the Bible and to thle time 14

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. wheni it tells us there was happiness oni earth, and seeing what made marl and womran happy then in Eden, we are able to say: The }happiness of man is in REST of mind and body: the happiness of the State is in Peace, because Peace is the rest of the State. Thus the happiness of persons and States consists in rest and peace. ” The G(arden of Eden.” Eden means pleasure or delight. It means hap)piness: a gar(lden of happiness. In this garden grew “every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good( for food;” and here also was the “tree of knowledge of good and evil; and the Lord took the man and put him in the garden of happiness to dress it and to keep it; and the Lord God commlnanded the lnan saying: Of every tree of the garden thou mayst freely eat; but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat.” (Gen. ii. 15, 16, 17.) For disobeying this single restriction Adam, amongo other penalties, was sentenced to this: “li/ the sweat of tlhy facte shalt thlou eat bread”

(Gen. iii. 19); and Eve to this, “Ili sorrow shalt thoui being forth children.” (Gen. iii. 16.) Thus it clearly appears that the happiness of man (lduring his primary state was compounded of three conditions: Firist.

IN’NOCENCE, or inexperience of any )ractical distinction between God’s will and human will. Secon$. OCCUPATION, without toil; without necessary or fatiguing labor. Tliirl. EXEMPTION FROM SORROW, or distress of mind.

The first of these conditions, if it is taken in an absolute sense, can never be reinstated. There is no hope of ever regaining paradise by returning to moral ignorance or insensibility; for knowledge of goo(l and(
evil cacnnot perish. It is indelible. It descend(ls of Iiecessitv firom Adam and Eve to their children il every generation. It is presented to us perpetually; and we ale ever called upon at our [)peril to use this 15 I I I i I i

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. knowledge righteously. “See, I have set before thee this day, life and( goo(d, death and evil.” (Deut. xxx. 15.) The problemi now is to ie-enter Ed(en by means of this very knowxvledge, rejecting the evil and choosing the good. Clhrist and (through Him) willing Innoceuce, are the only substitutes for the unhatched conscience of the Mal of E(ldei. Nevertheless in view of a minuter study of these conditions of happiness, and of their possil)le service in founding happy society ald good gove,nment, let us try to form a mental picture of this Man of E(deii -to see in imnagilation his nmode of life in his deliglitful abod(e. To do this we must conceive of a. state of the world antecedent to commerce, (rt, and even obligatory labor; and before anythiig had acquired a value or price. Suppose, for argument’s sake, that Ad(lam and Eve, according to the first of all d(iivine precepts, had increased and multiplied; and had not partaken of the tree of knowledge of good( alnd evil; nd tlat they and their children had continued in tlheir blissful ignorance of sin. atlnolig s)oIItaneous atd(l bounteous orchl-ards-wwhat then would -lhave bcii tlle life of maln? MaItn, wholly unacquainted with even the prinmitive way of mraking clothes, and unconscious of nakedness, wvould lave itnhab)ited onily the regions where the climnate was not too rigorous for his nude body, though we mav assnum-e tl’at his skiin was tough and not over-sensible to heat and cold. Wandering, as’ lie listed, to gaze from tlhe lll]-tops, the plains, or the sea-shore on the beauties of God(‘s creations-w.ading or swimming the brooks and rivers as hlie ramrbledrechlinig at noon under the th-ickest branches of gigalitic and fruitful trees behlolding, w\vith reverential wonder that nmasterp)iece of heavenly art, the stun when it rises at morn, passes the zeiitli at nooii, alid goes (ldowvn at eve-contemplating tlhe starry blue at night, in devotional ecstasy-regatr(lding, the ever 16

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. changingi and ever-gloriotus spectacle of the firma ment, with its sublime and beautiful phenomena of tinted clouds, refreshing rains, boisterous storrnms, its auroras, meteors, lights, shades, and prismatic hues in all their protean splendor, with more exquisite satisfaction than civilized people would see the finest theatrical exhibition-lookiIng at the landscape with more genuine elnjoyrment tlian we now feel in scrutinizing whole galleries of paintings-listening to the miusic of the birds, of vwaterfatlls, of tlhunder ftir and near, or of thle breezes in thle flowery copse or wavy forest, or hearing the simple songs of his family and companions with more heartfelt enthusiasm than we hear the orchestra and voices of the grandest opera -thinking o’f nature’s wonders anrid conversing about them in the friendly circle, imaginatioln evoking and tradition impressing on the book of his memory ballad(s and rom.tices of which the artistic and polished compositions of our poets are as dying echoes or fadiing shadows-smiling upon and even shariiug the joyous gambols of his children on the greensward or sandy shore-revelling in the rain or basking, in the suni-catching and bestriding, thle horses that grazed on ever-grassy plains-sporting in tile spray of the cascades or in the surf of land(-girt wavespruninilg w itli a piece of tslarp flint the useless b, atielies or plucking withl his hands the superfluous leaves of his favorite fruit trees-clearing tlietm of noxious insects or protecting them fiom the visits of careless animals-trainiiing a vine over the entrance of a cave he had chosen for his dwelling-clearing a smooth path froom the cave to the cool spring near bymerely stretching forth his hands or nimbly climbing any tree to cull and eat lris fill -of the most savory fruits, never filing to find the luscious re past at any time of tl-he year-the firugiverous Edenite would have been occupied, it is true; but, like Adam, would have done No wTORK. But this is only ()oine of the aspects-an imperfect ole-iin which our imaginatiol conceives the Man of ” 17

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THE EDIEN OF LABOR. Eden. This aspect is tlhat of Nature, of il)nloceut nature, of nature that has not yet comnuitted( the wickedness of’ which it is capable. But Adam was not merely naturally innocent. I-e was supcrii,tturally immarn,ulate. Ilis humnalnity consisted in asoul inherently rational and conditionally hloly; but the condition of tl-his holiness had not been violated, and its dazzling purity, fresh from the Creator’s bosoin, outshone the refulgent rays of its wisdom. While that soul retained its holiness it had the Science of Sl)irits and felt the sympath-ies of lHeaven. -Ie wasnmajestic and glorious; invested with all the d(lignity of intelligence and beauty) of vilrtuc. WVe inmust reverence l)im, for hlie was not igclorantly but wisely irnmnaculate. It mtist have been so; foi the world was tIld still is peopled with inlnumeiable allgels, messengeis of heavenly grace superlatively w-ise and ineffably good, each of whlom has a special funlction of perfection to perform, and who, though-now unseen to nortal eye, was then audible and visible to the yet untarnished senses of Man. He freely comrmuned with them. As hie,,iei, the spiritual sciences and Lcad the heavenly virtues, the angels joyfully cornntuiled witll llim; aind he joined them ili coiitemplating, understanding, and lulfilling th-e tlelil clear but now mysterious operations ol Providence. Even God liiinself condescended to s)peatk to A(i-alrl audibly. Hence natura] science and art as we low know themn woul(l have been vality of valitv to Aditrij. Tlhe exl)erimelnts of a Galileo, or tlhe iliventiotis of’a Watt, would hlave been trivial and useless to such a creattre: Jor his splhere of knowledge and a,ctioni was far above tlhese. \Vith the celestial intelligences he observed atld studiecd the meclinalJisin and esselnce of tlhe infilitely gret an(l infinitely small. His science was acquire(l by a peculiar )i,rocess of’

mind of whiclh only those who enjoy supernaiituaIl griace and co)iirnulioii with sinless aigels are capable, and tlhis different a(nd grander splere of knowvled(ge and thought mrust liave furiislied different and grander occul)atiolis is

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. than any of tlhose within thle scope and capacity of the natural man. Of this class of A(lam’s occupatiol)s w+e caln f(inr no defiite idea, fbr we have lost the grace, and with it the knowledge anid ability it gave; but we know enough to regard and admire the Man,f Ecleii as a conscious angel clothed in flesh and blood, and as engaged ill the acts and things that interest and occup)y the inl-habitants of heaven.

This mruchl at least can we say: that by tlhe perpetuations of Edenie life mnan would have enjoyed all tlhe felicities of personal liberty and intelligent contelipl,Ltion. LiBERTY in this: That, surrounded by abundance, untroubled by care of providing raiment, house, and food, lie would have been free to exert himnself or rest as hle felt iiClined.‘Twould have been the liberty of tile child at play, clhecked only by willing ard reverettial obedience to a loved arnd loving parent.

Oh! who does not regret the lharmless sports of tenderly protected childhoodl? CONTEMIPLATION in this: That, without siniking into tlhe perverted and superstitious practices of wl-hat )pagan mystics and philosophers regar(l as contemplative lite, all men would have lived th-at other true intellectual and etlhereal life extolled by St. Augustilln. A life not of plhanto()s or dreamns, but a life wherein understandingly, inge1,iiously, and really the soul beholds andl feels and knows all things intrinsically, and( commlules as it were with eternaLl and infinite wis(loIn, gla(dly followviiig its dictates and radiating its love.

T”lough, aIs we have seen, A(damn had no occasion for experimneltal or applied science-nio nee(, no use whatever for the esthietical and industrial arts-no occasioil to invelit ingenious devices for cotlver’tili)g ilitter to soirdid uses, his greit rnmid was adequately and deliglhttully einploye(. Iis intellect coi,ibined mixutie disceriilieit atld far-reaclilg sci)l)e; exactiie.,s of colnceptioli aud serenity of infeirece; voltiiiiiiousiiess ot imeiory and presncce oft’ every possible 19

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I}ecessILy 01 lanor.‘l’his rest, this penice ot’ soul, this exemption fiom worlcly care hlie foun,d il Olis love of the higl and pure sentiments and highler science, the compaiiionship of happy spirits inspire(d aid developed. Itence Adam’s soul was serene. No clouds of despondency obscuired, no storrns of p(ission disturbed this serenity of his soul, as he moved nilajestic, alud wrapped in contemplative ecstasy, over the joyous (flowery and fruitful) laiidse.tpes of Eden. I’} the supposed ease of an Edenite world we must adiiiit that popl)ul,ttiori was sparse, that the people lhad food of the most d(electable kind and endless variety, that this varied food lay on every side in plenteousness fir beyond wstat they could consume. Food, being as abuiidant antd as easily appropriated as light, air, and water, could have ha(i no price, or, as the political economists say, no exchangeable value. Every Edenite would hlave load as much and more of what his highest conceptions of physical life and its pleasures demanade(d. IlHeice to form a negative idea of a people livinias Adamn and Eve did before the fall, we may compatre them with ourselves, and conceive their society as having hardly any or none of the things we now esteem as most a,greeable. Tlhey could have had 1no

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. fisl)ing, no hunting, 11no agriculture, no herrdmanscraft, no manufactories, no commerce, no husbandmen, no shepherds, no mechanics, no merchants, no plantations, factories, ships, railroads, banks, money, or any medium of trade. They could have no product of labor, no artificial thing within the whole range of art, from the stupendous pyramid down to a pin or a button; and all this simply because they d(id NO WORK. Would tlhis be happiness? Most certainly it would. We cannot doubt it; for we have the assurance of Holy Writ, that it was happiness The very name of Eden adduces the fact; and Isaiah alluding to it says, ” Joy and gladness are found therein, with thanksgiving and the melodious voice of praise.” (Is. li. 3.) In the Edenic commonwealth there could be no riches and poverty, no filth or crime, no laws, no police, legislators, princes, armies, nor any pestilence, famine, or war; for these are the results of the struggle of men to escape labor, the immediate and temporal punishment of sin Won(lerfull! every effort to avoid the penalty has multiplied sin, the horrors of sill and the intensity of labor. The moment man fiom necessity or hlis personal comfort bestowed labor on anything, he created value, price, and ownersl-il); and these entailed on the world an ever-recurrii(r cycle of mIiseries: rapine, slavery, mnonopoly, caste, fraud, war, conquest, and every other iniquity. Strange, however, instead of envyillg these Edenites, we arle illclined to pity them as suffering extraordinary privations. We forget that “if ignorance is bliss’tis folly to be wise”-that to long for the flesh pots of Egypt we must once leave known them  that there can be no privation where there has never been even a suspicion of other comforts than tlhose we ei.joy no unhappiness when our present condition affords all we are able to imagine as unallove(d ood. [()re()ver, we slhould(
remember tlhat 21

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. if Adam partook not of the agreeable and useful products of art we now know of, he knew nothing of Avarice, that insati.ble dragoii whlose heads are Profit, Rent, Usury, and Hiring. He had none of the cares, troubles, envyings, longings, dis’appointments, terrors, fatigues, burdens, indigence, and iniseries it is now the lot of the men of labor all over this restless world to suffer. Why do we seek fori, richles? Because in the backgroun(i of every diream of riches or power is the thought of relief from’- toil. Call the object of our efforts by whatever name you please: independence, fortune, pro)perty, authority, rank the real purpose, stripped of thle circutnstances in which we expect to gaill it, anl of the driess we put around it, is simply this: to be able to have plenty witlhoitt work, and to enjoy it without remorse. We want to enjoy whatever thle vaility of our tastes and our advancement inll knowledge approve as pleasant viands, wines, dress, niansiol), and equipage; but we want them without toorhk. Ie who (ielud(es hiiiiself with the conceit that hle is ambitious of offi(‘e, honors, and the like, only for glory or the good of lhis country, will, on carefully sifting his motives, fiid the residuary notion to be that thlese will procure (through the goodwill or servitude of others) exemption from i mpea(tive toil.

HIence all the artifices of finance, speculation, ambitioni, and of evely other oppression of man by man (iin at this: that one may have leave and leisure to ()cCUpy Ilimself ae he pleases and when hlie pleases, as Adam could before the fll, without anxiety of mind or weariness of body. Thle Edenite had all the pleasures he esteemed as such} without the effort and tire of earning tlemn; and upoli close investigation it will appear that thte presellt struggle of all mankind( is to get )ack to this beginning; but, alas! the same investigation will disclose (1) llowv (with the gift of knowledge of good and evil) we ar lel’t to our oviwn chioosing,; (2) how, .all)

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. in making our choice, we mistake evil for good; and (3) how we have become infatuated with a miedley of things denounced in Holy Writ as “all vanity and vexation of spirit” (Ec. ii. 2, 14), or as “the cares of the world and deceitfulness of riches.” (Mat. xiii. 24.) We fail to see that nothing but the fear of God, and obedience to His commandments, through love and Christ, and tl-he relinquishment of every vain pursuit, will enable us to pass the flarnmitg swords of the angels guarding the entrance of Eden. The whole book of Ecclesiastes is a demonstration of this trutlh. What seemingly immense sacrifices are thus imposed, and how shocking, foolish, and absurd do the words suggesting them sound to the ear. Starting from the premise that human philosophy and classical political economy would furnish, how easy it is to show that no turning back from the greed of riches and amnbition, or from the vanities of the world, is required of him who seeks for happiness. Fine und plausible speeches can be made to demonstrate that it is “impossible” for the poor to’discontinue working -n-working in the service of capital to produce tlhe greatest possible amount of everything necessary, usef’u], or sumptuous at the lowest possible cost. I have heard and read all that has been said in favor of this view of the subject; but the Bible has convinced me that the production of the great riches, so much vaunted in the standard works of political ecolornomy, is a snare to our feet and a thorn to our side, and that we must seek for happiness in7 the opposite direction. Hence we must not go towards glory, power, riches, or lust to seek for happiness, but towards rest. By rest I mean not merely exemption from physical toil or excessive bodily labor, but also exemption from the harrowing paings and raging fury of the passions. The violent antagonisms of thle passions torture and rack our souls: disdainful pride, consumring anger, pallid fear, skulking slhamre, pilting 23

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. love, rankling jealousy, wan envy, witlleririg care, piercin g sorrovw, and grim despair …. those vultures of thle tiind Its web with labors tear. HIe whose bosom is thus torn is deprived of rest Rest of Body: Tranquillitv of Mind Peace of Society. This is the summary of happiness according to Scripture. All men who (do not despair travel ill search of these thiree thinTs in one; and mallny wlo have lost all hope of reaching the goal, in this world, are consoled in the thought of attaining it beyo(nd the grave-in the resurrection). AN hlat did the Lord(l promise the Israelites if they obeyed his lawv in the land hle gave them? REST. (Ex. xxxiii. 14; Deut. xii. 9; xxv. 19; Jos. i. 15.) AVhat did he promise them in Babylon, and what now on the same terms? Return and REST. (Is. xxx. 15; Jer. xxx. 10.) Wllat (loes Christ sav his followers shall have? REST. (Mat. xi. 2~, 29, 30.) What is the grave to those who die in the Lord? REST. (Job iii. 17, 18; Ec. ix. 10.) Wl]at shall they enjoy in the resurrection? REST. (Rev. xiv. 13.) WIhat is the penalty declared against the wvicked? 1)EPRIVATION’ OF REST. (Ps. xcv. 11; Ileb.

iii. 18; Rev. xiv. 2.) Let us contemplate this rest in its socital aspect.

Beautiful indeed is the serenity of tllhat unclouded soul from which all evil desires are swept away, and on whlich the sun of grace shines gloriously; but still more beautiful is a communionl of virtuous souls forming a peaceful societv. God is there! ” Behold hlow good and how pleasanit it is for brethren to dwell together in unity.” (Ps. cxxxii. 1.) This is tlhe social aspect of rest-it is the‘“peace of thle State.” Tlhe soul aspirfes to rest because rest is hal)piness. The State Cat.]res to e)cace, becaetlse iecace is (the rest, carl thes’c 24

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. fore the ha)p)i7iess of the State. Individual happiness is rest of mind and body. Social happiness is peace and goodwill among men. In this peace and goodwill the body politic has its rest; but the rest aid( peace of the State necessarily depend upon the quietude and serenity of the souls of those who compoae society-its memnbers. Where the parts-the mem bers-are disturbed and conflicting, the mass-the body-must also quake, and may fall to ruin. So the gospel to solve the problem of social happiness points back to the individual soul of the man of Eden; and would restore the individual souls of his progeny to original purity, and through that purity to peace. “The wisdom that is from al)ove is first pure, then peaceable.” (Jarmes iii. 17, 18; see also, Eph. ii. 17; Luke ii. 14; RomI. x. 15; Gal. vi. 16.)‘Thus does the gospel by these texts and by its whole imiport offeir peace, as synonymous with happiness. It tenders first this happy peace to all by the advent of the Lord-Ile came to preach peace and goodwill arnolig men; and He l)romises peace to those who observe Ils precepts and counsels. Thus it appears that the word “peace” is at it were a sumnmitlig up, in one expression, of all the descriptions given in the gospel, of the practical results or evolutive effect of the gospel. It certainly excludes all idea of sin; for sill, and the causes of sin, are tlhe antipodes of rest of body and soul, or of society. Who would ever expect peace in a land of sterility and scarcity, or among those who are envious, tyrannical, or sensual? Peace, on the contrary, implies all the virtues peculiar to Christianity: patience, forbearance, kindness, mildness, humility, meekness, modesty, chastity, charity; for peace is the fruit of these aii(l is impossible without these. The idea of peace also imnports the bodily rest oF Eden; for how will the individual soul or the State be happy when the people are over-worked, driven by the necessity of soil or climate, or by unequal and cruel institutions to compulsory, excessive, an(l un 3 25

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. requited labor? True, the Christian knows how to bear such wrongs for lleaven’ ssake, and how to offer thle labor that is extorted from him without recompense in this world, ais a sacrifice’to heaven, but thlis very sacrifice implies suffering; and hence, in a material and earthly point of view, a deprivation of }lappiness consequelnt upon a deprivation of rest. Why are {ve patient? We are patient because it pleases Christ; and it pleases Christ because the fruit of patience is peace, and peace is rest, and rest is the promised reward here and hereafter. For the same reason are we meek, kind, humble, mild, mod(est, chaste, charitable, and self-saciificing. T’hese are all pleasing to Christ because their fruit is peace, and peace is rest of body and soul, and rest is the promised happiness of the just here and hereafter.

It is in society-in the State-that our Lord delights to see this rest realized; for then it is not only the evidence of the p)revalence of the Holy Spirit in the h-eart, but also the display of that charity which is the distinctive iand sublimest characteristic of His gospel. Charity becomes visible, is a reality, only in society. It is only through the relations arising in the State that charity can become apparent. Its root is in the holy sympatlhy of the members, in their reciprocal solicitude, in their affectioniate regard and care for one another. This realization of charity is inmpossible to the isolated man:. It is possible only to associated man -to men in society; but what is the final and highest visible effect of this reciprocal solicitude, of this affec-. tionate regard, of this sympathy of man for man, of this Christian charity spreading itself through society? The grand and beautiful temporal result is peace. The saints love peace. They seek, follow, cultivate peace. They live in peace with each other a(nd with all mien; and thus they have rest.

(Is. xxxii. 18.) So we see the peace of God first ruling the heart, and then the social body of the faithful. (Co]. iii. 15.) If peace and rest are not in the lheart, they cannot 26

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THiE EDEN OF LABOR. be elsewhere; for they descend from heaven on the heart; and the heart alone is capable of radiating and spreading them over society. Hence if the heart rejects them, they shrink back to heaven.

Clearly there is and can be no happiness without this tranquillity of soul and repose of body. We cannot help thinking that exemption from laborious effort coupled with moral innocence, is happiness. The Bible and reason concur in showing that rest is happiness. But perhaps you object, and reproach me with proposing to banish the sciences and arts from the world.

You infer that these would be lost if man soughthappiness in rest; but I do not admit the reproach or the inference. I do not propose to baiiish either science or art; I would not dispense with the measure of study and work they rightfully require. As I have remarked, the temporal consequences o’f the fall are not revoked in heaven. The decree arresting the spontaneous fruitfulness of the earth, and allowing bread only to those who labor, must stand through all time: yea, even after that complete and universal triumph of the Church-even during that earthly reign of Chirist-the millennium. As I have already remnarked, it is now through knowledge we hope to reinstate Eden; but knowledge is not gained by the distressed pauper, driven by relentless masters. Science and invention must be courted at leisure, by diligent but quiet minds, undisturbed by the cares of the world. Hence, somehow or other, there must be some way discovered of procuring leisure to the votaries of science and art. By their own inventions they may shorten and multiply production; create abundance; but abundance does not give happiness without procuring also rest, and( therefore, it is not the abolition of science and art I would propose. On the contrary, I would conciliate thern with the procurement of abundance, leisure, and rest, throu,lgh the triumph of charity. Here then I posit again the distinction stated in thl-e beginning,. Adam was occupied, but he did not 27

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THiE EDEN OF LABOR. work according to the modern idea of work. The word nlow imports fatigue, anxiety, sweat of thle brow. Before the fall, as we have seen, Adam was placed in a garden of delight “to (Iress it and to keep it;” but this dressing and keeping must have been an abundantly requiting operation, and an agreeable exercise only; for real toil, irksome toil, began only with sin. It was from the fall, upon the first act of disobetience, that the Lord God cursed the earth, so that labor and toil became necessary to make it produce. Work is now of divine command, but also work by divine command is again reduced to mere occupation and recreation through charity, reciprocity, and brotherhood. Indeed even toil is sweet if undergone to help or supply the brethren and to serve God. It is the motive that has impelled us to acquire science, the object we have in view in our works of art, that curses or blesses them. There is nothing in the nature of Science and Art to make their votaries unhappy. We may weigh the planets with Newton, paint Mary and Jesus with Raphael, build St. Peter’s with Aiigclo, find unknown continents with Columnbus, sing transcendent odes with Mozart, and yet feel at rest, be perfectly happy.

The Sciences and Arts are entirely congenial with Charity and Peace. We may make the good of our neighbor, and the service of God, the object and end of the knowle(cdge we accumulate, the discoveries we make, the inventions we evolve, and the works we perform. In this aspect they are Worship: not toil, but a blessing. On the otler hand, we may make them subservient to Avarice, Usurpation, or Libertinism-make them the servants of every Vice. Then it is tlhey cease to be worship, and become a curse’Tis then from the motives that induce them and the circumstances that compel them, that the labors of the student and artist are mnade to pander to selfish vice, and gratify the lowv taste of a false and godless civilization.‘Tis 28

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TIHE EDEN OF LABOR. in this civilization and by its laws that the most iniquitous inequalities and appropriations are sanctioned and perpetuated.‘Tis from the inexorable selfishness and rapacity of these appropriations and sanctions that nine-tenths of the people are compelled to labor for a pitiful subsistence; and that one-half of the work performed by skilled mechanics an(l comniion laborers is done only to provide luxuries, trifles, toys, ornarneluts, tinsel, fantasies, shows, amusements, finery, wines, courtesans, palaces, equipages, and a myriad more vain and useless things f’,)r tile favorites of legalized Fraud and Force’Tis then -and from this waste of the bone, sinew, a”lt brain of the toiler upon futile things that the number of those employed in lecessary, useful, and good things is diminished, and thereby a greater, but miserably requited labor devolves upon the pool multitude, who, nevertheless, do not escape the corruption and vice of their masters.

Their toil, while it is thus excessive, is made galling, bitter, irksome, and harassing by the sordclid, the vile, the noxious feelings withl which they perform it, and which are induced t)by the hard exactions and impure example of their hirers. Oh! how bitterly do they hate those who thus extort the sweat of their face without returntling adequate recompense.

Oh! liow they envy their’ oppressors, and( how eagerly would they imitate their rapacity if they had their place. Their overburthensorne and unrelenting toil of itself prevent their happiness, since it encroaches upon the rest the natural b(,dy lnormally requires; but there is a deeper cause of unrest and suffering from the sentiments that actuate both the e!nployed and the employer, and drive their souls with execruciating lash and spur, aud make them pervert science and art to the uses of selfisllness anld warriiig hell, instead of being ina(dc, as they mlighlt be, the handmaids of loving and( pealceful lHetven. To suit the purposes of hell, the arts and sciences may be nlade the instrulments of unremitting ad(l 3* 29

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. oppressive labor. To suit the purposes of heaven, the arts and sciences may become the companions and helpers of productive, but attractive and beneficent, industry. Hence in Eden there never was any condemnation of physical science in any department. It was.the discovery of the difference between moral good and moral evil through the commission of sin, that was forbidden. The knowledge of physical or corporeal good and evil is harmless to the soul; and hence the forbidden tree was the tree of knowledge of moral right and wrong. Another objection is made. It is del)ied that the abundance of flowers and fruits, music and song, walks and recreations of an earthly paradise could afford happiness; because the fact is that many, even now, possess all these things and are not happy.

See the rich man. His table is overloaded with the miost savery via(nds and d(ielectable wines, his halls resound with ravishing music, he disposes of his time capriciously, and some new recreation or pleasure fills each of l)is days. This objection and example only show a misapprehension of the opinions we entertain; and also a misapprehension of the sense of Scripture. We did not mean, nor did we say, that happiness consisted merely in no work; but in REST-inOt merely in physical rest, but in rest of body and mind. We made }hl’ppiness depend on three conditions: First, Purity of thought, or Innocence of sin. Second, Exerption from toil, but not from occupation; and q’llird, Exemption from solicitude and sorrow. Certainly we’ did not say or dream that the happiness of Ed(len consisted in the pleasantness of the place-its soft climate, enchanting scenery, atnd delicious productions. In our theory the substance of happiness does not consist in tlhe abundance ani)d excellence of fruits and other things good for the body and pleasant to the senses.‘hese are not the essence, they ar-e o).ty the means of h(atp)iness; tiCe oneans of 2-est (end pe(ce; and like every other means may be imperifectly used, 11) 0

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. wrongly applied, or wickedly abused. For instance, who does not know that a man may be indulging in a succession of variegated luxuries, recreations, and other apparent pleasures-have and enjoy palaces and feasts, and not he at rest; not be freely and truly doing what he would like to do; but, in the midst.of his revelry, be really a slave of others, of fashion, or of raging passions? Driveln by vanity.he rrmy be striving to earn the praise.of the world, goaded by ambition he nmay be struggling to establish his influence, or he may be a mere victim of vice.

We kinow enough of all these cases to be able to declare that the leisure and pleasuire they display are deceptive; that the dressing, decorating, parading, dancing, visiting, diniig, racing, sereinading,, entertailiing, promeiiading, and sight-seeing of the wealthy are not mere recreative occupations, as they seem to be, but real and painful toil. They are latlorious. Tlley are compelled by the exigencies of the world to which one has made himself through his own folly a secretly repining and discontented slave. When the rich man throws open lhis brilliantly illuminated saloons, spreads his luxurious tables, and hires artists to sil( and play in his festivities, what is hlie but the slave of’ his guests; a sycophantic caterer to their appetites? What has he been doing but contriving to accumulate the means of paying this tribute to the persons whose good opinion hlie courts, and who have condescended to avail themselves of his invitations? To tell the anxieties and tribulations a rich man suffers in order to give a single feast would fill a volume. What will he wear? What will he provide? Whomn shall he invite?. What will people think or say? What ridicule or praise be gained? What profit to fanle or power? TWho will come or who will despise the invitation?‘These, tand a thousand other questions pregnant with meintal torture and fruitful of heart burniligs, arise. Then when the event aniswers the questions, oh!

what vexations, disappoiiitments, huntiliations, anld inglishl does he cot experience? His 3t

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THIE EDEN OF LABOR. amusements prove themselves on trial to be all labor and trouble; anid having been botughlit they also turn out to be morally void. Before and after, as well as (luring his entertainment, he has had no peace or rest, anid therefore no happiness. True it is that without fertility and abundance (a large surplus of necessary and good things proldueed easily and quickly), leisure and recreation, rest of mind and of body, and tlerefore happiness cannot be fully realized. I have already remarked that this easy gotten surplus of material substance is a neces.ary metins, anid only a means. Possessed of it tihe Edenic Man was relieved of the sordid cares of life. Food and slhelter and every other material comfort he needed were as plenteous around him as air, water, and sunsiline. Thus relieved tand( thus blessed, he was free to live the higher life of the soul-to feast his eyes as well as his taste upon the works and gifts of God in nature-to contemplate them tlhrough the mind( as well as by the senses-to have intercourse witlh the angelic world and be concerned with angelic works, and thus to enhance the purity and bri,ghtness of his soul. But what made these give happiness was the rest and peace they procured. Thlis was happiness, because the soul-being free of sins, such as envy, ambition, avarice, lust, and full of gentleness, piety, love-enjo(yed the Gardeln without detriment from contradictions, doubts, anxieties, fears, oppositions, fatigues; ()or disappointments, and without any molestation whatever. The soul of man in Eden was in that state of exhilarating rest it riay feel again when reconciled, and when, reclinilng soft]y in seraphiic arms, it shtall be calmly arid steaidily lifted with wide and wafting winas to regions of transcendent quietude anrid vision. Hence, in) one word, the end, the resultant, the substance of Eden, was not its material richles and beauty, but its rest. Of this there can remain no doubt, when upon coii sideration of the fact, that for his disobedience Adam himself wa,s not cursed, but the ground. Previously, 32

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. the ground had only produced that which ” was good”

….” all manner of trees fair to behold and pleasant to eat of”; but, when the original offence was committed, God decreed that the earth should “bring forth thorns and thistles to the offender,” so that from that time it was necessary for him to “work and toil” to overcome this barrenness.

It is expressly said that this noxious tendency of the soil, and the consequent strain and sweat of the body necessary to mnake it bear bread, was’the immediate punishment inflicted for the eating of the fruit of the forbidden tree. The blight and rankness, at once created the necessity of labor, and stinted the reward of the efforts of the laborer, so that, while he strained his sinews, poured out his sweat, and suffered bodily, his heart was also troubled with fear and disappointment. The curse of sterilitv was purposely to inflict labor, and labor was to be the express occasion of anxiety and har(dship; the occasion of unrest and unhappiness.

It would be easy to trace all the ztnhappiness of society and State to this condemnation to labor, and to thle efforts each of?tIs iakes to avert the effects of this curse from self, by contriving to impose a do?uble task tpon other-s; but this would turn us from our present train of thought; and, therefore, I will leave the social evils of labor, and the means of correcting these evils, to be considered another day. “In the sweat of thy lace shalt thou eat bread.” This is the sentence that no man can escape. If it does not strike him directly, it will reach him indirectly. Vainly, to avoid this pelalty, do we wring the sweat of other men, and gather it for selfish purposes into our own reservoirs; the sternly exacted flood will be red with our own agony, and bitter with our own disappointment. It is evident, from these premises, that there is a labor of body, a labor of mind, and a labor of feelings; that all three are paiiiful and tormenting; that they all come from the same curse; and that exemrnption or rest from these three kinds of labor is peace. 33

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TIHE EDEN OF LABOR. Hence it is that the Scriptures speak of peace and rest as the same. Indeed, as we have seen, the peace of the saints in heaven is calle(l rest; and so, in the same sense, the rest of the upright man on earth is called peace; God, the author of peace, an(l Christ, the Prince of Peace. Hence, in a hundred places in Scripture, besides those we have referred to, do we see that the mnain characteristic of happiness is rest and peace. AWhen the angels of the Lord, surrounded by a inultitude of the heavenly army, stood by the watching shepherd, and proclaimed thle Saviour’s birth, what, besides God’s glory, did this army of angels sing?

They sang of pence. (Luke ii. 14.) When Jesus sent forth His Apostles, without purse or scrip or shoes, to preach His gospel, what did He enjoin them, when enteriing a h,, use, first to say? The words of greeting He taught them were, “Peace be to this house.” (Luke x. 5.) What does Christ promise His Church and followers? Rest and peace. (John xiv. 27.) Indeed, His gospel is the gospel of peace. God is not the God of dissension, but of peace. (1 Cor xiv. 33.) When the reign of Christ on earth shall be establislied, when men shall beat their swoi-ds into ploughslar,es, and their spears into plruining hooks, and there shall be no more war, the Lord says, then ” my people shall sit in the beauty of )pe(ce, and in the tabernacles of. confidence and in weatltily rest.” (Isaiah xxxii. 18.) If you were to interrupt me to inquire how canthis promised, this future Eden be set up despite the condemnation to hard labor incurred by Adam and his sons, I might object that this is not the question before us now. The matter on hand is only the defiiition of happiness, not the discovery of the means of’ procuriig it; but the.answer to this second question is so easy anrd so short that it will not break the connection of my discourse to give it en passant…. We niay be ransomed from thle hard labor that we 34

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. inherited from Adam, as we were from orig,ilal sin itself through Christ and charity. To speak more particularly: I say the hardships and injustice suffered by the laboiring poor would be relieved by the full development and realization of the mercy and brotherhood taught by the gospel and the Churcel. I mean that these should not only influence private conduct, but infuse themselves into the body politic.

That is rmyv answver to your question, and, if you want further particulars, I refer you to the priest, who will easily describe (to any who cannot imagine for themselves) the happiness, the manifold beauties that would be produced, if Christian charity generally prevailed, and also pervaded the laws and institutions of the city and State. In His paternal kindness, and in correspondence with mai’s primary aspirations to rest, Our Fathler best knowing our nature and destiny, instituted the Sabbath, that invaluable and heaven-derive(l right of the poor. By this merciful institution our Father teaches us, by actual experiment, once a week, inll what true happiness consists; yet we are so blind as not to generalize the tfacts of this reiterated trial of happiness; and instead of trying to “
enlarge and multiply our Sabbaths” we are ever rebelliously exerting ourselves to break and dimiiiish even the periodicaLl rest of body and soul He has guaranteed to us. fiow thankful should be the poor that this right of revisiting Ederl every Sunday is secured to them by a higher law, acknowledged even by the rich and by the State. Were it not for the warranty of religion, hlow long ago would the poor have been deprived of Sunday’s rest, and have been forced to toil without intermission? How grateful should they be to this religion, and how ready to defend it, even if it were only for the sake of the Seventh day’s rest. The bondholder, that represeltative monster, formed of all the woes man’s disobedience brought into the world, would, were it not for Christ and His Church, abolish the poor man’s day. Not daring to 35

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. do this, the monster and his like, with their courtiers and retainers, have lengthened the working time of the six other days, to extort, as it were, the blood and sweat which hlad been saved from their unrelenting cupidity, by the institution of God’s holy SunLday. Thou,h the extortioner triumphs for awhile, the success will be transitory; for a heavenly instinct remin(ls the children of Adanm, even tlhrough the ages and generations, of long-lost Eden, and points to a new Eden of rest in the future, descenlding from l eave i. Mv friends, I hope I have succeeded in telling what is l)appiness and where to seek for it. My ardent wishl is that we may all succeed in gaining the prize, and that one day tlhe }11a)piness of the whole people will be established on tlhe enjoyment of rightful rest, according to the will of Go(l. 36

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CHAPTER I. GOD’S SHIARE AND MiAN’S SHIARE OF VALUES. And tlle eyes of them bothl were opened(l; and wlieit tihey perceived tihemselves to be naked, they served togetliei fig-letves, alnd iiiadle thliimselves aprolis.

(Genesis iii. 7.) Aiid the Lord God made for Adam and his wife, gatrments of skin.s ,Iti(1 clotlhed tleti. (Geinesis iii. 21.) Andi the Lord God sent him out of the p.trldise of pleasure, to till the earih fr m ivii(,h hlie was taken. (Genesis iii. 23.) OF his own free will Adamn incurred the necessary consequences of his determnigation to rely on his private judgmaent. (Ecc. i. 13.) These consequences were the’experience of evil as well as of good; tile loss of divine cornmunication or grtce; the loss of thle tree of life or source of irnmortality; the loss of the latural abundance, peace, find rest of Eden; the necessity of working for his subsistence. It is tlhe last particular of these penalties that now en,gages outr alttention. WVe mnay inmagine that, in its natural condition, tlle earth would not have produced spontaneously the abund(lant and excellent fruits Adamrn enljoyed in the Paradise of pleasure and rest.

As Adam himrself was endowed withl supernatural graces, so was the earth ma(le supernaturally beautiful and delightful to tfford hlim the -iapl-)iness tlhe state of his soul and bo(ly required a(nd merited.

lience, when the extraor(liiiary races of lis soul were forfeited and taken away, so also was tlhe earth deprived of its correspondiii,g and miraculous bounteousness. It would seein that the whole earth-had been blessed with all the favors bestowed on E(len, except one: tlhe tiee of life which grew in Edeii olnly. Not ilerely Eden, but the whl{ole earth, had beeii itadle a fittil habitatiotlii for the descenldants of mun peise 4

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR., vering ina state of holiness. It is natural to think so from the language of the curse God laid upon the soil. (Geti. iii. 17.) It indicates a change; and therefore a change from fectnudity to sterility all over the earth). We are prompted to imagine a teeming land suddenly ceasing to aflbrd, at all times, spontaneous fruits, enough for even the support of two persons without labor. From that. mnorunt the life of man was made dependent on lhard work. From that moment, lie lhad to provide himself, by manual lal)or with fuel, tools, and implements, )by meclhanical labor with clotling, and shelter, by agricultural labor with food. From that moment tl-hei-e was no wealth but the product of labor; and fromnt that moment starts a series of innumerable crimes committed by those who, to avoi(l the burlen avoid the divinely imposed burden of eating their bread by the sweat of their face fasten their share of toil, tenfold, upon the shoulders of others. Nowhere is the fundamental proposition of Political Economy more emphatically stated than in the third cl-hapter of Genesis. “Cursed is the earth in thy work; with labor and toil shalt thou eat thereof all the days of thy life.”.. “In the sweat of thy face shalt tlhoul eat bread.” This is the judgment pronounced on all the descentdants of A(amrn. Woe unto them who evade it. Its perpetual and general enforcement was made a function of the earth itself. There was doubtless some alleviation after the deluge; for the Lord said (Gen. viii.

21): ” I wvil no more curse the earth for the sake of man”; and the very name of Noahl (Gen. v. 28, 29) expresses that throug.h him, and mainly by the God-man whose humanity was to descend from him, men would derive “
comfort from works and labors of their hands.” But what is the precise difference between antedeluvian sterility and postdeltivian fertility, or what is the difference between the amount of labor necessary for production before the deluge, and that required since then, is not revealed, 38

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. nor was it needful that it should be. It is my belief that labor generally will be alleviated, in proportion as mankind conforms to the moral and social will of God. 1. Certain it is that, now as always, by the agency of fixed laws, God imparts to things a natu/al productiveness and value. 2. Certain also it is that, through the mediuam of man’s strength and sklill, God imparts to things a labor, increase and value. While God mnercifully bestows (1) natural wealth in inexhaustible quantity, (2) labor is still necessary to convert it to human uses, and no man is dispensed from work. This is the law promullgated at the gate of Edeii, and it still subsists. “‘If any man will not work, neither let him eat.” (1 Thess. iii. 10.) Thus, there is a dual title to every product of labor. Firstly, God’s title to the natural elements it emibraces.

Secondly, man’s title to the labor he puts into the natural elements to make them fit for use or pleasure. God has always reserved His title to the natural part, and bestowed title to the labor part, on those only Awho have added that labor part. “Behold the heaven is the Lord’s thy G(od, and the heaven of heavens, the earth and all things therein.” (Deut. x. 14.) “Ttie earth is the Lord’s, and tlhe fuliess thereof: the world and all they that dwell thlrein.” (Ps. xxiv. 1.) ‘T’he silver is anine and the gold is mine, saith the Lord of hosts.” (Idagg. ii. 8.) “All the beasts of the woods are mine, the cattle o,l the hills and the oxen. I know all the fowls of the air, ald with me is the beauty of the field:. the world is minie and the fulness thereof.” (Ps. 1. 10, 11, 12.) “Tlhere is nothi,g better for a man than that lhe should ext and drinlk and that he should make his 39

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. soul enjoy goodl i~l his labor. This also I saw that it was from the hanld of Godl.” (Ece. ii. 24; v. 19.) “Blessed are they that fear the Lord(l, and walk in His ways; for they shall eat the 7ctl)ors of their hamz(ls; they shall be blessed, and it shall be well with tlhem.” (Ps. cxxviii. 2.) “He that heapetli together riches by usury and unjust gain, gatherethl them for him that vill be bountiful to the poor.” (Prov. xxviii. 8.) “He that oppresseth the poor to increase his own riches, shall himself give to one that is richer and shall be in need.”

(Prov. xxii. 16.) “Maosters, give your servants that which is just and equal,knowing that ye hlavealso a Master in Heaven.” (Col. iv. 1.) Political economists, speaking in the name of natiural reason, inake the distinction of values I have pointed out. They discriminate between natural value and labor value. They denote the one as inherent, and the other as imparted. By so doing, they establish a principle-a fundamenital principle-of political econolmy; anld, of course, one would expect to see them make important deductions from it, and propose to carry it into some practical effect. The least they were bound to do, was to keep the distinction in mind, when reasoning onl the questions they attempt to solve; for they acknowledge it as a primary and universal fact, in their sciences. Bat, on the contrary, after stating, the duality of value, tlhey hardly take any further notice of it-niake no more use of it than if it did not exist.* They soon ig-liore both titles, that of Heaven and that of labor. (1) They give no force and effect even to the teinure in co)it,?o)z, which they acknowledge is vested by natural law in all men, to all things that remain unchianged by labor; and sanctioin thle reduction of even these, to individual ownership, without labor. (2) They are reg:irdiless of the question of howv muchu work there is in a product-how much wvork is consumed in coniverting natural thiings to 40

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. human uses; and they make the laborer’s title and reward dependent upon the artificial and exorbitant -unequally and iniquitously established-value of gold and silver, besides the ruinous and oppressive effects which usury, competition, and monopoly have upon wages, and on every other compensation fur labor. Their first proposition is: labor adils valule to natural things; their second, following closely on the first, without pretence of inference, is: labor is the sole cause of value-thle sole producer of wealth, or all wealth is from labor; their third, without debate or hesitation, is: persons i[idividually may acquire and have acquired a private and perpetual ownership in things labor has never touchled; and their fourth, derived from the right of the strongest, is: all values and prices, those of labor included, must depend oil competition, on relative desire or necessity, and on the monopoly of coin, or of currency representing coin, that symbol and perpetuation of barbaric captures, usurpations and slaveries, and of all other monopolies. In due order, I will show howv-after the bodies of men and the land they lived on were confiscated by force, and after the reward of labor was reduced by compulsion to scanty subsistenee-gold and silver became the ransom which the powerful preferred to demand for their spoils; and how thereby coin came to embody, anU still embodies, every spoliation of fraud and power; how it was and is thereby raised many times above its real and honest value. I defer the consideration of this collateral point in order to pursue the main course of my reflections. The political economists, having, in the way I have stated, reached the point of accepting relative desire or necessity as the regulator of value, are at their ease; for they have descended, from the heighlt of principles, to the level of the established customs and well-troddeii ways of the world. Mammon reigns over the world; anid they, as loyal subjects, pro 4’:”’ 41

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. pound and eulogize his laws. It is no longer God and(
labor nor even labor without God; but simply aplf)o]i”cttio talnd exchange, as regulated by arbitrary legislation, that tlhey now consider an(l explain. In their theory, labor itselfis assimilnated to property, regarded as merchandise-bought and sold made subject to all the circumstances an-d laws of dlemand and supply; of capital, seeking the largest powflt; of necessitous competition between workmen; and of all the other circumstances that aff.ect the possession and transfer of property.

In their eyes thuni:tll labor has no characteristic, no dignity, no merit to entitle it to other or lhigher riglhts tl-han the labor of cattle, machlinery, or coal. The relation of brotlerhoo(l (wl lidll shlould invest human lalboi with a sacre(l hlalo; and cause it to be esteemed(, respected, and rewar(led as ai act of commutnion between associated equals bolnud to love one another) is wholly forgotten. Adam Smith, in the fifth chapter of his first boolk, says: “Labor is thl-e real measure of the exchangeatle value of all comnmodities.” In this o0ie short sentence he expresses the double truth I have pointed out; for, labor being the onW}y measure of exchangeable value, men when making exchanges have no right to deinaujd any price or part of price for the natural qualities of tlhe tlhings to \vhich they have added their labor. I might take Smrnith’s proposition for my motto, for he declares, in effiect, that there is no exchangeable value, but that which is mleasurable by labor; and it must be conceded that natural thiings cannot be thlus measured. AVWhtlt UNIT Of labor is there to measure the value of yon shade tree, this fruit tree, that fatll of water, that tract of wild land, or the first nugget of gold which the millwright of California picked up? But though Smitlh wrote the words, and thloughi they have an inrmmense import and pregnancy, lie does not stop an instant to consider them. lie I’ils to deduce even one of tlhe mi-ny wholesome and beautitful coInsequeiices tlhat would flow from the apl)lieationr of 42

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. the grand principle he enunciates. In his very next passage, he indicates that, somehow or other, labor has ceased to be a standard of value, has ceased to be the real measure, is not recognized as a medium of comparison or of exclhange, has itself become mere merclharndise, and has become subject to the mastership and “command” of tl-hose who do not labor. He immediately shows that lie will treat the natural value as increasing the measure and purchasing power of labor value. He surrenders at once the natural value to labor; Ibut, not content to let it enjoy this accretioni, hands over labor itself to the lords or capitalists who have reduced it to the servitude of wages. Indeed, onl the next page, he says: “But though labor be the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commiodities, it is not that by which their value is commonly estimated.” Then he shows how exchangeablle value is, now-a-days, vaguely and variably estimated by comparing the quantity of one commodity withl the quantity of another. That such is the fact is, alas! too true. Practically, the principle thlat the exclangeable value of commodities is the quantity of labor they contain is not at present, and has not been since Adamn was laid in his grave, carried into effect. No doubt thle days aid hours a poor man has consumed in producing a commodity, have always vaguely suggested, to him, the thought that it ouyit to be proportionally valued by that labor, but, since Adarnic times, this only equitable rule has never been conmmonly observed, ori-even acknowledged, between men transacting barter or sale. E:verywhere, for ages, labor value has been left behind, to look forward to the degrees of esteem men diversely and(l relatively entertain, or the want they suffer, for different commodities. Capital holds the conmmodities which labor, at low wages, has produced; and capital sells them back to the laborer himself, at usurious profit. The workman is made to pay a premium onil his work to the idle looker-on. The gieat criine of capital is that it does not 43

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. merely appropriate natural agents to use as recipients of labor, but makes them absolutely individual propertv, arbitrarily invests them with an exchangeable value, and demands a price for their redemption. Thus meditating on the duality of value, and the character of human labor, one day I put to myself the two questions: (1) What would be the effect if political economists faithfully and strictly deduced their science from the fundamental duality of value that I have just stated, and which they thlemselves affirm? (2) What would have been the practical result if thlis view of value had been actually ope rative, in determining values in exchange, in assessing the reward of labor, and in preventing men from exacting any price for the share of God? I observed that when I had meditated on these two questions mly thoughts took the form of consecutive tableaux, that follow ed, as it were, an historical order. My mind, of its own accord, went to building ideal representations, showinig the living world acting under the influence of the dual truthl that (1) there is in all property a natural value which las 11no price, for it belongs to Go(ld; and (2) an imparted valije vwhichl has a price, for it (but it alone) belongs to labor, according to labor measured by labor.

Coisidering the necessary consequences of such principles, my imagination evoked the ideal scene of a social and political state materially different from that in wvhich wve live; different for the better; different by precluding tl,e possibility of many abuses and wvrongs; different bv its insuring the real rights’ of labor, and by its procuring rmerited -abuidance and needful rest to every laborer. (1) By imaginitiol)- I beheld the Eden of Labor, and its liistorv. I behleld it as it was when A(dam, after thle expulsion, oiganized( it armiong his chiildre-n, andl(l gave it laws founde(l on the principles hle had learied flroin converse witlh the Lord in the Eden of Rest. I saw its lapl)piness alld beauty Itstilg so long 44

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THIJE EDEN OF LABOR. as these laws were ())eyed. The proof of this is direct from Scril)ture. Speakilln, to C’iin, the Lord said: “Why art thou angry, and why is thy cotruntenance fallen? If thou do well, shalt thou not receive? But, if ill, shall not sin forthwith be present at the door?”

(Gen. iv. 6, 7.) (2) The construction of thle beautiful ideal of a country in vlwhich justice was d(lone and mercy extend(ed to the pool, of course gave occasion to conceive how, from the disregard of primary right and d(luty, our present institutions were inaugurated, and liow they developed their inherent virus of corruptioni. I saw how war arose from the general perversion of morality; hown conquest introduced slavery, landlorclsiip, unequal exchlange, and usury; how moral iniquity consecrated every material wrong in the production and distribution of wealth; and how the emnpire of the Nodlanders finally spread over the earth, provoking the Lord to destroy it by a deluge. ” He said to Noe: The end of all flesh is come before me; the earth is filled with iniquity tliroughi them,.aii( I will destroy them with thle earth.” (Gen. vi. 13.) (3) I saw, after the celu,e, Babylon and Mammon succeed(ing Nod, and naturally thought of the possibility of overthrowing tlhem by restoring the Eden of Labor through Christ and charity. Immense difficultiea presented themselves to my mind when it tried to imaginie or deduce a process, a course of action, the course of events, the evolution of existing causes by which the Satanic system might be supplanted by that of Iteaven. Nevertheless, I thouglht I could, by the help of the promises of Christ, prophesy, in consecutive order, movements and events ending in the complete triumph of Jesus Christ, ard( the establishment of His k’ngdom. I know I have not the literary talent necessary to write with the grace of style and aptness of illustration that impart pleasure. I am also warned that my space is limited, and that I must, therefore, be 45

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. brief where I should like to be elaborate; and often deal only in generalities where I should be glad to adduce demonstrative particulars. But, notwitlhstanding these disadvaitages, I persist in attempting this history, for I regard it as a duty to help to show the way of the poor from the Egypt of excessive.and unrewarded work to the Holy Land of rest and abundance. 46

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CIIAPTER II. ADAIM. I WILL begin by considering the principal personage of this history as he came forth from th-e hand of the Creator, and by noting the state of his mind as it was before Heaven drove him to derive from toil and his own counsel the abundance and peace he had madly forfeited.

Let us imagine a previously insensible lump of clay suddenly formed into a living organism, as Adam was, and endowed all at once witlh manhood, sight, hlearing, taste, touch, strengthl, emotion, and intellectual faculties; then left at the instant alone and ilaked in the woods. It is clear, if this had been done to Adarn, he would have perished. Iie was ignorant of everything. Every sighlt hle bellel(ld, every sound he heard, was strange to him. Ilie had never eaten or drank. He did not know what was food or drink-could not distinguish what was fit to nourish and refresh from what would poison or strangle himn. He did not know how to eat, for lihe had never seen any one eat. Feeling hunger, lhe would not have known what it was, nor lhow to assuage it; and before he could, by himself, have found out, lie would have starved to deatlh, not knowitig what was the matter, or how to save himself. Man is Ljot a creature of instinct like the beasts, wlho, without being taught, do spontaneously what is necessary to preserve life. Man knows the sirmplest things, eveni the absolute necessaries of existence, only by experielnce, imitation, and teaching. Hience it was necessary that Adam should be educated before he could do anytliilg for himself. Without this he could not even have known the use of his

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. owni limbs. He had not learned the use of his hands, feet, tongue, and so forth. Though they were parts of himself, they were strange to lim We know, fromn recorded cases, that persons born blind, whose eyes }have been opened by surgicatl operation, are unable, during, a considerable time, to understand the effects and uses of vision. At first the sight or tlhe world affects them as a sort of meaningless phantastnagoria, a chlaos of nameless wvonders. They cannot determine the relation of place and distance by mealns of sight. They do not identity the samrne thing by different senses, but regard any one thing seen, heard, taste(d, smnelt, and touched at different times and in different relations as different things. They admire or fear without knowing why. At the moment Adam was made-ushered at once into life a f’ull-grown man-everything he saw, every plant, mineral, beast, bird-the li,ght that slone, the sounds he hear(d, the sky above, the earth beneath, the waters that flowed, all thinigs without exception -must have beeln, as he first belleld them, impenetrable mysteries in their aspects and their essences, in their qualities and( their uses. hlowv could he, naked and ignorant as he was, preserve himrnself and live? iHowv discover or invent (in time to ward off death) food, clotlhes, slhelter, and the rest? Likle an infant, thioughi larger and( strolgere, lie could not app)recitte distance, time, wcigllt, size, forml, place, and thle relative position ot tlilings. lie would not know vwhatt to thintil of soucnds, iior of what hlie felt through the sense of touch, and would likely, as it is said in-‘ faints sometimes do, have streteled out his hand to catch tlhe moon. Can you picture to yoursell’ lhis utter bewvilderment and helplessness? Nothiig but a miracle could preserve such a creature, isolated ias lie was-made before society existed. Yet, no other rationatl theory can be conceived that would explain the genesis of man, and his primary knjowledclge of the iiieans of self-preservation. Thlc-efore we are not surprised to read that thle 4S

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. Lord God wnas A(lallll’s INSTRUCTOR alnd IIEI,PER at the outset of’ the twvo periods of his life: tlhe Eden of Rest and the Ed(en of Labor. In the Eden of Rest, whllere lie ha(l 1no lleed of art, Ada m learned of God to study nature and invelit word(s. To tlhis eind, God prompted him, (1) to classify tlins, and (2) give tlhem nlames. God “broulglt the m t o Adamn to see what lie would call tihem rn, for wlvatsoever Adamn called any liviug creature, the sa me was its name.”

(Gen. ii. 19.) So must have been done wvithi regard to in.tnimnate as well as aniilm ute nature. (Ps. cxlvi. 4.) To name tilings it was necessary to dclistillguish themr ” accordiii, to tlheir lkinds.” This *was an introdu ction to Science; for the begi guning of all science is classification. To iname thiings is to create langoLuage; for laiiguae begil ls -witli nam-jes, an(l proceed(s to make verbs to express acts, and tlhe ot.lher parts of speecd to express the lrelati ons of )names and verbs. Nowv, we cannot reasonably suppose thllt such a,n instructor limited science an d language only to this; for Hle had made Ad(-Im to be the great prototype of humal.ii nature, 1)l] ySic’lly, intellectually, a,d ii,orally; ald to live sup)reinely lhappy, in corlparative leisure anld lieavenly conversation. “Sethl and Sem obtained glory amongg nnen; but above every soul was Adam fromn tl ie be(gintlil,.’” (EcclesiasticLus xlix. 19.) Tlie obvious inference is, that the happiiiess of such a bein(gendowved wNithl elevated reason nnd angelic holinessthus placed, mnust have consisted-could only have consisted-iin contemplating and understanding the vwonders of creatioli-, in discoverilg, the hidden forces set to work by almiglhty wisdom, and in tracing their action as thley developed the beauteous aspects of tllings. The deep and broad mind of thle great progenitor’ qualified(l himrn for this, and special grace assisted lilli, so thlit we may safely say that, apart from art al)pliecati()lns, no man ever hlad (leeper insighlt into tlhe w(orks of God-no liiatural or mietiphysical philosoi)lIer \as ever more 1)1o!‘olLidly veised ii tile laws 49

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. a(tI principles that God las set to operate the mia-terial and moral \orld. “litli hin hiis noblest sons mighlt not comnpare, In godlikle feature anld majestic air; Not outt of weaklyess rose hiis gradulal frame Perfect from his Creator’s hanid hle came, Andl as in forul excelling, so in mild Thle sire of inai transcended all mnankind: A soul was in his eye, and iu hIis speech, A dialect of hleaven 1)o art coul(d reach; For oft of old to hin, thlle evening breeze lladl borne tlhe voice of Go(d aiinog the tiees Angel.s were wont tlheir song witlh Iiis to l,1en And talk withl hiim as their fauiilamr friend.”

1loI/.yqo01ieiy. Bit I need( not d(\v ell 01o tIlis period; for I described it ftilly ill the prece(ling essay. WVhat directly eligacges our attetion i-iow is the secoi(d pa)rt of Adam’s life. So, I pass on to the Eden of La,bor. Sent forth to earn lhis bread by the sweat of lhis face, A(ldami became, at once, a worker at all trades. Artisan, tiller of the soil, liunter, fisherman, and slep-)herd; thle first two principally, the otlieis subsidia rily. A p)rimary liecessity was clotlling, to cover h-is iakedness, for dleceincy’s salce; and to p)1-Otect his bo(ly from the w,teitlier, for lealthl alid coinfort’s sake. leniice, on oceasioii of the exptils;ioii, tlhe lesson of thle lTor(l to Adalm was to teacl liiiii thle miakilng of garmelrnttts of skiii. Tliis introdnuced VESTITECTURE aiid all thle arts on which it delpenids, suchi as taltiingll, leath-er, spinnilg thlread, fabricatilng needles, dlyeig, stuais, and so forthl. D(,u)tless Adami was also intin-ldliately tatug}t to build a cdwve]llig; for it is recorded shortly a-fterwvar(ls that ltis eldest son Calin built limnself “a city.” Tfitus we have to credit Adc-un wvith a knowledge ()ofACHlITECTURE. Sin-ce lie was selit forth ‘“to till tlhe eartii,:’ tile l,r()i-(l doubtless gave 11him also the instruction lie neede(d for tllis purpose. I-e therefore kinew AGIRICULTUiIE. \ itliout implemenlts, tillage was impossible. rlTe 1 iiaailg, of garments, lintintig of galiie, slaugliteri,g cattle, Idressijg skills,

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THE EDEN OF’ LABOR. and buildino-h-ouses, presuppose proper instrumenits; and since, a fewv years afterwardcls, the forging of iron became a separate trade, it is faiI’ to infer thlat Adam was acquainted with 3INING
ald M-ETALLURGY. Then the house and houselhold imply beds, bellches, and otler furniture, cooking food, keepiug mrilk and oil’ and hlence thl-e arts of JOINERY and POTTERY, etc. That the labor Adamn performied was af a lmolytechnic character is therefore evident. No simpler )eginningi can be iimagined even by an evolutionist. III the present ate, even after the growthl of iniimerous population, the peoples who are supposed to be in the Adamie or primitive state do not find it usefuli to have a separation of trades and occupations. Every man of tllem exerts every kind of illdustry for his own subsistence and comfort. We may add, in passing, that among these primnitive peoples every man is his own -nerchant; and therefore tllhat, in the distinct and gain-seeking sense, tlhey do not know commerce. The idea of some that man l)egins by being a huniter and fisherman will not bear examination. These avocations \would not dispense limrn from beingc, an artisan to manufacture the needed canoe, traps and snares, hlut, and household utensils, clothing, and tools. Fishing and lluiting are the most precarious of rneals for obtaiiling a livelihood, and none resort to thlen] except undei-circumstances (suclh as war or brigan.dagt,e) that re(nder tillage a-nd( herding impossil)le. If tlhe more regular and productive labor of aigriculture naturally presented itself antd was safe, he of course enteredl upon it, in preference, as his principal resource. So, after having been primarily a mrere gatlherer of spontalneous fruit, the first act of latbor or prod(luction he must have thoughlt of, even wvithlout God’s special direction, was the planting of thl-e seeds of fruit and vegetables. It seems plain that man, in face of thle palptable lessoi taught by God and nature, would liot have rejected agriculturie for hunting and fslhing, wvlicih are as laborious, 5 1

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. more dangerous, more uncertain, and involve more frequent chlances of starvatiol). Peoples follow these exclusively only from necessity, only when a continual state of warfare drives them from place to place, and makes it extremely doubtful that they who sow shall be able to reap, or when they have been driven by bloody and predatory enemies to lands too barren to be cultivated. Of the truth of this remark history and geography furnish us with many instances. The fair inference from all’the facts is, that, from b)eing first a simple fruit-gatlherer, Adam en-tere( upon the period of real labor by undertaking all b)ranches at once, but principally agricutlture and its atuxiliary arts. Then calne thle division of labor. Cain, the eldest son, continued to be a husbandman but Abel, the younger, chose to be especially a shepherd. (Gen. iv. 2.) The next specializations were those of Herdsmen, Fin’ie-Artists, and Metallurgists, as shown in the instances of Jabel, Jubal, and TubalcaiI).

(Gel). iv. 20, 21, 22.) Afterwards anotlher separate avocation was that of Priestlhocod; for so I understand the case of HIenoeh. (Geln. iv. 26; v.

24.) It is ages after thIis, that we first read of hlunting being made a separate pursuit. (Gen. x. 8, 9.) Hence, it is not overstrained to say that, from divine instruction and the genius heaven had given him, Adam was able so to educate and train is children as to make them adepts in the arts I have mentioned.’ Tlhey were so skilled in prel)pariig skins of anirmals tlht their articles of dress, compposedl of this material, were of the last degree of softness and flexibility, coarse or fine, as needed; and always substantial. Nor were thev always plain; but were dyed of many colors, and ornamented to suit the taste of the wearer. Their houses were strongly built to last for centuries, eight or nine hundred years, the life of a man, and perhaps longer. But for strength they did not neglect convenience and beauty. So their homes were well closed against the weath~er, but high and airy anid of beautiful . 2

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. design. Tleir ploughs and othei iml)lcrneents of labor were well adapted, and thlorouglhly effective. They built market places, houses of ssernl)lvy, and temples. To go and-( come between these, tl-hey made roads, bridges, and causeways. They constructed vessels to colnvey produce and( pissengcrs on thl deep rivers that flowed from EJden. They faslhioned excellent household furniture and(l utensils. They devised inachinery, ad put up mrills and factories. They found placers of gold and mines of coal and iron, from which they fed forges and smnitlh-shops where implerneats and cutlery were manufaettu red. In short, tl-hey klnewv and pirac(tised all tlle aits mo(lern progress so proudly boasts of; but whiclh tfterwar(ls were lost, and are bei’g now only found( again. In less than three centuries, they were numerous enough to thickly populate the widle and far reach  ing valley Adam had cliosen to live in, and whllich was situated near the source of the Eupl-hrates. As the Supreme Patriarch stood at the door of the house he had built, high up on the graldual slope of the rnoutain, at the head of t}he valley, lie could view its entire leiigth and breadthl ill one scope of lhis vision. Standing( there lie loved(i to look upoIl tlhe multitude of lhis clll(drele, their habitations and their doings. The molii)ta.liis that rose like aii inclined plane and(
formed the two sides of the valley,. like an mph)lithleatre, extended lengthwise as far as the eye could reachl-, and was covered witlh ftarms.

Each farm could be distinguislhe(l by tlhe different slad(ling of the greeii or yellow of its field, its buildings inll the ceintre, its copse of woodland and its orclhard. This was so dlistinct tlhat the sides of tlhe mountailis presented the appearance of an inllenase chess-board with gigantic sqiuares of diveise colorin9g, oil each} of which was placed the llome of a farmily, ii)stead of at towverin,g pawn or castle. Eligher up, the rocky ridge riinmmed tlhe skies; a(l downvi below the wid(e and flo\viin Eu 5 -: 53

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. phrate’ meandered in serpelntine curves. Acro.ss the river, at convenient distances, bridges tlhrew tlle span of tlheir archles; and on either bank, not far apart, were tidy villages or large factory buildin,os. Ill several places majestic temples spread tlheir domes as if to copy the blue sky above them. Roads triaversed tlhe whole scene in every direction. In the fields were men elngaged in tillage or-atlherilg the fruits of their toil. On tlhe pastures grazed sheep or otlher cattle. On the roads rolled cal-ts and otller calrriages. The face of Nwinding Euptl-irates was jotted with deeply lacden vessels all(nd light sailing-boats. The streets of the villages teemed writhi busy (ldenizens going to and fio in pursuit of their various industries. Amid all and fornom everywhere camne thousands of sounds, the lhal-nmer of the smitl-h, the rumble of vehicles, thle lowing,i bleatilg, and barking of beasts, tlhe crowinllg or chirp of birds, the hum of insects, the speeches and songs of men. Life, labor, and music teemed all over the grand panoiramar which that beautiful valley preseilted to the eve. Over all, clearly aud genially, shone the sun, gildin,g with lustre evely prominent object, casting transparent shadows on surfaces below, and tinting with every lhue the innumerable and variegated objects that filled up the magnificent landscape. To this fair land and industrious people, Adam lhad given divinely inspired laws; and over it he I(igned withli sovereign authority and parental ten(lerness. He was the first legislator and king by virtue of the iiatural course of events, and by the special decree of Providence. Thle people obeyed him, for they were his children. Every one of them coming into tlhe world found( lhis -majesty and power unqualifie(dly ackl,owledged and reveiericed(. They grew up undcer lhis pate rnal adiiiiiiistration anud autlhority. They were distributed and organized accorIding to his divinely iistructed wisdom. He was their llnttulal in(d consltitutted sovereign. 54

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. We have already seen how well he was intellectually qualified for this hiigh office. His moral qualifications also gave him a pre-emrinent title to the assumption of this task and dignity. From the fact that Heaven invested Adam with patriarhelal authority, I infer that all necessaryt knowledge of moral law was imparted to him. Since God condescended to hold supernatural intercdurse with him, to teaclh him practical arts immediately needful foi, h-is temporal subsistence, it follows, for the greater reason, that God also instructed him in the inaxims and rules indispensable for his moral life. Iindted, on thtis point tlhere is hardly room for mere inference. We know expressly th-t, from the Tree of Teniptatiot-i, our first parents acquire(l knowledge of tlhe distinction between good and evil, not of mere physical pleasure and pain, as some inconsidcerately ivtagile, but of moral good and evil, lwh-ich, as clearly imnplied bv the laiigua(,e, consist simply in obedience or disobedience to laws divinely revealed. True, thlat, by the fall, Adam lost original holiness and several special supernatural graces, of which we cannot now lhave any exact idea; but lie lhad recently been in communion with angels, and inl conversation with God -himself. Assuredly he received tlhe revelation of the perfect divine law of mnorality. God did not fail to teach him the same moral and social doctrine, the same laws and precepts that Christ taulght his disciples. All the spiritual wisdom now understood only by Christian saints must have been communrnuicated to him from heaven, and he inust have diligently taught it to his clildren. lie necessarily-lhad Faith, a fatithl as intense as Setli, or Heinoch, or any other patriarch or apostle subsequen tlv had; for in like inanner his knowledge of God was direct and immediate.

Nevertheless, he retained the freedom of lhis will, was left to his own jucldgient in carrying out the principles he had learned, and was liable to be pressed and deluded by p’ide, envy, and sensuality. No doubt he resisted 55

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. these with great, tlhough not absolute success; for the lesson he had imbibed of thle magnitude of tlhe o uilt involved in even the ]east act of disobedience to divine law, influenced l)im to lead a religious and virtuous life, and carefully train his children to do the same. Of tlhe fact of religious education, we 1-ave direct evidence. The sacrifices Cain and Abel miade (Gen. iv. 3-5): the one of tlle first-fruits -of the vear, the other of the firstling,s of his flock, prove they had been taug!ht Worship and its ceremonial ruLles; and all else tlhat the woIrslip) of tlhe true God implies. The terms of the Lord’s rebuke (Gen. iv. 6, 7) show that Cain was fully inforrnied of wvliat was Sin, whlat its consequences, and that he had power to avoid it I)y sell-control. Sumt total, it is certain that, even after the ftll, Adani was a man of the greatest excellence-a man en(lowved wvith the proper graces a,nd dignity of character required for sovereig(ntv, and wvith tlhe wisldon iand viitiie essential to a good a(nd great legislator. 56

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CHLAPTERI III. THE REDUCl IONS; THEIR CURRENCY AND EXCHANGES. IHEN\CE, during Adam’s long life of eight centuries after the expulsion, his home atnd dominions were the Eden of Labor. There was no immediate economical cause for a subversion of justice and charity among his children. In his family, during his reign, the relative rights of God and labor were respected. Indeed, from the pains he took to inculcate and enforce obedience to heavenly derived laws and precepts, the divine right must have predominated. The murder of Abel mighlt raise a doubt of this general fact, were we not tol(l (Gen. iv. 13-16) how, after commrnitting the deed, Cain fled into exile, was torn r)v remorse, and acknowledged the existence of a law governing society, according to vwhich the penalty of death would have been inflicted on him for his crimne, had it not been for the intervention of I1 il-cy. ‘Thle increase of population during antediluvian times was wonderfully ral)i(1. It proceeded by a triple ratio; for, by reason of great longevity, the number of deaths compared to births, during the first ten centuries, was proportionally few. It is safe to say the population doubled every thirty years, so that by the time of A(lam’s death the number of hluman inhabitants on the face of the earth exceeded a hundred millions. As this rapid multiplication of people went oii, the superlative intellect and organizing character of Adam were put forth in adequate proportion. Every thirty years new families segregated from the paternal home, and founded new homes, fraternities, clans, tribes, kindreds, and patriarchates. The first frater

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. nity which Adam organized, composed of over one thlousand of his nearest descendants, and the territory thiey occupied he callcd a REDUCIoTION, because tl-erein hle had re(-itcecl material nature to human lal)or andc the moral nature of man himself to th-e will of God, as he had been commanded to do. Afterwvards he called the territory of a clani a CLANDOM: that of a tribe a TRIBEI)OMI; that of several iearly-related tribes a KINDOM; that of a certain nunbler of’ klindoms, forming a great province, under the vicegerency of one of his sons by Eve, a PATRIARCHI)OW, and, finally, all the countries acknowledging lais sovereignty, the SUPREMNE PATRIARCIII)DOMt. Thle fundamental laws the Supremre Patriarchl promulgated were: first, ttle fathlerly and absolute soveleignty of God; second, the brotherhood of humaniity; third, the legal equality of persons; fourth, the title of every man to all natural tliings, not for intrinsic or perpetual ownerslip), but for transient p)ossession and use; and fifthl, oil tile first four, lie base(l tl-he commercial statute lwhicol was enforced, durirlg his reigi by means of practical ordinances: “L(tbo? l’s the real?ieasure of the exc/la(/gectble val?te of (tl/ co))-t noclities e(t(1 Se rV ices.” But h1ow did he manage to apply tlhis economic principle? WThat were those practical ordinances?

Ii(o)w could hie value the 2-eal ltbo’ blended in a coInimodity indeplendently of the natural value it cornprised? Ho’ov find tlhe equation of the differelleces of (1) time, (2) effort, and (3) skill mrerged in siminilar Dpro(ducts? Hovw nakle a like equation of (1) time, (2) ebort, and (3) skill involved in the production of (.lfferenzt commodities? Ilow keep account of the labor put into each stage tl-hroughl which a comnmodity passes from raw material to a fitness for final consuml)tion; and of the wear and tear of tools and nmacllinery, and consumption of materials used iI m-aking up a cornmpl)te and finished article, in order tlhat tlhe last workman, and(l every wvorkmani before him, may have his just reward(l, no more, no less? 58

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. IIowv acldjust cases of inequality of qutat’ty resulting from (1) natural causes or (2) diffreneies in skill, but ilvolvi,ng the same amrount of labor? HIow apply tlhe pule a(nd siIml)le standard of labor to differences of qlU(t[t, such as greater or less beauty, finer or coarser flavor, lonoer or shorter durability resulting froni (1) superiar or inferior skill, or (2) from weather, soil, and othler natural (conditiols, but involvi,n tlhe same amoullt of labor?

AWhat nmust l-)e the uztit of this real measure, tlhe unit wherewvithl the labor coIntaiiied in all products should be valued, ian(l accordiig to wlhicli tlhey could, whlatever their dissimilarity, be equitably exchanged’? The supreme patrilcl-i easily solved these questions whlichl seem so liard to ainswer. ItIe succeeded perfec,tly, because hie simply and inexorably adhered( to principle or fun(ldamentital lawv. Ncat,ire wo2s for nothi4i)yg, said hle; and he was determined tlhat for what liature liad done gratutitously no price wlIatever slhoul(l be exacted. By close observation, in lhollestly seeking to find or invent means to thle just ai[(l beneficent end of securillg to labor its just and true recompense, he discovered that, in a given leng,th of time, thlere was a colstant AVERAGE of labor and skill exei-ted by those who converted natural tlhings to hbnaan uses. I-e (atctyzeC(l every woik done by minei, ain(l foullnd that eacl) kind( was re(dlucil)le to particular quantities or tasks, meastirable by rtime. For instance, hle ascertained that it takes a good and diligent woikman just so many days or hours or minutes to clear, )1()ough, weed, or reap an acre of land, ori to gather an(l g arner a tonl of harvest, or to cut a cord of wood, or lewN a ro(I of timber, or to )repartie or cook and serve a pound of fbod, or weave a yairdl of cloth, or to write a folio of mantuscril)t, or to cut and sew a garmenet, or to dig a cubic vya’d of tre elh, or to build a house, a fence, a briidge, or otlier stucl work, or to makle a particular article of furniture, or to grind( a quarter of lwheat, nmilk a cow, butchler aii ox, clhurn 59

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THE EDEN OF 1,A BOR. a gallon of milk or to rcnder any other specific service. This, even with regard respectively to each distiuguishable quality, coudition of things, or peculiaritv of circumstance. \Ve know that this was entirely feasible from the fact that, in our times laborers aud workmen often do what is called “zcewo,’-A:,” and are paid well-settled prices, accoiding to certain specifies measures of product; but te price of each };iiece of work is really determined by the aero}(e’

ITh.L an ordinary workman must take to do it well. Miners are paid by the ton; masous by the thousand of brick they lay; carpenters by the square; tailors bv a special sum for each kind of garment they sew; authors are compensated at so in uch per line; printers bv the thousaud cs; there a-c rates of piecework in almost every trade or profcssion. It is true that, in reai’d to y)9iec8, these rates ire not,’ a })resefit, justly detei-mincd; but in regard to measurement of work, 1)j 1Ae uvr(je ratio of TIME to (]’?f(itit// 0) (]eU’lity o; PROI)UcT, they are neai-ly correct.

The examples I have cited shonld be sufficient; but, if the reader is not yet satisfied, let him consider what farmei’s id mechaiiics actually do iii this re An experienced farmer can tell exactly how many able-bodied men he must emrploy to cultivate his latid, to raise tlis or thlat kcind of produce oil his niumber of acres, how many days’ work each will or nmust do to make tht crop). In the course of the year, and according to the seasons, lie sets them to do a great variety of works. In one season he sets them to plougliing, ii, aiiother to planting, in another to weedilg, in aiJotlier to reapiti,, etc. etc.; and hle knows that the days of work and tlheir product will come out even i’or lie has correctly estimated thleir relation, how much of one is equal to so much of the other. Every dvay lie rea(iily and correctly decides, not only wha,t is to be done, but how niucli work of each kind cal) be done by lis laborers, and distributes to eacll mall his task for the dlay witlhout assig,ing 60

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. to any one imoie or less than he is able to do that day. One, hle assigns to spadcing and manuring a garden bed; another, to gathering fruit in the orchard; a third, to repairing fences; a fourth, to feeding horses an(id cattle, and driving the cart to market; a woman, to milk the cows, make the butter, feed and house the. fowls, and gather the eggs; a number to hoeing the corn, and lie knows, in the evenillg, by irispeecing the results, that they have respectively done a fair clday’s work. This is repeated every day of the year under a continually clhang,ing concourse of circumstances, the employments of one.day must materially differ from those of other days; and, nevertheless, the farmer is ever able daily to determine each lab)orer’s task. He sometimes keeps a detailed account of every hour’s work done with specification of its particular nature. He does not fail to correctly foresee, uiider penalty of a waste of time or a slighting of work if’he makes a mistake. Hence, it is seen that, even in the most complicated of industries, every stroke of work is commensurate with a length of tine, great or small, but definable. An experienced person might safely contract to manage a farm on this principle for a predeter:mnined annual sum total of cost. All that is needed to apply this relation is diligent or habitual observation and comparison, such as any or(dinary man can exercise. In every branch of tnechanics we see the same practicability of this’commensuration of time, labor, and product. In every mechanical business, mnasters ttt(le-ta1le works by the JOB and to do this with advantage to thlemselves they make estimates of cost. True, these estimates are expressed in dollars and(
cents; but to find this money cost they make schedules of the number of days’ work that will be required. The house or ship builder, with the plans before him, is able to make out, not only a detailed list of materials he must purchase, but tables of the number of workmen he must employ, and of the number of days and hours each set of wvorkleni or individual will be 6 61

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. employed in preparing, putting together the materials, and completing the job The house builder, for instaince, employs many different kinds of workmen, common laborers, carpenters, bricklayers, plasterers, plumbers, painters, slaters, stone-cutters, etc. etc.; but hle knows the time they will make and the quantity of work they will do in that time, so that he is able to bind himself, under a penalty, to finish and deliver the buildinv in a definite number of weeks, or at a certain date. Hils fuinishers of materials all do the same thing for themselves, a-Id it would be easy to estimate, in units of timite, every made article or commodity that enters into the job. These examples are sufficient. It is unnecessary to go the whole round of polytechnics, to illustrate the feasibility of valuing products and services by the UVNITS OF TIMrE which the labor they involve has consumed, independently of cost in money or of any other thing that might be used as a common medium of exclhange. Any attentive and ingenious man, versed( in any art, can see how this method of measuring products and services in the naked ratio of time, can be made equitable and exact in every particular. Whether there is or can be a just valuation of labor or products in gold coin or in currency representing gold coin, or in corn or any other material thing, is a question which has nothing whatever to do with the standard or basis of value used in the A(lamic reductions or Eden of Labor. To understand the reductional standard all reference to 94aterial measures of conmmodities, such as corn or other articles of commerce all relations to coin or denominations of coin, such as dollars, francs, pounds sterling, or the like, must be dismissed from the mind -absolutely eliminated from the idlea discarded as entirely unfit to be made corn:non measures of exchangeable value. No elements must be regarded and admitted in the conception other than TIME, as a measure, applied to labor and its PRODUCTS; so that 62

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THiE EDEN OF LABOR. each product or service would have exchangeable value only in the ratio the LABOR it contains really and specifically bears to time. Wlhosoever mixes any other notion with this idea of exchangeable value cannot clearly understand it. Instead of having, fi)r instance, the idea of a dollar’s worth of corn, lie must form the idea of a timne’s?vortlA-a day, an hour, a minute’s labor-worth-of corn. If he does this, then he understands the triple relation of (1) time, (2) labor, and (3) product in the deterrninatioii of exchangeable value. If he does not or cannot do this, then lie does not or cannot understand. Though it is to repeat, I insist tnat the idea I wish to imnpress is not that the amnount of labortime and purchase of materials spent in producing a particular article, and which constitute its actual cost, but the labortime good and diligent workmen ordinarily require to produce the like, out of natural things, which is the legitimate price. The labor-timrne wasted in slow or bad work is of no account in the estimate of labortime valtle. There is another danger of misap)prehension. It is, that some may imagine the Reductional System woul(l (as do several mod(lern theories of laborexchange) allow individuals, under pretext of personal ri,ght, liberty, self-ownersh-ip, or the like, to value their own labor at theiri own price, regardless of its measure in averag(e libor-time pro(luct; and, therefore, buy or sell service or products of labor at nore or less than labortime value. To hlave permnitted this would have been to sanction monopolies of natural values, the freaks of derhand and supply, the envy of competition and speculation, and other means of extortion which have caused all the economic miseries of the modern world. This would have undone, by one law, what had been done by the other. Thus the principle laid as the foundation of justice and common riglht would be immediately defeated by any individuals, or by combinations express or tacit. Thus the allowed exception would 63

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. soon become the general ru-le. In the Edlen of Labor, on the contrary, every infringement of the rule of exchange by the ]abortime estimate was reprobated and punished as EXTORTION. The infringement was assimilated to robl)ery or theft, which are public offiences no private person could condone; or, rathler, it was likened to the use of fnlse weights and mensures, or to the passing of counterfeit.money, which no consent to receive can legalize. The strict enforcement of the labortime estimate was regarded, under reductionism, as in nowise an encroachment on individual rights; but, on the contrary, as the maintenance of the lmost sacred of tliose righlts, not only of the weak and foolish against the strong, but of public morals, prosperity, and order, against those who wvould selfishly and absurdly destroy them.

Taking more or giving less than standard labortime value was, under the Adclamic rule, an offence against society itself, not to be superseded by anlly supposed personal right; for there can be no personal riglht against honesty anld equity. In the Eden of Labor, by a careful, iu, anil conscientious series of observations, they succeeded in finding the true and exact ratio of every product ind service to the average labortime it embodied. In every Redliction there were exp)erienced app)raisers conversant with all the principal and petty, all the constant and variable, details of labor, required for the extraction of raw material, and for every kind of cultivation and manufacture. TlIey prepared elaborate tables of the time necessary for the AVEiRAGE doing of each item or iota of labor inll a workmanlike maniner. Indeed, in the course of time and practice everybody becamn)e familiar, not only wvith tlhe standard, but with the estimates, and was able to apply them with readiness ali(i certainty. People in genteral (even children) could1 tell promptly and precisely how many minutes or lours of average labor there were in any article or service they were in the habit of consuming, or even seeing. 64

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. In every Reduction, and at the capital of every clandconl, tribedoni, kindom, and patriarchd()m, there were a public marklet afid corporate stores where any one might deliver acceptable commodities to be sold, and where the price of the consignmenrt was immediately paid or credited to the depositor, oti the basis of labor for labor, equally valued accord ing to thie method I have tried to describe, Indeed, the consignor was not always required to deposit his product in the public market or store. Most fre quently, especially with respect to bulky articles, a more convenient course off business was pursue(i. The producer merely informed the public appraiser, who was also the public proxy, in charge of the pulblic market and stores, that he had a certain product in his granary, or house, and wished to consign it. Thereupon the public proxy would, either himself or by deputy, go and estimate the labortime value, [oi whlich he would give the producer credit on the books. This at once invested the public proxy with the sole ri,ght of d(ispositg of the thlings consigned. ‘The producer from that moment held them in trust; and it’ he dared to use, convert, or convey them, he was guilty of embezzlement, and, on conviction, was severely puliished.

Riarely, or hardly ever, did any one commit the crime. The people were generally honest, and public opinion strict, Besides, from the natture of the case, detection, in a few days, was in evitable. When any man’s product was accepted by the public proxy, he was entitled either to credit onl the books for the labor value or to immediate payment in CURRENCY
representing that labor value. This currency was issued by the reduction, clandom, tribedom, kindom, patriarchdom, or Supreme Patriarchdom, according as the consignment was made to markets and warehouses of one or the other. It was in the f’orni of bills of credit of different amounts expressed in units and integers of labortime. It set forth tlhese units in the following table of 65

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. LABOR.-TIME MEASURE OF VALUE. 10 vibrations (or I second)10 strobes (or 6 seconds) 10 das7hes (or 1 miiinte) 10 strives (or 6 minutes) 10 rou)ids (or 1 hour) 6 tires (or 6 hours) 6 days of work The immediate right a person acquired by taking the notes was that of using themn to purchase anything hlie wanted at the public market and stores, at a price in lab()o-time ascertained by the same means of appraisemient accorcding to which he had parted with his own goods. EXCHIIANGES betweeen the reductions and other subdivisions were carried on through their several public proxies, -and at their different markets and TRADE CENTRES, according to a well-defined,trrangement. The reductioniary proxy vwas in correspondence, fox-exchUiges, waith the proxy of their clan(lorn  those of cland(oms with that of their trib)edlomthose of tribedoms with that of their 7cindom-those of kindon-is with tlht of thleir p)atiriarchcdom and those of the patriarchldoms with that of the Sc’h)reme Italria?-chl(lom and with foreign coluntries. A man miglit order his goods to be sent at once to any one of these trIade-centies; but as lhe could gain nothing pecuninrily’by.such a step, he generally left them to be disposed of by llis own immediate reductionarl proxy. By means of their correspondence, anr through all sources of information, the public proxies ascertained (1) the wants of their constituents, (2) the markets from which these could be supplied, (3) gave intelligence of the quantity and quality of their own stock, (4) received orders for the goods they had for exchange, and (5) sent orders for tl-he tiil)gs they required. The grange combination recently started in the United States is being constructed on a similar plan, subject, however, to all the disprop(ortions iand 6( one stroke of woi-,F,. one dash of work. one strive of work. one round of work. one tire of work. one day of work. one rest front work.

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. other evils of competition, fluctuations of )priice, credit speculations, a false currency, and so fortlh. Lieutenant Maury’s great plan for reporting the actual products of agriculture and manufactures, already partially carried into effect by the government, is an illustration of one of the means employed in tile Ed(lan of Labor, to enable the people to know, all the tine, what direction and extension they should give to’their industry. An ifferior tra(le-centr-e (that of a reduction for instance) alas )rohzibited by l(wf-roi, i?ss8Tiny its labor notes to the hiyher ooies. The order observ((d was this: the reductionary proxy could only issue notes to private persons consigning goods to him.

The clan proxy could only issue notes to private persons, or to reductionary proxies consignling goods to him. The same rule was imposed on the entire series of tradcle-centres in the order of their seriation. A distinct and peculiar advantage of the reductional system of markets, exchange, and distribution wa,s that fresh products could not be regiated or monopolized, or otherwise kept back from colesumption, so that they found a free and immediate way from producer to consumer, and were not lost )by decay, deterioration, or waste. ERRATA. The Tal)le at page 66
should be as follows: 1 vit)ration…………… is T;6 of a second. 10
vibiations.. one strole of work or 1, 66 of a second. 10 strolbes…….

one dash of work or 3 6 seconds. 10 (lashes……..one strive of work or 36 seconds. I() stri’s…….. one round of work or 6 minutes. 10
road.s…….one tire of work or one hour. 6 tires……..one day of work.

6 days of work one rest from work. 67

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CHAPTER IV. REDUCTIONISM, ITS OPERATION AND EFFECTS. As the reductionary proxies were t}he imnme(iiate agents of the or7iginal producers, as they were the beginning and the end of the process and machinery of exchange and distribution, and as the other proxies were only portage and transfer agents between the reductions, it followe(l that the reductionary proxies and their immediate constituents, the original producers, wvere the recipients of the final balances of currency, if indeed any such final balances were ever possible. The flow of products was f/)om the producers to the distributing centres; aid, tl}erefore, the main flow of currency was from the distributing centres. The tide or e(ddy-flow of currency returned to the distributing centres, to be finally cancelled by exchange of goods, which followed the money everywhere to redeem and cancel it.

Indeed the disti-i buting, centres generally returned produce for produce, instead of payitlig in currency; but in consequence of the rule mentioned in the preceding chapter, vwhatever amounts of National Labor Notes were issued from’the emporiums found their waiy in a direction downwards to the reductionary proxy, aii(l through him into the hands of his },omte cotititueits, and by them into general circulation. By the platy of this system, the reductionary proxy was constantly receivinig t(raosie?it balances in tlhis currencey; ani(1 therefore, generally had on hand as much of the higher order of notes as his constituents had any need for.

Hence it was hlardly ever necessary for him, or the proxy of any clan or tribe, to issue a local note. Those who had occasion to exact notes of one kind or the other from the public proxy, soon

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THIIE EDEN OF LABOR. found it necessary to use them to make purchases from or payments to their neighbors, or to bring them back to the reductionary market and store to make purchases there. Thius thle National Labor Note constituted nearly the only circulating medium; and it did not require a great amount of these to transect all the aflairs in which money was at all needed. The net mov(wlbe wealth and capital of the country consisted in the produce and merchandise consigned to’the tradcle-centres, in charge’of the public proxies, subject to the orders of consignors for the things ill kind, or to the checks of consignors for the price in money; but for the money there was comparatively no great demand; for transactions between individuals were mostly settled by checks on the proxy; andl thus the property on deposit, at the t1re(le-centres, passed from one person to the other without changing place, till it was wanted for positive consumption. Hence, tlhe markets and stores in charge of the proxies, and their manner of transacting business operated -s a currency bank and storage warehouse combined in one institution taking deposits and issuing circulation, keeping transfer books and giving warehouse receipts, paying clhecks, and passing book credits from one depositor or consignor to the other. Hence, also, since every one of these transactions, under the system, was necessarily a real one, the yearly liquidationi came out true and even, and the surplus to meet the exigences bf reproduction and future need were always certain, abundant, and available. One point should be now more clearly stated, to present a more complete and clear idea of the re(lductional system. There are several unavoidable disparities in the ~i;r’ifsic value of the results or products of labor and skill. First: The same amount of labor gives different q?ota-itilies of product, greater in one case and less in the other to the average; and this difference is the result, (1) sometimes of skill turning out more than the average; (2) sometimes of soil, climate, and other 69

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. natural causes developing a larger or smaller product; and, (3) an increased product is sometimes due to both these causes combined. Second: Tle same amount of labor gives different qualities of prodluct according to the influences of, (1) skill, (2) nature, or (3) both conibined, which I have just stated as affecting quantity. In other words, a greater quantity or better’ quality of product may be the result of, (1) less labor, (2) or more skill. Now, from these facts, some would be disposed to deny the justice of determining price or value by the average labortime standard only, but a little reflection will remove all objection. As to the (1) accessions in QUANTITY, and (2) su)periorities of QUALITY arising from natural( causes merely, they are due to the act of God-they belong, only to Him; and no man acquires the right of demallnling extra ransom for them. God makes the favored producer, in this case, the custodian and distributor of His gifts. Let him give thanks that these have fallen to his lot to be thus disposed of. Let him personally consume all he needs of the abundance and excellence; but to Divine mercy he owes, in return, the duty of selling the surplus to his neighbor by the rule of labor for labor. Moreover, his neighbor owes the same to him, and it will as often happen that his neighbor’s products will be as bountiftul and as good in one kind as his are in another. If’ his neighbor’s wheat crop be poorer than his, that same or another neighbor’s fruit crop may be the finest. The neighbor, who from mere natural accidents, made an inferior crop should not be regarded with an evil eye, nor begrudged the slight inremeent he would derive from the general average of the production of the year, in the whole country. The same, and other worse discrepancies happen, with tenfold ag,gravatioli, under the rule of total appropriation and absolute ownership of natural blessings, by individuals. I need say nothiing of the untoward 70

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. fluctuations of prices, and the train of other evils caused by envious and avaricious competition and monopoly; for it suiffices to point out that the differences in quantity, from natural causes and accidents, happen under one system as well as anotlher, and he whom Providence favors to-day may see that fav.or withdirawn to-m-norrow, and extended to his neighbor. The material difference is that reductionism,emedies the mishap at once, and equalizes the loss imrnmediately as between partners and brethren. This is the laborer’s equity and charity. It is, therefore, not only prudent to reciprocate, and to i ns?1re one another against unforeseen and unusual circuinstan)ces, or even against mere accidents; but, also, it is our duty to please God by distributing Itis blessings to one another in brotherly devotedness and love. For I mean, not that others should be eased and you burdened; but by an equality, in the present time, let your abundance supply their want, that their abundance also lnay supply your want, that there ay be an equality, as it is written: He that had mutch had nothing over, and he that had little had no want.”’ (2 Cor. viii. 13, 14, 15; Exod. xvi. 18.) As to skill, alas! who Awill complain that the reduc tionism of the Eden of Labor treated it inequitably? Not certainly the skilful wagemen? of the land of No(i for they were paid at first but a small premium over the ordinary workmen of their own craft; and as skiltful hands of that craft became more and more numerous, their wages were colltinually falling lower and lower, till the money one of them was pauid for a day’s work would not purchase a fourth as miuclh as a day’s labor-note of the Eden of Labor could comiijand. None of them got the equivalent of his time and skill; for, three-fourths of’ equivalent was retaimed as )rofit made out of their time and talent by their employers, and by the usurers, merchlants, speculators, land ownlers, and monopolists, who extorted gain fromn those very employers. For instance, the printers of Nod were, immediately after the invention 71

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. of thleir art, paid very large prices for their work.

Their books were, it is true, cheaper than manauscripts, because much less latbor wvas required per copy, but this difference was more than made uLp by the great number of copies tlley sold, so that their renlurieration largely exceeded that of the skilful manuscript copyers, whom they supplanted. There were few printers then; and these (as all.printers are even to this time) were well versed in philology and literature. They wore the dress of’ thle gentleman of their times, and were cordially received into aristocratic society. But, in the course of less thall a century, their skill became common, their numbers great, and they underbid each other for employment, till at last tlhe best of them were forced to excessive work, at a rate of wages little more tl-han enough to provide them with the meanest grade of livelihood. Nor did this stop here; for, by and by, even women an(d children learned to compete with them; and machinery (costing so much that only capitalists could own it) was invented to do their work better and faster than their sklilful fillgers could possilbly achieve. Nearly the same thing happened to thle “clerks.”

Driven from the business of copying and illuminating maiiuscripts, they learlned printing, or devoted themselves to scl-hool teachling. I have told the fate of tlhose who turnled to printing. A similar ruin befell the schoolmasters and professors. In less than - century, the learned and skilful teachers of the scienices becamne so commonoi that, wvhen any persoii or society offered a very small salary to lire one able’

professor, many presented thermselves beggi n for the employment. So it was iII every other business, art, or profession. In all of them the numbers of thle skilful miultiplied( to such an extent that there were usually more of them than leeded. Heiice, none but the skilful could get employmenlt. Every one was compelled to qtalify himnself to do sotle lkinrd of wor’k, liowever ltnumble and simple, with expl)ertlness.

Ilowever diifli 72

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. cult or fine his work, his pay was miserable. WlIeli hle could not attain skill in one avocation, he was tacitly expelled and forced to seek another less difficult or better adapted to his nature. If he failed in all to equal or nearly equal the best, he was reduced to pauperism and quasi-starvation. To a certain extent, a like selection of skill took place in the Eden of Labor; but it was in a pecutliar manlier.

It was organized and managed intelligently, not left to the irregular and distressing operation of the blind force of circumstances, or to the depressing power of a few usurpers of the exclusive ownership of the blessings God intended for all in the creation of Nature. To adjust the (1) accessions of QUANTITY, and (2) superiorities of QUALITY, produced by s,ill, to the rule of labortime price, the Supreme Patriairch, in his Economic Code, made several wise dispositions confoirmed to the fundamental principle of the Reductional Theory. Besides other classifications which I will explain anon, he established a distinction of thlings and occupations ilnto, (1) NECESSARY, (2) COMMODIOUS, (3) EXTRAVAGANT, and (4) PERNICIOUS. It was required that every industry and product of industry be classed under one of these designations or categories. The policy of the State favored the necessary, protected the convenient, p)ermnitted the extravagant, and prohibited the uernicious. I do not wisl to be understood to say that it is p)ossible to place each of the great number of things composilig the world’s wealth or the industries producing them absoltuel!I under one of these heads, by direct recognritions. These terms, necessary, commodious, extravagalit, and pernicious, are often merely comparative. A thing or business may belong to one or the other of these classes according to circumstances. WVhat is necessary may also be comnmodious. TWhat is commodious may be also extravagant, or sumptuous. What is sumptuous or luxu 7 p-3 i lw

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. rious may be also pernicious. Most thlings, however, ltave one of these fo(ur qualities more prominently marked, and should be classed according to the preponderance of one or the other of them; but there is an ecormowic test which is clear and practical, and it is precisely in an economic point of view that we have to consider the matter. Tl’lus, in deciding whether a thling should be regarded as.assi,able to one or the other of these classes ITS PRICE in relation to the price of other articles of the same use is the important element for deciding whether it should be classed as necessary, merely commnodious, or extravagant-unless by its intrinsic character it must be one of these, or even pernicious. Water is a necessary thing whatever may be the cost of procuring it, but let us look at things the classification of which, under these heads, depends upon their price. A’n example will explain this test better than an abstract stateinent of principle. For instance, a cup is a necessary article. If it be of crockery or tin, the cheapest and commonest that can be had, it cannot be classed otherwise than among necessary things. It is either that or nothing. If, by additional labor, better material, and superior art, the form and durability of an article be improved without greatly enhancing its cost, while however the common and cheaper kind is available, tlieii the improved article ought to be classed among commodious things. But you may object and’say: if the cup were made of glass it would be beautiful, while possessing all tlhe qualities of utility and convenience. Now, under what head should I place a glass goblet, considering its utility, its convenience, and its beauty? If we were merely propounding a question of taste, merely deciding upon appearances, then of course we would assign the glass goblet to the sumptuous class; but we are solving a question of political ecoinomy-v-a question of rivalry between bare usefulness and beauteous usefulness by the test of their respective labor cost. Nothing is more beautiful and sumptuous, in an * 74

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. artistic point of view, than glass; but if the beautiful glass goblet is the easiest obtained, costs the same or about the same as crockery or tin, and is equally durable, it should be classed with necessary things. If, however, all things considered, it is considerably or even markedly more costly and there be cheapeiarticles substantially as good, then I class the glass goblet among merely convenient or comrnmocious thlings. Nowv suppose a crystal goblet were artistically carved at an expense much in excess of the price of the (1) necessary or (2) commodious article. In this case, it would be (3) sumptuous or extravagant. Adoirn it with gold and jewels so as to mar its utility, convert it into a tnmere ornament, too fine to be used, and waste much money in producing the vain thiough beautiful thing, then it oughlt to be regarded as (4) pernicious a mere exhibition of the vanity of its owner, combined with loss of utility, and unproductive consumptioli of an inordinate excess of labortime. This example of a cup or goblet regarded first as necessary, next as commodious, then as extrava(,aiit or sumptuous, and finally as pernicious, is sufficient to give an’adequate id(iea of the economic. demarcatioii of the distinctions mentioned. Other palpable examples will doubtless suggest themselves to the i-eadcer. The general rule may now be stated. T}e commonest and cheapest, or only available thing answerin(g an indispensable want is (1) necessary wealth; but when the cost of niaking notably exceeds that by whlich the want may be otherwise sufficiently supplied, the thing is (2) commodious wealth; when for the sake of beauty, fineness, savor, or any other artistic motive, a cost is incurred largely dispropoitionate to utility, ttile product is (3) extravagant or sumptuous; and when there is vain waste and no. utility, or any use contrary to good morals or health, the thing and the work producing it are (4) pernicious. It is manifest that when, by new inventions of laborsaving and prolific machlinery, things previously 75

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THIE EDEN OF LABOR. sumptuous could be made so cheap as to be within the means of a commoner, they would then be reduced to the class of commodious or even of necessary articles. If the process stopped here these distinctions would( hlave been merely speculative, and of little practical use, but in the Eden of Labor they reduced the abstract principle to mnatlhemrnatical formulas applicable to all possible instances. By careful observation and exact analysis, they ascertained the proportions of cost in labor-timine that would truly determine to whichl of these four categories any product belonged. Taking in each kind of thing, the cost of the necessary one, the commonest and cheapest but substantial article, as a basis, they devised a series of proportions of extra cost according to which articles of the same kind and use were to be regarded as necessary, commodious, extravagant, or pernicious. I pass over the manifold uses of this classification ill the imrnprovement of mnorals, the happiness of society, and good legislation, to attend only to its application in assessilig THE REWARD OF SKILL. 76

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CHAPTER V. OTHER EFFECTS: FROMN SKILL, COOPERATION, ABUNDANCE, CONIMMERCE, ETC. WEV have already seen how the average labortime was ascertained and assessed for each kind and phase uf service or production, and this average was ma(de the exchangeable value of each thing. In assesing the average value in cases where skill ha(d an irnportant effect, several points had to be considere(l. (1) The skill used might only result in producingf a qitatitily of a product greater than the average, will,out a material difference of quality. In this event no estimate above the average was made in favor of skill; for it derived its just reward directly from the greater quantity placed to itscredit at the average price. (2) The skill used mighit produce the average or nearly the average quantity, but a better quality of workmanship. In this case an estimate of tihe extra labortime an average workman would find it necessary to consume in producing an equally well-executed piece was made, and this estimate was added as part of the average labortime allowed the man of skill. The products thus valued belonged of right, at the lowest, to the commodious category. (3) But sometimes the skilful workmen would produce a quantity less than the average. In this case also, lie would enjoy the advantage of the last preceding rule which mig]ht make him even, or give him more than the average per measure of product. Ileiee again the classification would be, at least, with commodious things. (4) Yet, still more ambitious to produce something beautiful or othlerwise excellent, and indeed sumptuous, the workman might devote to it an inordinate p)roportioi of labor-t.ime.

In this ease the rule of extra 7*

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. labortime would not apply; but the master-piece would be classed among sumptuous things, and its full cost in labortime be assessed as its value. (5) Then there vwas the case of the inventor of some laborsaving machine, tool. or implement. In his fivor the law allowed for a limited number o)f years the Piglht to demand from those who used his invention a royalty calculated from time to time, not by 4is own conceit and greed of gain, but by the expert of the National Patent Office, and this not with design to enrichl him, but to afford him ample indemnity for the labortime, cost of experiments, and stutdv-time used in perfecting his invention, and secure limn leisure to exercise his genius in other improvemenlts. The works of skill, it is seen, were assigned according to circumistances, sometimes in one category, sometimes in another. Thus they would be subject to a general rule, which it is now the proper time to state, and to which the attention of the reader is called.

The assessed labortime exchlangeil)le value of products classed as (1) necessary and (2) commodious, was immediately paid for by credit on the books, or by cash in the national labor notes on making tlhe delivery or consignment to the public proxy; but )roducts classed as, (3) sumptuous were not paid for or credited till an actual purchaser was foulid. The reason of the exception in this rule is manifest. The Consumption of sumptuous thiings is not in the regular course of economic business, is not within the means of those whose earnings are limited to average labortime value; it depends upon the caprice of taste or fancy, and not upon a common want. In a country like the Eden of Labor, where, from the nature of the organic plan, all enjoyed abundance, but none were disproportionately rich, sumptuous productions were beyond the reach of individuals; and only societies, communities, or coIigregations could purchase themn to adorn their public 7S

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. edifices, squares, churches, galleries, monuments, and museums. A question may lhave suggested itself: What legislation or customn did the founder of the Eden of Labor ordain or advise, with respect to workmen whose services or products, by the fault of their qtrslcitfulness, were of a quality or quantity positively infeiior to the average? Tl’he answer flows from tlhe.prinoiples already stated. Of course such laborers suffered the loss caused by their own unskilfulness; first, the loss from deficiency in quantity; second, a pro rata discount carefully calculated by reversing the rule applied to ameliorations accomplished by skill. Besides, as in the case of sumptuous things, the low-graded product was not paid for till actually purchased from the proxy. Moreover, the waste of time and materials by unskilful workmen was otherwise discouraged. They w ere admonished, lot only by their own losses and the danger of no sale, but by authority, thlat they must exert themselves to acquire the skill they lacked, or be more careful to exercise that skill if they possessed it. If’ they could not or would not do thlis, their defective goods or services were ruled out of the market, and they were thus forced to resort to some otlher industry in which they could labor in a workmanlike manner. The yearily statistics, already explained, gathered and published at the general expense, enabled every one to know wvi}ich pursuits were too numerously supplied with wvorkmien, and which were deficient ini the adequate number. Witlh exact knowledge of what was wanted one might change to an employment better suited to his taste and talent; and as in each service the best qualified hands were preferred and favored, the result of every transfer thus induced was naturally that each particular trade or subdivision of work was carried on by only the most competent; or, at least, only by those who could work up to the average. As the reward of labor was always the same, in whatever division it was done, 71,)

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. it made no pecuniary difference to any one whlether he worked at one trade or another. No one hlad an interest in there being an excessive numiber seeking employment in any specialty. Hence, the equilibration of the labor demand and supply was easy… spontaneously and with foreknowledge, the equation preceded work and production, instead of’

following dlisasters consequent upon necessitous or -reckless competition, and oppressive or ravenous monopoly. There could be no cause or motive for strikes or lock-outs under the reductiona] system. A remarkable result of the reduction of all things and services to real labor-tine value was, the irnpossibility of commlerc’ia adventures or credit speculations for the sake of’ enriching profit; and consequently also?tsTiry in all its forms and disguises. Since no man could ever get any pay or price for anything or service, beyond the average labor-tiine measlure, it is clear he could iiever have a surplus eal)ital greatly exceeding, tlhat of any other able-bodied or skilful workman. No onle ever gets rich by his own labor or skill only. Thle exceptional and considerable per-\ sonal fortunes which were seen in thle land of Nod, and which were made by managilg to get hold of prioducts under soime deceptive and( inequitable pretext or custom, were precluded. No one could inequitably appropriate a share or dividend of the labor of others, no one could wrongfully obtain an exclusive individual title to natural things. If such appropriation is prevented, and everv one is limited to what can be counted as done only b)y his individual effort, if every helper in the making of any product took his exact proportion measured by labortime, it is clear individuals would respectively have no pletlioric capital to lend or invest; none would ever have so much that its loan for usury would enrich them. IJdeed, since every body in the Eden of Labor was under the common law of the averaged labortime standard, there was, as I have previously remarked, no margin for profit; and therefore it was 80

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. vaini to think of lending or borrowing for any such selfish purpose. There was no occasion for CREIDIT except that of brotherly kindness-neighborly assistance-thle lending with hope for nothing therebyso expressly urged in the counsel which God has given.

(Luke vi. 34.) NTevertlheless, and by virtue of this very impotence of private capital as an instrumrent of private enlrichment, there was plenty for common undertakings, public improvements, industrial cooperation and help of tlhe neiglhbor. An effect of tile rapid increase of populatioi, fornom the beginning of thle Adamic Patriarchate, was that a fatlier’s house and farm d(lid not long remain large enoughl for all his sons, with their wives and children. In due course, it became necessary for these to go fiorth into a separate habitation… cultivate anlother field, or carry on another factory. During a first period, vwhen this occasion arose, the fathler, his kin, and his neighbors-in fact the whole reduction or clan who were numerically hundreds, went to work, gathered and prepared materials, erected a dwelling, with usual out-buildings for each new fanmily. At the same time they cleared the necessary ground for a single or cooperative field, or made iand put up the necessary workshops or factories for single or combined labor as the case might be. All this they give to their young relations to start tlhem in a new industrial career.

Every helper in this work had been similarly helped before, and only returned to the young a benefit he had received from the old; and every one receiving such help contracted the obligation of returning it to a number as great as those wl-ho had helped lhim. Tile number of helpers or contributors, in each instance wvas so considerable that it was a small affthir for each one, and the work was accomplished in a few days. It was a sort of frolic; and was always concluded by a grand celebration and feast. We have seen this beautiful custom revived in the “log-rollings” of tle 81

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. pioneers of America. At the opening of this country, wheniever a new settler arrived, the hardy frontiersmen spontaneously assembled in force, and joyously cooperated in building a home for the stranger on any wild lanld he chose to take. After a time, however, the sutpreme patriarchli,.considlering certain inco iveniences and derangements inherent to this method, substituted a mnore orderly and efficient one. By an equal assessment made during a few years on every mran’s earnings, a “Building and Improvement Fu ii(d ” was raised and set apart. This was used to accomplish the same results as had been realized bv the custonm I have described. Those for whom it was so used were bound to repay in small yearly or quarterly instaliments, and they did so, either in due course or by compulsions, so that after a while, the funds was colstantly replenished by restitutions, and the tax was ratably diminished till it was reduced to almost nil, the repayments being sufficienlt fori all the purposes of developing the industry of the country. When we consider that in the land of Nod (wlhere individuals appropriated the labor of others and acquired full ownership of natural wealtl-i), the capitalist made his undertakings or property repay the principal or keep it constantly reinevwed(, be.sides deriving rent, interest, or profit sufficient for his opulent support, his luxurious pleasure, and even for a constant increase of the stum of his personal wealtlh, we see that to enrich others, wagemen and tenants, in the course of tlheir life, actually paid for the mnachinery they wield(ed, and for the lhomes they rente(t, without ever becoming owners themselves. Hovw mudht easier was it then for the producers of the Eden of Labor, where there was no usury, rental, or gain, no man allowed to levy a tribute from the labor of another, to pay his share of restitution to the fund that provided him with machinery to work with and a horne to live in. The operation of this system afforded every facility for the applicatioln of the exigences and principles of 82

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. the DIVISION OF LABOR. In founding new farms and factories, the analysis of every detail of labor enabled the elders of a reduction or clan to determine their capacity, their mechanical appliances, and the number of each class of hands they should ernploy, so as to adjust each specialty of skill and the necessary ma. chines in such proportions as fully to employ each other, leave no hiatus compelling one set of.worknen or machines to wait on another, and, indeed, operate as a whole, so that rio part should be idle or overdriven, but all be continuously and harmoniously engaged. While the Reductionese had each his own separate home, they gladly cooperated externally to secure the benefits of the developments of skill, the economy and increase, a proper division of labor is knowNn to realize. The Eden of Labor carried on COMIMERCE with foreign countries. It may be asked, how could its reductionism (which was so rigorously adhered to in domestic exchaiges) be adapted to trade with nations that allowed competition, usury, monopoly, and extortion of arbitrary exchange value for natural things, to have full sway? The mention of somre of the incidents of trade with the land of Nod will answer this question. The currency of Nod was what we now-a-days call ” lard money,” silver aurd gold, which had become (from many causes too numerous to mciitionr here) the circulating medium of that country. The currency of the reductions was the labor note I have described and the purchasing power of which I lhave explained. Yet, the reductions were in a landl prodSiciig gold (Gent. ii 12), but the Reductionese never estimated gold otherwise than by the exact labortime devoted to its extraction anrid its conversion into utensils and ornaments. On the other hand, the Nodlanders sought eagerly for the metal, and readily gave for it values far greater than its own. For instance, they woutild give a ton of fine flour for an ounce of gold dust, though it took no more work to gatlher an ounce of gold than to produce an ounce 83

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. of flour. At the same time, if they offered gold for flour, oil, wool, iron, or any other product, the Reductionese would not give more than the measure of labortime embodied in the wool or iron for a weight of gold produced by the same amount of labor-titne. The samne happened wvlenever the Nodlanders offered anything thley regarded as extra valuable on account of its rarity, beauty, fineness, or flavor. Since they adjusted values by demand and supply, or the exigencies of monopoly, they could not use thleir coin and costly luxuries in trading with the Reductionese, while the latter disposed of their own gold and other products which tile Nodlanders esteemed, for great comparative quantities of necessary and substantial thilings, suchl as cloth, coal, iron, tools, cutlery, or glass. The reader now, of course, sees plainly enough that the labortime standard of exchange, and the reductional labor-note, by their necessarly operation, presented insuperable impediments to thie production and sale of COSTLY LUXURIES intended for tDrivate consumption. WVith his real, personal earnings, by the equal labor measure, no man could acquire the mleans of indulging frequently in extrav,agant aind vanitous articles or revelry. For instance, a mnat who earned only three hundred days of equal labortime per annum, as every one did in the Eden of Labor, and who had to pay by the salte measure of value for his clothling, shelter, food, and so forth, could not often have the means of paying for anything into which one or more vears of labor-timre heed been ah)sorbecd, such as a piece of blonde lace, a mosaic table, a panel of Goblins tapestry, or a set of Sevres porcelain. On the other hand, most of the lab)or-tiire which, in the land of Nod, was wasted on sumrptuousness and every other costly pleasure, was saved in the Eden of Labor for better purp)oses. The Reductionese necessarily refrained from akin g tl-he excessively file, dearly orlatnented, atnd temptinlg but pernicious 84

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TIlE EDFEN OF LABOIl. tlhings coisumed only by inordinately rich peoplefor tlhere was no such class of mrnen in tlhe country. Nearly all the population were einployed in hellping to produce the s?ubstantical a(l beauztiful, BUT CHEAP, tlillngs consumed by commoners generally. Tlhis caused an enormous difference between the populai’ wealthl anrd well-being of the Eden of Labor and the la’nd of Nod. In thle latter, millio()lls of men Were lkept tt hard work manufatcturing silks, equipages, tapestries, plate, laces, artificial flowers, sculptures, and otliei luxuries destined for the private enjoymelit of the rich, and wllich the rich oinly could afford. ]3esides this, hundreds of thousands wei’e engaged in pernicious works - manufacturing intoxicating liquors, raising and prepariing tobacco, m(akilg cards and dice, and keeping gamblilg hells, an(d pursuing, -manly other avocations of eveii greater iifitmy. Then, with threse, there was a large proportion driven to idle pauperism by the monopolizing systein itself. On the other hand, under the rule of Reductionism, every iman worked for what was useful and pleasurable, and (tvcail’(ble to /ll, but not for allything perniCo()us. The grand consequence of this directioii of all lalbor to that which was good for the masses-this imrnense turning of labor from costly and pernicious to necessary au(d commnodious products and service, was ABUNDANCE of all colmmrodities and pleasures that were honestly ldesirabl)e. The whole p)eople lived iIi comfort; nay, iuore, they enjoyed anI overflow of temporal blessings, a great plenty of the best fruits of the earth and( of the good things f’-tbricated by skilful hands and ilngenious machlineliy.

r’lie inhabitants of this land of equitv and brotherhoodc, by tlheir diligence and thrift, brought forth and eiijoycd excellent and ample shelter, food, raiment, fuel, tools, and intellectual objects. Their country w-as thickly dotted with fair and substattial dwellili(gs-also wNarelouses, factories, alld mills-temnples, ilil( otller lublic edifices-frs, i ines,,n(l wvooded 85 8

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. mountains, towns and villages, roads and canals. They had profusion of grain and fruit, oil and vegetables, fish and flesh, cattle and poultry, milk, eggs, and honey. They made as much as each and all could consume of durable and beautiful stuffs for clothing-woollens, cottons, linens, silkls, shloes, and hats, in every needed variety within the nmeans of labortime fortunes. They supplied themselyes with wood and coal without stint. They possessed all manner of ingenious tools, implements, and machinery-also vessels, vehicles, and beasts of l)urden, for saving labor and doing perfect work designed for general advantage, at labortime prices. Their horses were made more comfortable and agreeable by every convenient and neat article of furniture and ornament-carpets, bedding, and curtains-utensils and plate-well-provided pantries, larders, and kitchens. Finally, they had full measure of private libraries and studios, public museums and galleries, stored with good books, paintings, sculptures, musical instruments, specimens, models, and other results of science, fine art, and literature; and, besides this, they all, without exception, had leisure to derive the real benefits and pure pleasures such things afford. Be it, howvever, noted here, this immense and delightful prosperity was on one condition: “Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness; and all these thilings will be added unto you.” (Matt. vi.

33; Luke xii. 31.) Be it also noted that so long as they fulfilled this condition no set or clique ariong them had or could have those invidious and disproportionate vanities, enjoyments, fineries, delicacies, equipages, adornments, and other sumnptuosities which a favored and distinct few, in other countries, under the sanctioni of uncharitable institutions and laws, succeed in drawing to their selfish selves alone.

Another consequence of Reductionism was the PROGRESS OF THE ARTS entirely towards this inexpensive 2)rodiction: not to things and enjoyments which 86

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. only exorbitant arid inequitable fortunes could compass; but those that the full and honest portion of labor could properly acquire. As costly luxuries were precluded, cheap ones were invented or discovered. What was accomplished in this line by true science and ingenuity was wonderful. Object! uniting beauty and utility-amusements and recreations displaying admirable asthetical taste were broughlt within the reach of every person. Govern ment assisted this tendency to the combination of artistic excellence and adornment with economy and cheapness. Experiments were made at public expense. Associations contributed to them. Thus ways were opened by which works previously too, costly to be advantageously undertaken were made to gratify the tastes of laborers who earned only, but fully, their just compensation. The course of indulstry and genius was always and intentionally pointed in the direction of the best place, the best workers, thle best kind, tIle greatest quantity, and the least cost in labortime. Works of art were copied and multiplied by tens of thousands, and executed with constant approaclhes to perfection; but I have no space for details of the admirable results. Tile one condition of average labortime being strictly complied with, it was all the better that laborsaving machinery was invented-that any number of new commnodities were producecld, that population increased-because such progress and multiplication wero of equal benefit to every person-an immediate and direct gain and blessing to all. There were more luxuries and more rest for every individual. A last result remains to be stated before I close this chapter. The concert of so many hands and of all machinery, the cooperation of the entire population-men, wvomern, and children, and of every force or device that could make labor most prolific-to the grand alld sole purpose of evolving only such wealth and corisuli-able values as every industrious man 87

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TtIlE E.fIDEN OF L,ABOR. could afford to procure, resulted in the mnaking of such extraordinary quantities of this character and kind, that it was soon perceived a great REDUCTION OF THE LEN~GTII OF A LAWFUL ])AY’S LABOR
was not only possib)le but necessary. As every man la,d to eat his bread b)y tlle sweat of his flice, aindc as by every one of tlierl doing six hours’ work perl (ay a great excess was l)rouglt forth of wlhatsoever (ould( satisfy the reasonable wants and gratify’the equitable desires of every mnember of society, the Supreme Patriarch from time to time issued his proclamatioin reducing the lawful day’s labor first to five and then to four hours. This was the inherent effect of the system. While art continually brought new luxuries within the reacli of all at very insignificant cost, it s,) multiplied production of this nature, that it exceeded consumption, so that the people could produce in four hours not only as much as they did before in six hours, but also within that time all the othlieri commodities they had recently succeeded in cheaply producing. At the same time, as lhere was no inducement or market for work or articles absoibilg longt measures of labortime, it followed inevitably that the labor of pro(ducing the maximuri of all necessaries, comforts, and luxuries, must be equally divided among those who were to have their l)ortioll of this production. Since there was abundance for all by five hours’ work instead of six, and since there were 1io monopolists of natural things to force the masses to competition and pauperism, since there were none interested to compel others by starvation to enter the miserable se)-vice of vanity and excesses, the effect was that the Reductionese, to a man, gladly assented to nay, liailed as a triumph, the dirlin)utioll of their respective toil as a blessing. It deprived no one of anythling, but added to rest, recreation, and leisure to acquire knowledge-contemrnplate and study the Divinity in His wvorks, and vworshlip His gloly anid beneficence. It was easy in each instance to fisdl tIhe proper quantulrn of the (dimrninution. since all prod(luc 88

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. tion was measured by its labortime, the aggregate of the excess of production over consumption, gave, in the proportion of population to a day’s labortime, the exact number of hours or minutes of the necessary diminution. How different in effect is this system from that which brings about strikes and lock-outs, accompanied by the destitution and ruin we Ilear of now-a-days. Need I say how happy a pe,ple were who had so much leisure to improve their minds, make progress in true science and beneficent art, and who were free to enjoy their Sabbaths in rest and peace? In future chapters I will give account of many details, I have onmitted in this preliminary sketch; and shall tell the history of the corrupt and iniquitous institutions of the land of Nod(l, the conquest and enslavement of the Eden of Labor by the Nodlanders; and trace the causes of the universal sinfulness that provoked the angelr of God to inflict the all-destroying Deluge. Formzula of the Red?uczionese Currency. THiE EDEN

OF LABOR commands the Public Proxy of the Reduction of Havilah to deliver to bearer, on demand, products of industry of the value of FIVE HOURS
average labor time. according to the Tariff of prices current at the date hereof. Ia, 72d of Fifth Month, A. M. 450. IDDO JOEZER, Accountant. 8* i i i I I i I 89 Accepted by ZEBADIAH, pub. proxy. ,I 

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CHAPTER VtI. PERSONAL SERVICE AND ITS REWARD. BUT, before I pass on, I slhould reverC to a’particular element or feature of’ the economic system of tlhe Eden of Labor, which, to avoid co-ilplexity, I lhave merely mentioned incidentally, andi the special -characteristics of which I left to implication. It is the principle which should d(letermine the compensation due to such personal services as were no! embodied, by wveilght and measure, in pro(Liucts of industry. The services, for example, of domestic servants or of scientific and artistic educators essentially conltributte to the mrnaking of products; but they do not itftiibly take part in manufatcturing (or constituting the material form of thl-ose products. Such services are collateral or remiiote; but nevertlheless tlhey are positive. Tlhis is a iiiatter of I)rimary imnportanlce; for it is necessarily a factor ii tlhe labortime value of products. ImIlne(liately after tlhe expulsion, Adamn, with hopeful Eve by his side, applied himself to cultivating, tlhe brier. grown ard rebellious soil. VWlile, withl loose s4tones and bougls, lie construcleted a teinporary hlut-whNlile he built the first little furnace, extracted and smelted the smiaill qualitity of ore, inter-llanmmered and hardened the few pounds oft iron vwhich lie needed to make the first knife, axe, hlatchlet, draw-kifte, adlze, saw, pot, needle, and ilails-wvlhile hlie went on to faslhion tlle first spade aLld plough, rake alud hoe vwhile he cleared, dtug, alid ploughed a few acres of grotund, and planted corll anid vegetables, and while he was also occasionally slaughtering and flaying a lamb, Eve was occuplied in vwatcelling and lhelding the few sheep they possse(ssel, cooking

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. the food, currying and softeiling thle skins, sewilng the skins to,etler for railment, bringing watter in a large gourd irom the spring, cleaning the house, nlaking up the bed, and mending the clotlhes.

Nee(l I mentioii the solicitude and care of these two for eacli other’s comfort and hlealtlh-tlte melodioubs hymns of praise they sang while they beat musical measure on their sw-eet-sounding cymbals-tlieirtoi versation in wvhichl they rehearsed the moral anld re ligious lessons they had learned from the angels, and thus rel)ewed thle life of tlheir souls?

Wlhat I wish the reader to note is, that a portion of the work thley each performed wvas not directly embodied int the commodities of obl-)jects thley produced. Observe that wvien one of’ themn was, during sick ness, nursed by the otlier when Eve swept tlhe house, when Adam defended lher against wild’beasts -the titne and eftort were not even transienrtly d(epos ited in any intermediate object wherein its quanitita tive )ro(ltct nmight have been weighed or measured, but was absorbed directly by the metaphysical as well as physical person to whom the service was rendered.

Observe also tiat iwhenr tlheir respective labor coul( be Imeasured objectively iu a product ma(le for COnlsutmption, there was always a part due to tlle collateral service of tlhe other, tlhough not quanltitatively aid mttnually embodied therein. True, Adamr’s hand alone cultivated and gathered the yearly crop) of corn; but he calculated that it was several times -larger tlian it would have been had he been obliged to interrupt the cultivation to prepare his food, atid to do thle other desultory and lighter work performe(l l)y Eve. True, Eve’s hand alone picked wild fruit fromn the neighboring trees or carried water from the Sl) rilg, but in this and in every other respect she f(c!t that she was unable to make sufficient provision for herself, and that she was able to give tile necessary time to her special avocations, be(,cause A(lam’s time 91

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. was fully and uninterruptedly devoted to his appropriate functions. Observe, moreover, that the final cause, the last term, thefocus of all their labor, in every particular, whether direct, collateral, or through cotnmodities, was the physical and spiritual sustenance, developmnent, and renewal of themselves. They mutually furnished products and rendered seryices-to this end; and all the labortime expended by one on or for the other was returned by that other.

It was reabsorbed by the person from whence it camne; and there fulfilled the ultimate purpose for which it was originally put forth. Therefore, they were mutual helpets; an(d each was entitled to a share of labortime represented, if not specially embodied, in the manual products made by the other. By and by children were born unto them, and a series of new conditions in the economny of society presented themselves. The conditions were: firstly, the necessity of providing, with all kinds of subsistellce, helpless persons who could make no irmmediate return-give nothing in exchange for what they received; and, secondly, the necessity of expending labortime in education-that is to say, in sowilig and cultivating knowledge and virtue in the minds of their children. Thus, then, a new function or work was added to the mnany A’dam and Eve were already performing; but, far from being irksome to them, it was their greatest delight. Before the birth of a child the spouses were doubly one. Now they were trip]y one. Previous to having children they were themselves the focus, the objective aim of every labor they performed; and now, with children, the selfobject was not changed; for it was only enlarged. They regarded the children as parts or members of themnselves. Their offspring were, as popular parlance expresses it to this day, their own flesh and blood. 92

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T[IE EDEN OF LABo)R. As tlhe childreni grewv up, the unerring foresight of Adarn saw what was necessary to prepare them for ,socie(?y; and for that inevitable consequence of social membership, the Division of Labor. Hence, hie diligently taught them tle divine precepts-impressed tlhem withll his ftaith-exhorted them to religious obe. d(lience-an(d trained each of tlhem to excel in a distinet branch of ind,ustry. As soon as Cain could pull up a weed, his father took hirn into the field and gave him practical instruction in every phlase and operation of agriculture, till lie became an adept. As soon as Abel could run as fast as a lamb, his mother brought him with her to help in shlepherding, the flock, and taught him all tlhe means of controlling them-also how to shear, slaughiter, and flay them preserve orI tan their skins. In due time he attained a complete proficiency. The same course was pursued with every son and( dauglhter.

Each was brought up and trained in a il)ecial department of labor; so tlhat, when thley were glown, the wolrk formerly performed by the fatl-er alone for all thle once helpless members of tlhe family, was now divided among them, aecordinii,, to thleir functions and tlhe specialties of tlheir skill. The family was, nevertheless, thle sanme unit; and provided for itself as a unzit, by a multitude of hands and a variety of labor all working in harmony to accomplish a common purpose. This was the’primnary stage of society. With it the polytechnic labors of Adam ceased, and the ei’a of thle division of labor commenced. By a necessary evolution, or the force of circumrnstances, A(ldamr’s titne was now consumed ill tlhe performance of his duties as instructor, lawNgiver, priest, and director of the numerous community lhis family now formed. His ditties became mnore and more arduous as pop)u-‘ la(tion and specializations of labor became more and more numerous. It was at last requisite that he should appoint subordinate assistants, a hierarchy of lhelp, and goveritiie,it was organized. 9.3 i

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. His sons with their children went out from the original trunk, as branches from a tree or vine. They formed new and plainly distinguishable famnilies; but their dependence on the original stem, or rather on the whole body, continued to be, for a long time, directly manifest. Each family was engaged in a particular work which produced only one or a few tilings l)rolper for its existence. Their wvorks or products, regarde(d severally and without exchange would ltave been fragmentary, inconsequent, and( inadequate; but, re,garded in their seriation, it was plainly apparent that they formed a wvell-arranged and wellrnanceuvred industrial army. It was still distinctly nanifest that individuals, lHowever different their persons and occupations, were only parts of olne oirganic body. This their great father assiduously pointed out to them. He took every occasion to teach them, in various forms of words, the truth which was afterwards lost and remained in oblivion for ages, but wvlich our Lord Jesus Chlrist revived and reordaiined, that they were one body having many members, aid that thoughl the members had differe nt offices they were all members of one another, economically as well as spiritually, that though, or rather because each, a different individuality and ability, rendered a different service, or furnished a different product, it wNas itself essential to the whole, helpless by itself’ suffered from the sufferings of each of tlhe others, and colnmuniicated its own pains to all the rest. ANThen population had increased to tens and hundreds of mnillioniis, and mankind had formned itself into apparently disconnected communities, tribes, and nations, and when in the great complication, division and subdivision of specialities, there was danger that workmen, traders, and professors might nmore easily lose sighlt of the all-comprising orgasmic unitT, the supreme patriarch would( redouble lis efyorts to (issemiinate his principles, and imbue the people with their truth and ilnportance. 94

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. I imagine one of his discourses milght have been epitomized as f’ollows: My children: When your mother and myself were sent out of Paradise, God left our persons in possession of two natures, one physical, the other metaphysical. T’he one consisted of bodily strength, the other of intellectual and moral will. These we ap-‘ plied to accomplish our labor; and the product of that labor we apt)lied to the renovation of’our physical and metaphysical person. We were two in(divi(duals, each having this dual nature, but the two individuals were naturally one person. By generationi, this doubly dual person, dual in attribute and dual in body, was multiplied. By the birth of children, it became physically triple; and then by the formation of families, millions of similar triplicate units arose; but, in the same manner as we were one economically and morally,- they all still constituted, with uLs, the same personal or corporate unit we were before they were born. Labor was apportioned amrong you-divided into a great variety of operations, each of which was assigned to a person, grout)p, company, or series of individuals; but this was really a marshalling a(nd concert of particularized industry, to make it more efficient, and to augment the quantity as well as improve the quality of its fruits. The more labor was divided into separate and single operations, the greater was the mass of products from the sum total of effort; but the division was never designed to enable one person or occupation to appropriate more than its labor-tine reward from the common and aggregate product. It was for the good of each and all. It was possible only by concert and cooperation, and its increase of fruit was justly divisible only in copartnership. The cause of all labor is the production of things fit for the preservation, the renewal, the development of life. Man spends his strength, mind, and life in procuriIlg things which he consumes in order to sup 95

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. port, cu]tivate, and reproduce that samre streingth, mnind, and life. They are himself; anrd hence his work is all for the coltinuous reproduction of himself-not of his animal body only, but his body and soul. In him-through the procurement(b)y physical and metaphysical effort) of food, clothing, fuel,,slielter, science, and virtue, for himself-his labor terv)i?(ates.‘l’his is the focus to which all thle reflectors and rays of lal)or converge. No matter how complex the arrangement, the multiplicity and divisions of functions and tasks-nio matter how disconnected frown the p odlction of sornletllillg fit to sustain and replenish strength, mind, anud life, the work of any ilidividual may seem, it is really done for this purpose.‘Thle studies and researches of the plilosophier, the machines of the iliventor, the various and ,complex appliances of art, the administration of tlhe laws, wvorship and obedience to God, the teachings and admoniitions of religion, the organization of society itself’, the gratification of the senses by corinforts, luxuries, and pleasures, aie auxiliaries to the great sumrn of material production of whichll every miali must have a share in order that hle lmay live and learn now and forever. ,Vlhoever labors, labors for thlis; for, ttloughl he may misapply his strength and intellect, mistake evil Jor good, his design is always to attain what he tlhinks is good; and evein tl-he worst man, he who neglects spiritua.l, moral, -and intellectual life to workl onlly for material life, thinks his folly is wisdom, his selfisllhness justice-tllinks he is really replenishiliI his rational and sthletical nature. IJinder a wicked delusion, lie mnistakes aberration and declension for pro,griess. It, on the contrary, a man rises above sordid n-iateriality, and labors not only for tlhe continuance of physical lif’e, but also for that whichl is conlucive to esthetic anud religious life, le does so with the sanie conviction that lie is seeking the supreine goo(l. ie regards body aild mind as inter(cle)ei(leiit the vigor of ollne as p-,rticipati g, iii the 96

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. vigor of the otller. They are both himself, aind he works for both as one, and as constituting tlhat one person he knows ais himself. It is by providing for both these natures that lie perpettlites lhimself integrally in this vwoild(. If lie ileglects either, both are deteriorated. If he talkes care of physical vigor only, hlissellsual comforts or pleasures maybe minltiplied for a time, but }le gr,adually sinks into iginorance and vice, loses thle science, in(ltustry, morality and religioni which p)reviously enabled him to devise and realize, inl a pirudent and constant manner, even material good-loses self-control, ruslhes into absuridity and abuse, is disappointed, curses God, and dies.

Let it not, tlieiefore, be imagtoined that the reductional s\ystei-a discouirages or proposes to hinder the cultivatioln of the fine arts, the demands of minen for recreation tiand airnuseiiient, the progress of true science. On the colntrary, it embraces the tru]e and beautiful -s equal in iimportance to the good, TIE: COM.MOD1)IOUS AND SUMIPTUOUS, wlenll procuLre(d witlIh’lit inequitable app)l)opriatioii, as legitimately desirab)le as tlhat lwhichll is’ibsolutely NECESSARY. Heuce \ce have in the Eden of Labor great numrbers e,gagce(d ill occupations, works, and professions of almost every kiind carrie(l on in Nodland. Olly those thl-at exto’rt usury, profit, or rent beyond labor-tithe service, do not exist in this country; for they are impossible under our economic svstemr; but we have all the wonderfully mnailit’old alid (comrnplex specializations of tra(les and( avocattions proper in a country whlere virtuec reigns supremne, and vwhiere the higllest and finest aspiratiols of hum-nan nature aire promoted. Wee iieglect no art or meaiis of enlarg,ing, mnultiplyin(g, ailc feicilitating) the liappiiiess of mankitd.

It would be too Iniute aii(i leiigtihy to rmeiitioii all tle specialties whichi economy, taste, and geliuls have ijvented or iiduced; lbut we may define the classes into wvlich tlhey are divided by ttie principles of’

the Reductional System. Besides other viewvs, lal)or may be exanieiid uIlndlC 9 97

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THlE EDEN OF LABOR. three aspects, and these aspects may be considered distinctively or together. We may study labor wittl special regard to (1) the Laborer, or (2) the Product, or (3) the Final Cause. We may study all three simultaneously as indivisible. This combined view enables us to make the following classificationl or division of the whole matter: 1. There are labors applie(l to the production of tangible articles and commodities intended foe iraroe&i(te sate an(l co?s?2~tptiot. On the completion and delivery of the product, the workman, in this case, immediately receives his reward, in avertage labortime curre)cy, from the purchaser, who, by consuming the product, is preserved and invigorated. Ex. gr., a farmrer produces some vegetable, and sells it to a mechanic, who eats it, and is thereby nourished. 2. There are labors applied to the pro(iuction of things not only tangible, but durable or permanent; such as furniture, buildings, etc., not intended for iimmediate or rapid consunmption, but which the laborer makes and delivers new to others for their use or enljoyment in furtherance or revival of their material, -esthetical, or spiritual life, or of all of these three together. This case is that of a laborer niaking,, a new or origiiial product, the conisumrnptioii of whicli is to be gradual and slow. Sucli a product may be iminediattely appraised as a totality or entire thiu,g, according to the labor tinme embodied in it; and be )aid for aIs such in the same manner as a commodity made, sold, and delivered for immediate consunlptioOi. Thle theiy here, as in the preceding case, presents iir itself all the elements of its original value, and nothing else. IJence it belongs entirely to tlhe makers, who mav retain it as absolutely and wholly their own, until they are paid all the labortime value it enrbodies. 3. But there are labors applied to ohct thiags, already paid for, and belonging to some single natural person who employs the laborer to repair them, or add somet}illg to t}iemi. Ea. gjr, the laborer who 98

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. repairs buildings, mends tools, or washes and irons clothes belonging to another, who retains and continues to use and gradually consume them. In such a case it is hardly ever possible to estimate the reward due to the laborer by the proportionate or absolute increase of the value of the object on which the work lhas been done.

Suppose, for instance, a carpenter goes over the leaky roof of an old house, puts ill I shingle here and a shingle there, and makes the roof perfectly tight, it would be generally impracticable to measure his labortime bv examtnining the roof itself; and therefore the reward of his labor, for want of a better means of estimate, must be the acttal labortime devoted to the work, and be paid out of the owvner’s )roIoportional share of the sum-total of products. 4. There are labors which are applied, lilie the preceding, to the maintenance and repair of old things, but with the difference that tl-he things beloug to and are being used by several o0’ naicny gdi-ivate or cond)os ate ownziers. Ex.

go., laborers who repair theatres, club houses, chlurches, or other things belonging to societies, companies, etc. In this instance also, the reward must be according to the actua(l labortime, without regard to the value of the thing on which the work is done, but with due regard to the laborer’s title to at proportionate part of the owner’s share in the sum total of production. 5. There are labors which are applied to the repair of p).blic thinzgs, such things as it is the faculty and function of a community or government to provide and maintain. Ex. gr, the labor of those who repair public roads, bridges, sewers, court-houses, prisons, etc. Here again only the actcual labortime compared with the sum total production must be the measure of reward. 6. Tiiere is labor whicll is (Ii’eetly applied to the physical nature of some one person distieictly from every other person. Ex. yr., the labor of a nurse, a barber, a doctor, etc. 99

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. 7. There is labor which is digectly applied to the I)nysical invigoration of several persons at a time. Fx. g., hlospital-nurses, house-keepers in orphanages, hotel servants, etc. 8.

There is labor which is applied d(lirectly, inl each instalce, to the etaphsical ature soe prof so il distinctly from all other persons. Ex.

gr., the lesson of a private teachler of vocal or instruinental music, the private lesson of any artist or professor, etc. 9. There is labor which is applied drectly to the invigoration and revivll of the mnetal)hysical zatutre of seve-alor many persons at a time. Ex. gi., t}e labor of schlool-masters, actois, lecturers, etc. 10. Thlere is labor whlich is applied to the moral, aesthletical and intellectual nature of the body politic or >)zUblic order. Ex. gi-., the labor of legislators, magistrates, etc. For these categories, except the first and second, the rule of reward should be this: As the total iiumber of all kinds of laborers is to thl-e total numnber of collateral helpers, so is the total labor-timre of all kinds of laborers to tlhe total share of labortime (due to the collateral helpers out of tlle sum of products, which total share should be distributed pro rata amol,ig the individuals of the class, according to tlhe actual labortime of each. Let me explain. It you study these divisions you will see they may be reduced -in several ways, so that the whole matter would be embraced in a less number of parts. III one view, labor is applied, (1) through/ proutcts, to tlte ultimiate purpose of all labor, the’ preservation and renewal of persons in both thleir physical and mretaphysical iiatures, or (2) withovit azio i(ter ieliary, to the samne end. In anlotller view labor is applied, (1) to make qzeu’

things, (2) to repair old things, (3) to render direct help or service to p)ersons physically, (4) to rendei-direct help or service to l)eIsoIs metaphlysically, tlhat is to say, to directly addi-ess tlheir ratiolial, lorall, estlietic,l, or spiritual natuLre. 100

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TIlE EDEN OF LABO)R. When labor is applied to thlings, the actionl passes tlr()uglI v,arious and devious channels, is carried by (liftirent vehicles from one cross road to another, is triansferred from one object or envelop to another, is transfornmed in various ways (the process or course being sometimes very complex and crooked), till, irn the form of a product fit for human life, it is consumed by one person or maiiy, and realizes its approprilate effect, the special efficiency of its nature and quality, whether beneficial or injurious in the body and soul of the consumer. It often hapl-)pens that labor is eml,odied in plhysical things specially designed to be mere vehicles or instrumrents of a metaphysical effect.

Books, engravings, newspapers, wood-cuts, paintings, statuary, music-books, clocks, watchles, jewelry, toys, artificial flowers, equipages, chess-meli, cards, and other gaming utensils, orn’aments of all kinds, theatres, schl-oolhouses, colleges, museums, eonservatories, observatories, aqtuariunlls, scientific apparatus and collections, churches, the printer’s type and presses, the sculptor’s chisels, thle painter’s colors and brushes, the rmusician’s instruments, the actor’s or masquerader’s d(lisguise, the naturalist’s specimens, the authlor’s pen, all these, and many other physical thiings, are made for and consumed by the mnetaphysical nature of man. Nevertheless, since they are tangible, their estlicetical and rationalistic effect, whether for good or for evil, does not prevent them from being directly measured or estimated in labortime currencv. In thlis respect they are like commodities or media made specially for plhysical life. They present in a material fornm the sp)ecific data by wlhicll the appraiser may reckon the exact quantity of labor-tirne necessary to make them. WV hen labor is applied to person,s, the action is, in many cases, simple and the transfer immediate-the help or service is absorbed physically or metaphysically-, without the intervention of media, by a single person or many; and it strengthens or vivifies, 9i 101

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THE EDEN OF I,ABOR. weakens or perverts the two natures of the one or many by whom it is absorbed. These services require little or no intervention of commnodities or instrulients. They consist, as it were, in the direct consumptntion, by one man, of the strength and intellect of another. Such are the doctor’s prescriptions, the latwyerI’s pleading, the schoolmaster or lecturer’s instructions, the preaclher’s sermons, the nurse’s care, the servalut’s daily lhousework, the washer and irolner’s renovations, the actoi’s performance, the niusician’s colcert, the watclrman’s rounds, the soldier’s guard, tie judige’s trial of causes, the governor’s administration, and many other labors and services whiclh are not applied to or mierged iii a merchanltable object-not conveyed in the substaice,and( fori of an appraisable thing, but are trlansferred imrne(liately from person to person. Those who, without producing a tangible object, disseminate knowle(dge and inculcate virtue, those who relieve the produceri-firom desultory cares that wvould cause interruption and delay-those who minister to li-ormal amusement and relaxation-those who take care of the toiler’s person or the persons of his children, or protect his liberty and property, or restore and preserve his health -really help to mnakle the commodities or articles the producer pro. duces. They contribute to procure him the health, the strength, the willingiess, the constanlcy, the intelligence, And the time necessary to the pursuit of his labors diligently, continuously, and advantageously.

Thoutgll the q?Uctnt?m7)2 of assistance they contribute is not measurable and appreciable ien the weight, volume, or elements of the comiodities and other material objects, that quantum is really there. A part of the latbor-time embodied, and couited( for the ostensible mitker or repairer, is due to the collateral helper. Th)ere is on every Ijaterial pro(luct a claim which the collateral helpers ninay riglltl’lly assert. TI’he products must, thlerefore, pay back their labor, however indiriect it may be. Tlie helpers must have a 102

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. quantum of the products or die. We know that education, discipline, practice, devotion to duty, confidence in social protection and justice, hope of equitable reward founded on the hoiiesty of fellow creatures, are prerequisites and concoinitants of material production, and have stamnped their seal upon it; ianci alas! we know also that these prerequisites and concomitants are not adduced or put forth spontaneously, but are the fruits of thle labor-titne of persons whlose vocation it has been to impart them to itidividitals and society. This, then, is the cycle of all labor. It is put forth by the bodies and souls-by the physical, intellectual, moral, and religious natures of the laborersand sent tlhrough manay intricate channels of circulatioin and process, exchlange and distribution, help and cooperation, directly and collaterly, to be integrally reabsorbed by the laborers themselves. Thus newV I)owver to labor is created; a-nd labor is again put forth to be agatin reabsorbed; and so on it moves, ad i.ifinittum, inii a circular series of evolutions. In this respect it obeys the law of the correlation of forces. The physical and metaphysical natures of mnan al’e the colaborers and copartakers of the fruitful effoirt and return. The hand and the heart-the belly and members-the senses and mind-the flesh and spirit of all laborers, whatever special work each of them may do, are copartners; and each furnisher of these forces of body br soul, is entitled to a full, but not uniequal, resloation of what ihe has expended in labor time for others. By colnsuming the production of one term of labor man is preserved and invigorated-acquires new strength and life, and is thereby enabled to aecomplisli another course of )produc(;tiolti. It is hIe, himself, properly speaking, who, as the final term oft’ industry, is reproduced; and not the thitigs lie cultivates o1r makes. The latter, in the economic schemrne, are reproduced incidentally to the reproduction of the person of the laborer. While lie works hlie is destroying 103

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. previous produticts-his collateral and general assistauts do so likewise; and from this destruction thev derive the forces which enable them to carry on their work. When the product is made and finishedstands forth comnplete-it is only at a stage or term of its t-raisit it, itself, is not the filnal cause (4’ its beiing mad(le-it was so made only to be absorbed in maii-it is still only a potentiality or possibilityand attains its end only when, by consumption, it has been, as it were, transmuted and transformed into the forces constituting human life. All the forces of productionI and reproduction, material and spiritual, principal and auxiliary, concentrate in the form, attributes, and nature of’ man. Hence a man owes to others all he consumes of the labor of others-no less, no more. If he returns thlis he is entitled to acquittance. Till he does so, le is a debtor. If he takes, wastes, and does not restore, he is a defaulter. If he takes increase from him who makes full restoration in labor-timrne value-for example, exacts more than unit for unit, borrowed money for borrowed money he takes more than his due-is guilty of usury; for his due is only thle labortime ihe has expended on others. The assessment of the reward due to those whose labor is immediately embodied in merchantable things has been fully explained, and presents little or no difficulty; but the practicability of appraising and paying, (1) the repairs done on the not-to-be sold property of others, or of the public, (2) the collateral or direct help or service rendered by one person to’ tlhe person of another, or to the social body, is not so obvious. The political oconomists of Nodland, the sons of Cain, would answer the difficulty I suggest by the words capital, labor-fund, rent, profit, usury, and hire. Beginning at the final results of their iniquitous system, they would show the fact that there are classes of men who have the private ownership of, and derive income from, nearly all the mnoney and 104

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. property ill the worl(l-that the revenues of these fortunates are sufficient to pay wages to wxorkmnen who make repairs, wages to artists who minister to luxury, wages to servants and educators who refresh the bodv and mind; and that still there is a surplus left for the appropriators of that surplus to make new investments and gather new remainders. They would shiow how a class appropriates all tlhe benefits of the division of labor; and thlat the wa-e class, tlhe real producers, repairers, helpers, co-operators, had iothing, 110no surplus, whlich they could call their own; and(l hence need not trouble themselves about providing the cost of renovating property and mind, should not think of anything but performing their daily task of servitude. But this answer is not possible in the Eden of IL,abor, where such lions cannot seize upon, anad divide as they please, thie fruit of the labor of others. In the Eden of Labor no one appropriates more than thle fruits of his own labortime, and his proper pro)portion of the benefits of the division of labor. For instance, no one appropriates all the-benefits of a laborsaving imachine, but all those who work with it are entitled to a justly appraised share of the increatsed( product it enables tlhemn to make. If it is a spiiiiing-wtleel, a plotugh, or a sewing machine, worked by onie for limself, lie gets all the ilncrease(d product it gives; but, if a miill or farm worked( by many, they divide equitably the saving or increase it bestows. In the Eden of Labor llo one can afford to pay wages; for no one can get more than what is due for his own 1)2’o ratc of labortime. Hence there can be no exceptiollal private accumulation of capital for I)uildilig, and repairs, no private appropriators to determine and distribute the pay of artists, educators, domestics, nurses, and other direct servitors of persons. Hence the reductional system requires:  1.

That, as already explained in previous d(liscourse, careful statistics should show the sum total 105

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. of absolute labor-timne consumed by the ostensible mnaker, of all new products, and of labortime left in old products put upon the market by their private owners for integral conversion into money. 2. That, on the other hand, careful statistics, embracing the whole people, should show the items and sum total cf labortime consumed, (1) in repairing paid products undrcergoing the process of personal or social consumption; and (2) in rendering direct personal service to persons, societies, or the State. 3. That in valuing every product put upon the market for integral conversion into money, the experts should, firstly, ascertain the absolute and ostensible labor-timne embodied iii them; secondly, should thereunto ADD a p?o rata of the total labortime of the repairers of things and helpers of persons. 4. That the price of each product put upon the market should represent both the ostensible average labortime and a due proportion of the collateral labor-timrne of all classes of repairers of’ things, servitors of persons, and servitors of the body politic, so that, for example, if the ostensible labor-tirie of the maker of any one thing is five hours and the proportion of the collateral labortime of repairers and servitors is th-ee hours, then eight hours should be the market price of that thing. 5. That tile share of the price accruing to the ostensible makers or owners should be credited to their individual accounts, respectively. 6. That the proportioli accruing to collateral labortime should be credited to a general fund; and that this should be apportioned according to the statistics among the Reductions, Clandoins, Tribedoms, Kindoms, anrid Patriarchldoms, to be distributed to the repairers of things, servitors of persois and servitors of the body politic, respectively and individually, according to the actual labortime of the service of eLtch of them. 7.

That, besides this, the Reduction, Clandom, Tribedoin, Kindom, or Patriarchdoin, in order to pay 106

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. for the ]al)or of newv works needed for tile common use or body politic, should have a TAX FUND levied proportionally on the sums credited to the accounts of both categories, viz., of ostensible producers and collateral producers, according to the labortime credited to each person. t. That a Patriarchdom, Kindomrn, Tribedom,Clan dom, or Reduction should pay for things furnished it, or repairs done fori it, or personal service rendered it, by warrants drawn on its general fund or its spe cial tax fund, accoiding to the a(.tual labortime it consunmes, thereby enabling its furnishlers or servitors to obtain their proper pro rata of the sum total of products, at the average labortime price of any particular product they may choose to take. 9. Thiat the share or amrountt of the personal service of others, vwhlich each individual is entitfed to have and consume, during a year, should be determined, in labortime, according to the statistical data, so that he cannot appropriate more than his pi-oportion, but if he consumes less hlie may profit by his economy.

10. That the same rules of apportionment, coiisumption, alnd economy should apply to corporate establishments and cooperative companies: they being tireated in their dealings with the market or body 1)olitic as individuals, but boun(l to do strict justice, and pay proportionate compensation to their inembei-s respectively. 11. That the average number of calls or cases of a lavwyer, doctor, or other one whose service is rendered to private persons individually, should beascertaiiied by statistics; and each distinct individual or corporation who receives the benefit of a call or attention to a particular case, should on his certificate be charged with its appropriate labortime, and that time be credited to the servitor. 12. Tlhat individual or single servitors of persons making no tangible market products, viz., a professor of ally science or art, a schoolmaster, a lecturer, or 107

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. thle like, servinlg several or many persons sigtn ltteo?tSlj, should be credited tlleir actual lal)bor-tilne on the books of their reduction, and that timne be chaig,ed I)ro r(tla to those who avail themnselves of the comnmon service; for example, each of the simultanieous partakers should procutre tickets from thle puLblic proxy, or from a deputy proxy detailed for that purpose, and each taker of a ticket should be clhaired with his pro rctta of the whole actual labor-timrne credited to tlhe servitor. Hence, if a schoolmaster devotes one hour to teaching the clhildren of twventy-five paretits; lie would be credited with tllat lhour, altid each parent be charged with one twetity-fiftii of an lhour, or four “strives” of work in average labor-tirnme currency. 18. Thlat the rule last stated should tpply to the benefit of repairers of things, or servitors of persons workilng togethler, tiot as corporators, but teml)orarily, suchl as a company of actors, a ban(i of rntisititlis, a squad of scavengers doing their work or serivice for several or many persons simultaneously. In such a case, each niemrber of the comrpanly, bland, or squad should be credited wvithl tlhe actual lal-)bor ti-e of his service, and tlle takers of checks foir tlhat service should be charged respectively )ro rctta. Thus, if ten actors perform before five thundred spectators one “d(lay” of labor-tiue, each actor sllould be credited wish his day; total ten days; aidl each spectator cliar(ecd-withl twvo-hundredthls of a day, or tvwo “st ives” in average, labor tinie currelncy. 14. Tllat the slhare or proportion of a mal’s pro ducts or labor whlich is appropriated to reward helpe.s, so fal as tlhat portion is not speciailly due to any oilier p)eIson, should be, if’ he is married, crcl it, d to hlis w ife, tai(l be subject to her free disposal. It’

tiecir cl!ild(il ei help them, a dividend from tlhe lelpler’s fund creditc(l to tlue flttlier andl mnotier should be set apart foi t]l,, lil(lren. 1-). Tlti-t tiere slhouldl be levied on every ainount credite(l to any and every person, a )io r(ta tax for 103

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TI]E EDEN OF LABOR. educational purposes; but the State should have no control of the tax, except to collect it; and when collected, to distribute it according to this rule: That parents might associate, select a teacher, determine what text-books should be used by him, and draw on the school fund in favor of the teacher for a pro. rata, according to the numnber of children and actual labortime consumed in teiachl-ing them; the State having no inspection of the school except to see that the amount of the draft is honest and correct. My children: Beware of imitating the laws of Nodltand which permit and secure titles acquired in perpetuity by prescription, accession, sale, exchange, hire, rent, treasuretrove, preoccupancy, capture, salvage, usury, etc. Beware, therefore, of allowing one or many from working for wages at a specific per tiem, for a master or hirer who may insidiously undertake to bear the loss in order to appropriate to himself the gain that may result from any comrnbination of help. Be vigilant in requiring that all help, all personal service, shall hle recompensed by its proper share or proportion of the average labortime value or price of the thing produced by the individual, the company or corporation helped or served. Have no masters and wagemen among you; but only associates or families. “Be not you called masters, for oze only is your master, and all you are brethren.” (Matt. x. 8.) Never forget that no man can get rich by his isolated, his unaided labor. That exceptional riches is only acquired by one who sells natural values which belong to all, or by one who appropriates the difference gained by combined manual or instrumental labor which is (lone by many, and which should be divided among the co-operators. Rememrber that capital must, in each instance, be traced to its real producers, and that their proportionate share of it must be secured to them respectively. To do this you must ever bear inl mind the fact that there is in all things a natural or intrinsic value which 10 109

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. is God’s siyre; but which the children of Cairn, to avoid nanlirng the true owner, designate by tihe phrase value in use,” and subordinate to their many-sided and aleatory “value in exc!latye.” We in the Eden of Labor have no title to things in themselves, but only to the labor-tinie we’have respectively embodied in the things we respectively possess. Hence we have 1. Property containing only the individual labortime of the possessor; i( est, property which he has alone produced or which has been set apart for him or drawn by him as his portion of a comnmonl prolduct, or which has been paid for by him from the dividel of Iiis owiv labor-tine. This he disposes of or consumes at will. It is ordinarily food, clothing, utensils; goods, chattels, or provisions which may be used or consumed by a siiiyle person. 2. Property produced by help, a combined effect of the division of labor, the specific outcome of a machine worked by more tlitrn one person, property produced by the joint or concerted labor of several or many, property bought by the labortime niolleynotes contributed by several or many. Such as this is necessarily partnersIlip property, and should be used, disposed of, and consumed as such, with due regard to proportion of labortime contribution so long as it remains undivided. 3. Property owned by the State, or communities, or companies, but entrusted to individuals or corpo rations for some private or separated use or purpose. These are generally improvements of farms or factories, or machines, or ships, and so forth, advanced to new companies, or dwellings built by the State or community out of the cornmmnon building fuiid. For these no 9-reit is ever required, but only the repairs and restoration due by a “borrower foir use;” tlalt is to say, he must keep and restore the thing iin Io()([ order, without tribute or increase, and without bearing the loss consequent on natural decay or excusablle 110

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. accident, that is to say, he must restore only the portion of labortime, value, or price he has EXTRACTEDfr‘0om the THIING
by his use of it, but not what he has p?-oduce(i bvy that use. Since price is measured or pay exacted especially and only for average labortime, it follows that a’ private individual, or set, or company, or class of persons, cannot take or acquire, apart frorx the qest, of the comnmunity, the extra gain or abundance resulting fi-omr (1) labor savin)g machines, (2) the cooperation of particularized labor, (3) richness of soil, or (4) from excellence of quality. These, therefore, will inure to the benefit of the whole communitytlhe work p)eople in general. Hence it also follows that thle greater the product, the more prolific lands, machines, and cooperations may happen to bp, the greater the abundance produced by a given amount of labor, in any instance mnore than in another, the greater will be the dividend, not merely of the operatives of the extra prolific instance, but of all who labor. Tlhe sumi total of these extra benefits it is our duty to divide pro rata to the labortime of each member of the whole body of workers. It is God’s portion, and slhould be distributed to all his children by an unselfish rule. Thus you see, my d(ear children, we have sales and exchanges, barter, commerce, traffic, distribution, but rnlalle no) y)?{)fits. We lave dwellings, lands, machines, which we do not owis, have not paid for, and which the isolated labor of tlhe users could never pay for; but as tlhe tenants or possessors thereof pay no rent. We have money-our labortime currency-which is advanced or loaned in case of need, or on occasion of a development of necessarv or comnmodious production; but we cannot require the borrower to return increase. We permit?o usury. We have helpers, personal service and the like, but only as co-operators, members of families, brethren III

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. sharing the fruits of contributive labor-tirnme; but no wctageei. nor watyes. Withal every one is rewarded for his labor according to the true ratio it bears to that of any and every other man. My children: Maintain the practical rules and regulations by which these results are obtained, and you will thereby secure temporal abundance and enjoyment to all; but observe that this social order and happiness rests upon reli(,ious faith, and the consequent recoignition of lthuman brotherhood, and of the Divine title to all natural or inherent values.

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CHAPTER VII. NODLAND; ITS LANDLORDS AND TENANTS. THE first dissension that ever arose between men probably had its origin in the first “division of labor.” This first division was the parting of pastoral from agricultural labor. If labor is sundered into distinct avocations, discordant interests may be created, and then occasions of hostile collision will arise between them. The cattle of Abel, the shepherd, no doubt, despite every precaution, somrnetimes overran the fields of Cain, the hlusbaldmIan. A deadly eimitv arose in the heart of the latter; and this had culminated when the Searcher of Souls rejected Cain’s sacrifice. Having slain his brother, Cain fled from the face of his father and nephews; but he repented of his sin; and hence was miercifuilly forgiven and protected. It would seem, also, tlhat thlis divine protection, manifested by a mark or sign indelibly imprinted on his person, lad( a further significance. It was a figure of the future course of providence. The fulfilment of the divine decree that man should till the ground coul(i not be waived. Man was not to be permitted to live’by means of pasturage alone.

Metapliorical]y, we may say that Caiii’s murder of Abel was Agriculture killing Pasturage and Herding. A similar dootn has befallen pastoral labor in all ages and( countries. I-Husbandry overcomes and destroys Pisturag,e whenever and wherever the latter attempts to stay in the ceigliborhood of cultivable lands. In every instance of contact, whatever momentary success Pasturage imay achieve, Husbandry finally gains a definitive supremacy.

The Husbandineii, with the divine protectioln, have always been able to possess the rich laiids, alI(l the Ilerdsrnen have always been 10*

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. forced to confine themselves to stony hills, or to perish entirely. Abraham emigrated to rocky parts of Canaan. Jacob, persecuted by Esau and the Canaanites of the valleys, was driven by them from an arid place here, to a more arid place there. Finally, reduced to starvation, he emigrated to Egypt to seek bread and become the servant of an agricultural people. After many strtggle, I)asturage has nearly disappeared in Europe. At this very moment, the landed aristocracy of England and Ireland are threatened with evil for their obstinacy in devoting large tracts of arable land to pasturage. The raising of cattle on large and rich pastures in Amnerica has been gradually forced to recede from, the East, and move to the plains of the Far West and Texas. Even there it is not allowed to rest; for, there also, the tillers of the soil (wlho were obliged to fence in their fields against the roaming cattle of their predecessors) now claim to be dispensed from making inclosures. They require that, onil the contrary, it shall be made the duty of the cattle-raisers to have fences to keep) their beasts from roving, so that, as in all thickly cultivated countries, a mere ditch orI fringy hedge may be the only needed boundary of an agricultural farm. This account of the shepherds or herdsmen applies to the huntsmeni, with the difference, that the herdsmen were at one with the tillers in regarding the huntsmen as commonro enemies. HIence we read of Ismael, the?rcIher, or huntsman (Gen.

xxi. 10), that his hand was against all mnen and all men’s hands were against him (Gen. xvi. 12). It is remarkable that the herdsmen were not the first weavers, though they were the producers of the wool. Their nomadic life was not favorable to progress in the arts. Of the two classes the tillers were the greatest inventors. The sons of the husbandmnan, Cain, were famous for their ingenuity. The tillers were permanently located, and therefore had every inducement to improve their homes, and other fixed 114

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. capital - their implements and soil. They were stimulated by the greater yearly product of their labor, set to thinking by the greater complication of their pursuits, and on account of the numerous processes through which their products had to pass to be made fit for consumption. WhIeat had to be ground, cotton spun and wove; the harvest when gatlthered must be stored and carefully pFesered(; tiley needed all the household instruments the herdsmen and huntsmen used, and must have many others which the nomads did not need; they required the same arms, if not for offence, at least for defence. Living in close proximity to each other, the tillers enjoyed the great advantage of being ever able to unite for driving back a common enemy, and of building fortresses and other places of refuige and resistance. Hence, in their wars with the herdsmen, they were almost alwavs victorious. A few great instances may be cited, in which the herdsmen were the conquerers; but in each case the sequel sustained the theory that agriculture is the providential destiny; for, the nomadic victors were soon compelled, by the force of circumstances, to cultivate the soil. The shepherd kings of Egypt found it necessary to make farmers of their commrion followers. The barbarian hlordes, whlo subdued the Roman Empire, were soon, with the exception of their chiefs, obliged to throw aside the battle axe and mace for the plough. Nor should we imagine that Cain, in the land of Nod, became a herdsman or huntsmana. The history of his children shows that they must have been brought up to a very different kind of life. Certainly Cain was a fugitive and a wanderer, but this onlv in the sense that he fled from justice and wa,nd(lered from the home of his father and brethren; for it is expressly stated that he (lt,elt in the distant land of’ Nod, a place of banishment, as its name implies; and that there’ he built a city.” The inference from all the facts is, that he Jounded a separate nation over whlich he ruled. 115 w

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. The laws Cain gave to his descendants and people were not inspired by the same sublime wisdom as those established by Adam for the Eden of Labor. Cain’s laws, notwithstanding the deep remorse he felt for his fratricide, were tinged with the inequitable tendencies of his heart. He sanctione(l the doctrine that all the land belonIged originally and absolutely to the State; and that, therefore, the sovereign could give individuals a perpetual and transferatble title, not only to improvements and actual uses, but to the natural thing itself. ie allowed man to claim and(l hold, not as a mere tenant from God, but as ultiriate owvner. This, though Cain did not, perhaps, so intend it, was the origin of a wide spread perversion ()f the primary idea of economIic justice; for this initial perversion led to others of the same kind, which, in the course of time, became the law of the whole earth; and transformed themselves into the iniquities and abuses that have been continued and maintaitmed down to the present age. Let us imagine tl-he land of Nod as iniicluding the sources of the IJdus, and of the confluents of that river; and as extending fromr thence to the shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Probably Cain lived as long as Seth. and his family doubtless increased as fast, so that, befo)re his death, it must have spread over nearly all this territory. As it put forth cololies, Cain allowed each of them to take possession of large tracts of country, and set bounderies to tl-le portions they respectively desired to appropriate. To prevent disputes, he gave to the leader of each colony a patent, defining, as nearly as possible, the limits of the country it had appropriated; and this patent coilveyed a perpetual title on the condition of the recognition of Cain’s sovereignty, and of the payment to him of tribute, should hie require it, to support his dignity, or to defray the expense of the pub)lic service.

For several generations this basis and forln of title gave rise to no objections On the contrary, it was 116 VI

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. cheerfully accepted as natural and just. Was he not the patriarch-their natural king? did not all men by common consent bow to his authority? Besides, was there not ground enoughl-to supply the requirements of all, even to the extent of extravagant appropriation, and still to leave what seemed an inex, haustible space for future population?

None were deprived, though the colonial chiefs, in a. spirit of cupidity and ambition, would always take land sufficient for a State. After several generations, there still remained beautiful and fertile territories open to emigration and settlement. Land commanded no price; for every one could get from the State as mnuch as he wanted for nothing; and the title deed given vested him, his heirs, or his or their assigns, with absolute ownership forever. Hence, by the decree of patriarchal power and common consent, this system had been for centuries the law of land-tenure before it gave occasion to any serious inconvenience, or its fundamental violation of’ God’s title was even dreamed of. At last, however, the hardships it was bound to cause were felt, though the primary wrong which had been perpetrated was not understood. In the course of time population spread itself in every accessible direction from the original centre. This centre was thickly peopled; the territory immediately beyond it was less populous; the next still less; and so tlhe ratio of population to extent of country went on diminishing; but, for hundreds of miles, absolute title to the land had vested in somebody-the chief of a tribe or his grantees.

To reach the wild region beyond required months of irksome, difficult, and expensive travel. Few had the strength, courage, and means for this; yet to thousands emigration had become an imperious necessity. The central area could not support the excessive number of inhabitants that had grown up within it. They must take refuge somewhere or die of starvation among their brethren. Only one recourse was left. 117

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. It was for the poor to hire themselves to the owners of lands in the less populous districts not too far away; while those who had still a small amount of dwindling capital could go a little further, and purchase a few acres from )reoccupants who owned much more than they could cultivate. Thus the hlomoA)eneitv of families wvas dlestroyed. The memibers vwere sepl)arated; for, eacl had-to seek his fortune or bread wherever opportunity was presented, and they went in different directions to find a home among strangers. Every year this process repeated itself, until the wave of surplus population came so near the unoccupied wilds that it could remove to them without too much effort and outlay. But tlis, too, had its termn. Finally, the whole continent to its verge, and even the islands around it, teemed with human beings, of whom millions were reduced to the mini?funt of subsistence, to pauperism, and even to dire pestilence ani(l f.tmille. But I am too hasty. I must relate some of the incidental circumstances of the career of the Nod.landers to this last condition. The same process is being repeated just now, in our ownvi America. The most fertile lands were, of course, the first appropriated; but whenl these had all been taken up, and the increase of population had created a greater demand for cultivable soil, that of the second quality was sought for, and bought or rented fiom the goveminent or from private owners. Sul)sequently, and for the same reason, land of the tlhird quality was required(l, and so on till every inch of ground(l, even tllhat vwhiclh could yield merely the minimum of subsistence, had been taken up. As this process went on, the market price of every grad(e of soil rose higher and higher: so thlat, at the enid, it was only land of the lowest grades that could be had (as tihe richest could( once) for nothing, and this only on rare occasions; for rich proprietors preferred to keep 118

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. their steirile acrIes vacant rather than be troubled by poverty-stricken neighbors, from whom they could derive no rent or profit.

Such lands yielded no surplus of crop with whlich to pay relnt; but the others did, aind the owners failed not to exact it; and the amount so exacted was always the whole product or. its value, except only so much as was necessary for the bare subsistence of the laboring teiiatlt Hlenee the landlords took al7 the net or surplus product for the use of their land.

It made little or no difference lhow rich the land was; whether it yielded tel), twenty, forty, eighty, or all hundred-fold, tile share left to tle real producer, to him who had ploughed, SOw), and reaped, was never more than enough for scanty nay, miserable support. The laborer could not have and enijoy the fruit raised by his own lhand. It is easy to explain this.

O0i the one handl, there lay the land waild, or at least idle; but it had a human owner, who, though he could not cultivate it, could (by virtue of a title primarily derived from government) prevent all others from cultivating it. His permission was necessary; and inexorably di(d he exercise this dog-in-a-manger privilege till he had stipulated the highest possible rent for waivilig it temporarily. This rent hle always fouind it easy to obtain; for, on the other hand, there was always an excess of poor husbandinen owning no land, each of whlom was anxious to get a lease even on the hardest conditions, that’they and their families mnight be saved from exposure and starvation. T}lis unequal competition with thle eigrossers of lands (lid not conme at once; but it was inevital)le by the increase of population. In the begiiining there was cornmpetition aemoig thle landowners, aid they left a large part of the net crops to tl,.eir tenants; but they raised the rent with the demand till thle rate reached the vmxi~’-e~m for the lessor, and the ini from the lessee. Happy he who, in the mnean time, had by hook or crook secured the ownership of the soil he was tilling with his own hand. Ile at least enjoyed 119

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. comparative abundance during his lifetime. His children, howvever, hardly ever enjoyed this advantage; for if the farm was too small to be partitioned among them in kind, it was sold, to be divided in money. It was bought by those who had been accumulating capital from the surplus of crops they had obtained as rent of their lands. Thus the agricultural laborer was klept, without hope Qf redemption, at the lowest degree of poverty, while the capital of the landlord was continually accumulating. The product, and the capital of that moral entity called “the country,” “the nation,” was constantly inereasing by millions and millions-it, the country, was therefore said to be prosperous and wealthy; but this had no real and tangible meaning except for the few who owned somnething-owned a share of this capitalized wealthl. As to the real laborers, the national riches, no matter how hard or how skilfully they worked to produce it, did not exist. The fame of the country for its great riches seemed to the poor toiler to have been spread abroad to deride him. There was no difference to him whatever might be the enormous figure of this total abundance-no difference to him whether he tilled the ground as a tenant or as a wageman; the landlord always calculated rent or wages so as to take the entire net product. This principle of rent (if such manner of rating can be called a principle) obtained also in cities and towns. AA a towI or city is enlarged by commerce and manufactures, its centre or grand artery is always determined by well-known circumstances.

Population and business start from a centre, and spread from it, with reluctance. to less advantageous positionls, and along the best roads leading to and from that centre. until the distance becomes inconveniently great. Then follows a lateral crowvding of stores atnd dwellings.

Fiinally, the urban area is densely occupied. This movement is closely followed-nay, anticipated in its course, by the prices of property and rates of rent, which advance in correspolding pro 120

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. portions. These expand, and bear relation in the same manner as do the prices and rents of rural propert,y. They are influenced bv the degrees of profitableness, by distance, and by other circumstances wslich dleternille the order of demand and occupancy. Th-e iiMlefeasible owners of lots and houses in cities observed the same rule for fixing the amount they thlought it right to exact for rent or sale of their property that prevailed in the rural districts. They made the same and even greater profits. Such was the logical result of the character of their title, w ic l,, nevertheless, was always considered innocent and natural. None of them at the beginning, or afterwards, ever suspected its fundamental infirmity and wrong, and therefore acted as if it was perfectly valid an(d just before God. Hlence, without reproach of coInscience, they defmanded and took the profit on labor it entitled them to have. Some became excessively rich. The least of them was also rich in coInparison to the lalorer who had no home of his owvn. It was wvithi the landless worlkman our Lord Jesus Christ classes himself when he said, “The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air nests; but the Son of man hlath not wh-ere to lay his head.” (Mlatt. viii. 20.) Land speculation, its Gains to its wily adepts, and its evil effects on labor, were consequences of this system. The speculators wvere of course persons who had accumulated capital from sales of original grants the State had made them, or from rents, or from some other lawful manner of appropriating all the share of God and the greatest share of labor in somte natural thing or artificial product. These speculators studied the progress of population, and easily foresaw what wvould be the direction emigration would take, and what localities it would seek to occupy. T’loughl this foresight was by no mneans sinogular or meritorious, the desire of deriving private gain from a movement of labor in which they did no share of works was peculiar to themselves and their like. Over and over again, they seized these oppor 11 121

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. tunities of enrichling themselves at the cost of others, by employing their capital ill purchasing lands, in those localities, either from government or from pri vate owners who had preceded them, but were in want of money. Having thus forestalled or monopo lized the soil, they pursued a Fabian policy towards the coming tide of population. At first they were liberal-their prices insignificant-they almfost gave awav a considerable number of farmns to real settlers -to those who themselves would till the ground; but they (the speculators) reserved intermediate areas, anid waited for the certain effects of’ the industry of thle immigrants. The immigrants billt houses, cleared tracts, planted fields, made roads to a market, established social security, and thus attracted less venturesome agriculturists and induced(.

mechanics to settle among tlhem. Then, for obvious reasons, alas! too familiar in practice, the privileged capitalist was able to sell or hire his land at an advance sometimes elnormous. A hlat did this unrighteous gain re present? It represented the labor of’ others-tlle effect of improvements made by a whole communllity -it represented a result that.justly belonged wholly to that community or pro rata to its rmembers, and in nowise to the idle and machiiavelic land-speculator. Hle took, without doing a stroke of work, the reward due to the hardy pioneers who improved the wild(lerness and made it habitable. Tile same happened in urban situations. Labor came with her thousands of Ilands, turned villages into towns, towns into cities, cities into great emporiums; but the speculators, like birds of prey, hovered over all to slatchl avway, by artifice, and by virtue of a long sanctioned invasion ot’ divine ownership, thle benefits which labor alone is entitled to receive alnd enjoy. I have supposed that in Nodland, Cain vested his sons with the first titles to definite districts of country  that this was the way in which the absolute ownership of land (as distinguished from actual laborious or usufructuary possession) originated. Some prob 122

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. ably would prefer the theory of origin of title by preoccupancy; but that would make no difference in the consequences deduced. The nature of such a title implies real occupancy; and it therefore cannot include what is not actually occupied, or last longer than the fact of occupancy. In other words, occu-. pancy is occupancy, no more, no less; but ownership is a great deal more, and even dispenses \vith real occupancy. Be this, however, as it may, certain it is that the preoccupant, if we must so call him, invariably appropriated more land than he occupied, and claimed the uncultivated tlhe unoccupied excess by virtue of some mere pretence, or kept it for himself, ngainst all comers, by force. He took, for a family, areas large enough for clans and tribes, and exacted a price for any vacant land others might need. If a stranger coming there to settle, was a chief having many servants and followers, he would occupy by force despite any pretext; but if he was unable to avail himself of the right of might, he found himself under the necessity of purchasing and paying before he could have. Hence the same wrong is done by preoccupants as by the State. Nevertheless I prefer the theory which traces the origin of fee-simple or absolute ownership to the State-a Patriarch, a Chief, a King, an Assembly riuling society and exercisiing sovereignty over a territory. In considering whether this theory be correct or not, we cannot regard the kind of title claimed by primitive herdsmen or huiitersas proving anything; for it was merely temporary and fixed no metes and bounds. The hunters and herdsmen were nomadic. None of them had a d(listinct possession. They had not even the intention of occupying any particular place permanently. We see this in the lives of Abraham, Isaac, an(l Jacob, who, though they expected a future generation of their race would own Canaan, had no notion that their transitory mode of occupying spaces of country gave them ownership as we understand it.

What constitutes ownership is the setting apart, in perpe 123

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TFIE EDEN OF LABOR. tuity, a specific piece of land of defined limits, to an individual, his heirs and assigns. This takes place only among an agricultuLral people, organized under a government; and as far back as we have any record or tradition, the first titles were distributed and con ceded by the State as primary owner and granter. Abimelech, king of Gerara, exercised this right of ownership (Gen. xx. 15) on occasion of tie wrong done to Sara; and, on another occasion, though he was willing to give, he sold to Abraham, for seven ewe lambs, the spot where the latter himself had dug a well. Thie inference from the text (Gen. xxi. 30), is that a consideration given, and not a mere gift, coIn veyed( a guaranteed title. Again, it was by means only of the payment of a price to the authorities of Heth, that Abraham obtained an individual title to the field and cave of Epron. (Gen. xxiii.) It was a king of Mauritania, who sold the ground of Carthage to Dido; and ancient history contains a number of other instances of gifts, sales, and distributions of land made by the State, its kings and legislators, who, wherever the people were agricultural, appear to have been regarded as the original source of justice and land ownersllip. Under the feudal system, the chief who had led the people to conquest, distributed lands among his followers, as prime owner of the conquered country and they did him homage and service for their tenures. When America was discovered, the Eturopean kings claimed ownership of the parts discovered by their subjects, and afterwards conceded whlole territories to leaders of colonies, or tracts to individuals. Every private title to land, in America, is traceable up to the State. Now, whence is the title of the State itself? Evidently it never acquired any; and could have none. Its only right would be in the assumption that it is the trustee of heaven, to award and regulate the use of the land for the common good. We have seei 1’-) 4

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. how it hlas fulfilled thlis obligation. It hlas, on the contrary, established a system of exclusive privilege inl perpetuity whereby titles pass to hleirs and assig,ns forever independently of use or abuse, whereby thie laborers and real producers are for all time condemnned to pay extortionate tribute to fortunate,. favored, and unprodcictive id(lers. 11* 125

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CHAPTER VIII. MINES, MACHINES, WAGES, MONEY, AND FINANCE. A STRIKING
instance of tlhe appropriation of God’s share of natural things, for tlhe exclusive benefit of exceptional individuals, is tlhat of qiniies. We have seen how unqualified ownerslhip of land is acquired and abused by the favorites of tlhe State or tlhe detainers of capital; and now I call attention to the fact, tlhat sometimes tlhese lands which lhave been thus unqualifiedly appropriated are found to contain mines. Hidden masses of coal, iron, copper, tin, lead, zinc, marble, sulphur, platiina, silver, gold, etc., are here and there unexpectedly (liselosed to the wondering and greedy eyes of the owncr of a piece of ground. To whom does tlhis newly discovered treasure belong? Still more than thle cultivable soil it appertains to God’s share. How should it be worked and its products disposed of? Clearly, for the comnioii beiiefit of God(‘s children. But what did a Nodlatnder do when he discovered a mine on his estate? Only what the law of uiqutal,ified ownershlip autlhorized and sanctioned. EIe took possession of it as exclusive owner of tlhe realty and its product.

He hired hands to work it, 1),(id tlhen so much a day for extracti,ng a quantity of’ mnetal worth many times more than the wages nIid other expenses. This was simply witllholdilng and al)propriating the largest part of the just eariiiigs of labor. ”The idle non-prodlucer took tlhe lioii’s share of tlhe capture-he took all tle natural value, and the greatest part of the labor value. H-e counted lhis gailns by millions; and invested tlhem in acquiring title to other things an(l works producing similar income, on tlhe same principle. T”he riches accumu-tlated by

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. tlie original appropriators of mines was enermous.

i)isY)osed to lead a life of amusement and luxury, and havilig superabundant mneans, tliey often determrrined to get ridc of the care of’

watclliing their servants, and to avoid the trouble of takilng possession of the values those servants laid at their feet. How ever, none of them ever tlhougllt of saying: “1 have a minillionr-fold more than my equitable share I Will extort 1no more from labor; I will let thle laborers who have done this for me, extract the rest and shlare it among themselves according to their respective ind(ustry.” No, tlhey sought a new master to set him over thle workman and continue the pressuration. For instance, they would sell a mine to a stock company for a very large sumII. The stocklhol(lers or partners would commission an agent to colduct tlhe wNorkl while thley, thiough remaining idle, wNould draw dividends of profits (lerived from the labor of the toilers. According to the prevailing ideas of justice, these new owners expected( to draw, from thle worlcking of the mille, not me-ely the ordinary interest of thle nmoney they’had paid, but a large profit besides. Itence, the hardslhips of servitude were aggravated; for tlhe mine had cost the original owner comrparatively nlothing, and he fould it easy to pay liberal wages, but tlie iiewv clharges tlhe new ovwners had to make on tlle labor product, in order to indemrniifv thlemselves anld get gain besides, would expel all generosity from’ their hearts. Their, first thioulght and first act after taking p)ossession was to reduce tlhe wvages of their inriiers; and the poor fellows were compelled to wNorkl foi the hopeless vfzn?( necessar.y for bare subsiste’ce. “We carinnot affiord( to do better for you,” was the peremptory and seetningly conclusive answer to,ll their remonstrances against such treatmeut. Similar circumstanlces followed the introduction of m,Iacli lles. The first mitclline ever illvented (apart a,id beyond ,,ere tools or imrpleinenlts) was what the political 127

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. economists called the “Division of Labor,” but which would be better named “The Association of pa ticularized Labor;” for it is only when divided operations are associated and combined to accomplish a unit of product that the so-called “Division of Labor” is advantageous or even at all useful. ~ For instance, the numrnerous hands, each having a particular operation to perform, in the manufacture of a newspaper, and who are each able to do the more work by having only that same operation to repeat, are not principally, but only incidentally divided. It is more proper to say they are associated. From the sheet-feeder or folder to the foreman, they compose a complicated machine, which multiplies production.

By it ten men in one day are able to turn out many times more work than one maii in twenty or even a hundred days, could turn oti with the same appliances. Indeed, there are many works which could not be done at all without this combination of many in one. A single workman could not possibly build a house, or a ship, etc.; but when they combine in proper prop)ortionls of each art and section of art, the fabric is constructed in a few days. By this beautiful device or process, what would take years to do is accomplished in a few days. This effect is due to the artistic association; and therefore it follows that the workmen are entitled (if any one is) to whatever additional benefit or increase is procured by their combination. In Nodland, however, it was not so. If; for instance, a man whocould not lave built a house by himself in a hundred years, Nwalted one on his land, he would have it constructed by an “association of particularized labor.” The work would be (lone in a few days and delivered. From that time the owner would enjoy the occupan(,y or the rent-suddenly receive a benefit which he could not have procuied alone, and conferred only by the association. Nevertheless he would pay thle workmen as if each had worked alone, as if there had been nothing accoinplisled( by their vworking in unison)-, or by 128

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. tlheir co-adclapting their skill and labor with artistic ingenuity and multiple efficiency. He would give each of them the minimurn wages per day of an isolated laborer, and take tlhe difference of time gained, the difference of revenue gained(l, all to hirnmself; lie who lhad d(lone notliing but stand by aid look down upon. tlhe wonderful power and effects of their cooperation. It is almost a repetition to tell what happened fmrn the introduction of meclhanical contrivances tlhat save(l labor and multiplied its )roducts. In the abstract, andl regaiding tlheir intrinsic power of producing more with less labor, machines iln themselves ar6 good, are fruits of prog,-ess, pregnaut with blessings to mankind: but wvheii we observe how this potential beneficence is diverted, eng,-rossed by individuals, and malde an instrument for subljugating and oppressilig thlose iwho work it, we are tempted to condemn the mracllines tlhemselves instead of their appropriators. There were p)atelnt laws in Nodland whicl-h conferred on inventors, for a term of years, the exclusive riglht to make, use, and vend the maclines they contrived. Itence a valuable new improvement was like the discovery of a mine, only the inventor had merit which the discoverer had not. Nevertlheless, as proprietors, they acted on thle same principle. The inventive No(ld. lander, whenever his machine was foullnd really advatiltageous (wvhich by the b.y was halrdly once in a thlousaud cases) would exact a ” royalty” from labor-for its use. Then he would sell his privileg,e at a great price to some capitatlist or company of capitalists, greedy of gain, who won ld, to riiake that gain as large as possible, take advantage of competition to obtain workmen at the lowest possible wages; and avail tllemselves also of their monopoly to charge exorbitant profits on that la1bor to thos.e who needed their maclines.

Before the expiration of their patents, they had timne with tl-hese profits to establish (large and very costly manufactories ill which their machines coulld be made at so lowv a cost anld in such quantities that they were able to defy conipetitiorn. If an irm 129

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. prudent competitor did arise, they undersold him till they crushed himrn, and then put up their prices again. As time went on the machines invented became (with a very few exceptions) more and more complex, in this particular that they were made to accomplish a greater number of the operations of a single art. It was as if an association of particularized labor were combined in the series of levers, wheels, cogs, screws, wedges, and belts; but the inventor or his assigns got a goodly share of the benefit, while combinations of-brain and muscle producing like effects were allowed only tl-he wages current, pel capita, for disassociated service. Association of insensible matter was encouraged and rewarded, but that of human beings brought no reward to the associates; it was confiscated bv their employers. These great machines were so costly that it required a large capital to make and use them. This capital (from causes already stated and other causes to be pointed out anon) was in the hands of the original appropriators of natural value, or in the hands of their successors. Hence the original usurpation of natural values was perpetuated in a new formn; or ratlher, the appropriators, by means of their capital, obtained control of the new kind of property evolved by inventiveness, by genius, and by the progress of science and art. They took the cream and the cheese, and left the whey to labor. The clear product, from which only the minimum wages of labor had been strained, was their portion. Of course the coi?nerce of Nodland was contarnlinated by the vices of the proprietary system of the country. It was carried on with an intense spirit of selfishness. The fact that the appropriators of natural things could lawfully demand prices for them in excess of the value of the labor put into them, induced the determination of those prices by the caprice of variable desire or fashion, by the ever-chlanging relative proportions of demand and supply, by the irregularly alternate successes of competition and 1 OD 0

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. monopoly, by the fears and hopes of money lenders, anid the abuse of credit. Certainty and stability, continuity and regularity in the course of commnerce, or in tile business of those engaged in it, were impossible. Th’le possibility of acquiring exceptional fortunes, excited cupidity, venality, and deceitfulness.. A wide range was given to the greed of gain; for unlimited profit in the exchange of every kind(-of merchandise or other property was possible to those who could foresee, or guess, or stumble upon the winning side of the fluctuations which weie continually occurring. Thus cormmerce, instead of being what was intended when it began, the avocation of men, who, for a fair remuneration, served as intermnediaries and carriers between producers and consumers, became a career of adventure. It was as if a country of slilfting scenles and moving landlmarks, but full of hidden treasures, had been opened to the knight errants of fortune, vlwho wet there each to enrich himself alone, and who strove there each by practisinlg some deception, or by taking advantage of some mistake to compass the overthrow and rulin of the others. But these adventures could not be undertaken wvithout capital.

Hence, when one was eager to go upon a commercial venture, but had no capital, he sought to borrow it from those who hlad already succeeded in accumlulating, gains from the labor products of land, of mines, and of machines, or from commerce itself’; but’ the capitalist would not lend either merchandise or money without interest and security; and thus commerce, also, like land, mines, and machlinery, became the vassal of capital. The niiitss of those wvljo really performed tlhe labors and accomplished tl-he purposes of conmmerce, were allowed to share no part of tile profits gained according to the system; but were mere wagemen hired by the day, month, or year, and sometimes by the job or piece. Need(l I say they were paid the smallest wages their competition for employment conmpelled them to accept? Tile onaa whose very business is to extract 131

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. gain from the labor of other men, though sometimes he is liberal, is rarely so. It is inconsistent for him to be generous; and, even when kindest, always reserves the principal portion of the profit, really made only by his wage(nen, to himself alone. Much of the preceding account presupposes the use of moNey; and it is time to state my version of the causes of its introduction. The appropriation of mines, lands, and all product8 above Ininimnum wages, was of course followed( by sumptuous and luxurious living among those who had secured the benefits of this selfish plan of distribution. The wagemnen had nothing to exchlange for the common and lowest products they consumned but tlheir labor; and at first they received those products, food, clothing,, shelter’, and fuel, in kind. They received no cash, and therefore could not buy anything, from traders and strangers As between the members of the appropriating class, the case was diftferent. Tlhey severally dealt in only a few kinds of products, and sometimes only in one. Therefore, each of thera primarily possessed a large surplus of his peculiar commodity therefore, also, they vwere in need of one another’s products; tand therefore, ft rther, tlhey made exchanges. The owvners of mines had only metals to barter, but they soon perceived that these were much coveted. Silver and gold were muchll souglht after by the rich appropriators, to make ornaments and utensils; but these metatls were scarce; and since the selfish system of No(llaild gave full effect to (lesire and competition in the determination of values, this scarcity enabled gold and silver mine owners to demand, for their mnetals, the products of many times more labor than those metals embodied. All those who had other surplus commodities to spare, were willing, to give disproportionate quantities of tliceir goods for gold or silver, in order to be able to gratify their vanity, by displaying these shining tokens of opulence, on their persons, in the shape of diadems, earril)gs, beads, bracelets, breast-plates, belts, and 132

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. other trinkets; or, on their tables, in the form of goblets, plates, dishes, spoons, and other household articles. These metals were soon recognized as being the most readily accepted by the wealthy possessors of other merchandise, and as having therefore the most general purchasing power. For a long time. they circulated as a mediumn of exchange among the appropriators only; but at last the miners ~ound it more convenient to pay their laborers in doles of metal, instead of subsistence in kind. The pay ill determinate quantums of a fixed and unfiuctuating circulating medium afforded more opportunities of changing wages, for they would reduce them whenever subsistence was cheap, but refuse to resume the former rate when provisions rose again. Thus instead of having the trouble and duty of providing substantial support in kind, they threw the burden of all advances of the cost of living on their servants; and seized the occasion of any decrease of this cost as a pretext for diminishing the weight of their own obligations. Soon this mode of rewarding labor was, of course, adopted by all other employers.

Silver and gold, first in the shape of ingots, then in stamped coin, became the universal medium of exchange and standard of estimate. Thus popularized and adapted to a new and extensive use, money acquired a greater relative value. It finally became the seal and sanction of the cupidity of its primary appropriators; arso, the embodiment and symbol of every encroachment of avarice aided by force and fraud, upon the ri-ghts of God and man. How true the words of St. Paul, “The desire of mnoney is the root of (at7 evils, whichl some coveting have erred from the faith, and have entangled themselves in many sorrows.” (1 Tim. vi. 10.) If I had space I would quote the whole chapter; but pray turn to it, and study its application to the matter in hand. If any commnodity must be adopted as a common measure of value, under a system permitting the exaction of price foir natural values, it is manifest that 12 133

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. gold is the best that could have been selected. Any other commodity would be liable to the same objections that gold is, besides many other inconveniences and occasions of loss to which gold is not liable; but I need not dwell on this, for the point is familiar to every reader of political economy. What I wish to note is, that money, in every form of circulating medium except the abstract labortime f)r labortime note of the Reductionese, is a synthesis and generator of conflicts of men, corruptions of mind, perversion of truth, pride of gain, temptations to sin, devilish delusions, and iniquitous desires, drawing or driving men to destruction and perdition. (1 Tim. vi. 9.) Money, from its beginning, has been and now is the symbol and agent of every encroachment on the title of the Divinity to natural values. It is a vehicle licensed to carry only Justice, but in which every iniquity has found a place. It is a hieroglyph in which the expression of a ransom for that which costs nothing is blended and confounded with that of a just recompense of labor.

It serves to count, and nevertheless conceal, the price exacted for that which God has gratuitously furnished, and which he has given in trust or tenancy to all of us, for the purpose of being gratuitously distributed, it’ not used or consumed by the preoccupant. It is the seal and exponent of all the conversions of natural things into absolute and perpetual property. “Remelnber, 0 Lord, whlat is come upon us; consider and behold our reproach;… we have drunk our water for money; we have bought our wood.” (Lam. v. 1 and 4.) Among the consequences of the invention and use Of’ MONEY, and of the commercial manners and customs of the Nodlanders, were aleatory credit, usury, banking, the use of paper evidences of debt as a circulating medium, the establishment of stock companies for banking, for insurance, and( other investments of capital. We have already seen how the venturesome undertakers of commerce sought credit 134

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. and( submitted to usury, making it necessary that their gains on labor should be the larger and larger, to overlap the interest and capital they were obliged to refund. But besides speculation in merchandise, there were other operations of credit that reduced the reward of labor an(d increased the wealth of the few privileged appropriators of its fruits. It was perceived that rich capitalists would be the safest trustees or depositaries of uninvested accumulations of money, while, on the other hand, those who had acquired this confidence saw that they could turn it to their profit. They did this by accepting deposits restitutable on demand, but relying on the probability of there being constantly a proportion of the deposits remaining,uncalled for, they did not hesitate to lend this proportion for usury. Thereby they made great gain from the use of funds belonging to others, and to the fruits of which they had no equitable right. It was not merely a reasonable charge for the trouble and service of keeping the money they made, but it was a violation of the nature of their contract they committed; and this even when they exacted pay for the keeping. These depositaries were called bankers, and established correspondences in different cities, for the purpose of acting as intermediaries between debtors and creditors who might want to send and receive money balances to and fro. They invented the bill of exchange, for which (that is to say, the mere trouble of writing them, after receiving the cash for thein), they took considerable premniums. Here, then, was another current running into the grand reservoir of the appropriators.

Eagerly searching for every means of unproductive profit, they studied with keen minuteness all the operations and investments of capital, and thus were able to ascertain that losses by fire, storm, and other accidents conformed to certain laws, and happened in certain proportions.

On this knowledge they based the invention of insurance. They applied it even to 135

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. the chances of the loss of life Their reputed or real ability to fulfil any promise for the payment of money was of itself sufficient to induce others to pay them premiums for their warranties against loss. Every merchant and proprietor availed himself of their policies. They professed to take risks, but their calculations were made to secure to their customers the payment of their losses, not out of the capital originally deposited for that purpose, but out of the very premiums themselves. IHence while the customers were really mutual insurers, the nominal guarantors, or issuers of policies, realized enormous profits from their paper contrivance, and thus aniiother tributary brought more drain from labor into the usurious gulf. With a nomninal capital of a million, they would insure five hundred millions of property. Judge what an enormous aggregate of profit this must have yielded. But not content with this, they calculated they would have always a residuum of premiums not needed to pay losses, and these of course they invested in loans, pledges, aid stocks, thus increasing their dividends of gain from the money of others. By and by the large capitalists recognized the fact that their notes were taken as readily as money. The only obstacle to their general circulation was their large and inconvenient ainounts. Here they scented a new and rich game. They invented the bank note payable on clen2cad, but which they cunningly foresaw would remain outstanding and circulating a long timne before its redemption in coin would be asked. Hence they could lend these notes as if they were real moneV, and make their capital bring them returns as if it were double or triple its real amount. The pay of this system enabled them to lend millions on millions to governments for war and public works, and to corporations for railroads and other industrial enterprises, though really paying out hardly a tithe. They would make these enormous loans in instalments, well knowing that the government or corporation would disburse the instalrnent 136

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. i~i}rniediately, and that the creditors and others who received the disbursemrents would bring them at once back to the bank as a deposit, or for fhe purpose of purcliasing, the very bonds the goverrnment or com pavny had issued seemingly to procure funds to pay them. They could act on this just as if they h-ad not, paid the government a dollar. Often the bankers and their constituents wvere themselves, in fact, the present or anticipated creditors, who thus took bonds at a heavy discount, xvlich, hlowever, they knew they could make available at will for as much cash as they had use for. lThey had reason to be confident of being able to retail their bonds to small takers at at advance before funds were required for a second instalment of the loan. Besides, often a borrowing government would, on the deposit of bonds on which it was itself paying interest, enforce and guarantee the circulation of the bank notes, and thus help to increase the lending and operative power of their usurious creditors.

Natturally small capitalists would try to imitate this financial machinery; but to do so they were obliged to club together (nd create stock companies, w}lich often enj9yed the same great credit as the banks of the laiger capitalists. Hlence they too received( deposits, dealt in exchange and bonds, discounted notes, tookl pledges, issued paper money, and underwrote p)olicies, as if each company were a single person; and they made simnilar profits. Thie mnain point with them was to induce real depositors to trust them with the keeping of capital which would not be called for immediately. Wlihenii they inspired sufficient confidence to bring this about, their success was sometimes remarkable; but tl-here was a drawback. Their officers and members were often tempted to enlarge their individual business and speculations, an(d themselves became borrowers.

The facility their own bank afforded them, made t-hemn frequently imprudent, so that they failed in business; In(d, when 137 1 2-Page 138 view page image

THE EDEN OF LABOR. this happened, it would bring ruin to the bank as well as to themselves. They used their depositors’ money to enlarge the credit of the corporation. They loaned not only their depositors’ money, but also the enlarged credit, derived from that money, to the depositors’ rivals and competitors. An intoxicating and inflating stimulant was thus given to mere speculation. Atl nornmal business transactions were interfered with and entangled; and the regular current of trade was broken up into eddies, whirlpools, and overflows. Reckless of the external effects of their operations, they strained continually to multiply them, so long as their speculative borrowers did not tail and thereby make it necessary for them to contract. They rejoiced every time that, with apparent security, they could lend one of their notes, and every time thle holder of a check drawn against them would, instead of demanding payment, leave it on deposit.

Every such transaction ad(ded to their usurious profit. One of the ways these borrowing bankers contrived, for searching out and getting hold of all the idle money in the country, was the pretext of savings banks. They would tempt the poor, by pi-omises of interest and of safe investments, to bring the small residuum which, by dint of self-privation, was left of their wvages. This they generally loaned to themselves, and thus obtained additional capital for speculation. If they prospered and enriched themselves, the poor got their money back with interest, but if’ their rivals outdid them, those rivals got all thle poor man’s savings, and he was reduced to greater hardships than ever. As to canal companies and all other industrial corporations, they were, most times, a prey to the managing agents or undertakers of works or mortgagees. These were generally the founders of the companies, vwhich they succeeded in establislling, by persuading the government to subscribe bonds, and hopeful persons to take stock. Then they woild take the mnan 188

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. agerient of the enterprise; and thereby be able to involve it by onerous contracts with their confederates. It would of course declare no dividends, the stock would fall to almost nothing, and they could gradually buy it all up. They would thus make large profits on their private contracts, and use these same profits to become, for a comparative trifle, sole owners of all the shares of stock, and therefore of the franchise and its property. 139

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CHAPTER IX. CASTE AND OPPRESSION; WAR AND CONQUEST. Reissn of Enos. ABOUT
the year of the world 937, and after the d(leathl of ain, Enos, his son, the corrupt of soul and body, reigned over Nodland. In the Eden of Labor Enoch, the trained sonl of God, ruled as Supreme Patriarch; for both Adam and Seth were dead. The reign of the worthy successor of Cain lasted for more than a cenitury; and during his titnme the consequences of the social policy of the prototype of fratricides was fully developed. The rea/der has, perhaps, already inferred that the effect of the property laws of Nod(land was to divide its people into classes or castes. Such, indeed, was the necessary effect, practically, if not ostensibly. Shortly after ascending the throne, Enos conceived the design of creating a nobility, a privileged class, chosen from the natural defenders of the state craft of his father, whllom he exceedingly admnired. To form a clear idea of how this might best be done, and whom to choose for the rank and(i dignities lie intended to confer, he cause(l an elaborate census of the population and resources of the coulitry, occupations and fortunes of the people to be made. W1hen the commissioners of this census held tabulated their researches, the logical effects of the selfish system I lhave described(
were exhibited. Thle poptlation had necessarily aid ttcitly resolved itself into several divisions, plainily discernible by many signs. The voluminous report of the commissioners proved the fact to be inherent to the constitution of the state. They made it evident by means of the minutest details, and well-grounded generalizations.

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. A schedule of these ascertained castes which I have extracted from their report, will, no doubt, be useful and interesting. I therefore make a copy of it for the benefit of my readers. SCHIIEDULE OF

CASTES. FIRST GENERAL DIvJSION: LORDS AND GENTRY. 1. MONEY LORDS. This class comprised those who had a large amount of capital, and were en tirely free from debt-had no business estab lishment and no occupation but recreation, and had invested their capital in affairs man aged by others, viz., the holders of millions worth of stock in can~al, ballking, and other companies; also “commnendam” shares in com mercial and industrial partnerships, invest ments in state loans, etc. 2. MONEYED GENTRY: those who had considerable, or even very large, funded capital of their own, but who attendedcpersonally to its administration and investment in bonds, stocks, mortgages, pledges, bills of exchange, loans to govern ments, and other securities. They also took charge of and managed the investments of the money lords. They were commonly called bankers. 3. LANDED) GENTRY: those whose capital consisted principally of mines, farmns, and houses, which they personally attended to, either by work ing the mines or farms on their own account on a large scale, employing laborers, etc., for that purpose; or by renting out their mines, farms, and houses, and collecting the rents directly fromn their tenants, in products or monev. 4.

MANUFACTURING GENTRY: those who were sole or principal owners of factories, founderies, mills, printing and publishing offices, brick ill

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THIE EDEN OF LABOR. yards, tanneries, distilleries, breweries, etc., which they personally superintended, and in which they employed many clerks, writers, reporters, pressmen, machinists, and other workmen, servants, or wagemen. The money lords often took shares or invested as silent partners in these establishments when they were carried on by stock companies.5.

MERCANTILE GENTRY: those who invested their own unborrowed capital in commercial ad ventures, were owners of stores, hotels, and inns, warehouses, lumber yards, and other merchlandise; ships and vessels for transpor tation or fisheries, roads, canals, and other vehicles of common carriage, etc. etc., which they personally superinterided, used, or dis posed of in the course of trade, and in which they employed many clerks, workmen, and other wagemrnen. 6. SMALL CAPITALISTS: those who, while they be longed essentially to one or several of the above-mentioned( classes, operated with their own unborrowed, but inconsid(erable capital. They were well-to-do planters, gardeners, dis tillers, brewers, builders, and contractors, livery-stable keepers, liquor dealers, eating lhouse keepers, slaugllter-house keepers, ma chinists, smiths, printers and publishers, ship wvrig’hts, sugar refiners, founders, traders, and dealers in all kinds of merchandise, who car ried on a b6siness of inferior size, and who en ployed clerks, workmen, and other wagemen. [The essential characteristics of these six classes were  1st, they i)nvested their own unlborr-owe(i capital; 2(, employed servitors for wages; 3d, exaccte(l a price for natural values; and, 4th, extracted usury, r?ent, or profit fronm the labor of others.] 142

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. SECOND GENERAL DIVISION: INDEPENDENTS. 7. INDI)EPENDENT

PROFESSORS of science, art, and fine art: those gifted with peculiar skill, talent, genius or inventiveness, and who required dis tinct and specific pay or fees for each special service they rendered. These were lawyers, doctors, authors, inventors, painters, musicians, sculptors, architects, experts, designers, star actors, star-dancers, delntists, lecturers, engi neers, short-hand writers, and all other pro fessors and artists who (lid not serve others on time, or were not under obedience to masters and employers. 8. INIJEPENDENT HIIUSBANDMEN: those who cultivated their own land alone or in partnership, and sold such products thereof as they did not themselves consume, and who did not hire wagemen to assist them. Hoiae fishermen and huntsmen should be added here. 9. INDEPENDENT

ARTISANS: those who carried on a manufacturing business, alone or in partner ship, doing piecework on their own account, for their own customers, or selling articles of their own make directly to the consumers, and who did this without the assistance of hired workmen of their ownI trade, or of other wage men. In this class there were single-handed operatives of many kinds; bakers, barbers, and hiair dressers, blacksmiths, book-binders, boot and shoemakers, butchers, cabinetma kers, carpenters and joiners, confectioners and pastrymen, engravers, gilders, dress-makers, milliners, gunsmiths, locksmiths, painters, paper-hangers, plasterers, printers, plumbers, rag-pickers, roofers and slaters, tailors, tin ners, upholsterers, wheelwrights, and generally all kinds of petty jobbers who worked single handed. 1 143

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. 10. INDEPENDENT HUCKSTERS: those who carried on a small cornmercial business, alone or in part nership, without the assistance of clerks or other wagemen. In this class there were tradesmen and operatives of many kinds; auctioneers, brokers, draymen, hackmen, packers, pawn-brokers, peddlers, weighers, gaugers, measurers, wagoners, retailers of every kind of goods, wares, and commodities, etc. etc. [This general division had all the characteristics of that of the lords and gentry, except one; they did not hire others to work for them.] THIRD GENERAL

DIVISION: VASSALS. 1 1. TRIBUTARY HUSBANDMEN: all those.agricultur - ists who might be classed in the first or second division, were it not for the fact that they had borrowed a part of their capital by mortgaging their land or had otherwise ob tained credit, and were paying tisqiry to their more thrifty or lucky compeers, or to the money lords and gentry. 12.

TRIBUTARY FARMERS: laboring agriculturists who were cultivating lands which belonged to others, as lessees or tenants of the owners, and paid rent in money or in kind. 13. TRIBUTARY MANUFACTURERS: those who could be classed under one of the heads of the pre ceding divisions were it not for the fact that they had borrowed a part of their invested capital, and were paying ustry to their more thrifty or lucky compeers, or to the money lords and gentry. 14. TRIBUTARY FACTORY-FARMERS: those who did not own, but paid rent for the whole or part of the factories they carried on, or for the machines they used. 15. TRIBUTARY TRADESMEN: those engaged in com merce rand who would belong to the first or 144

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. second division, were it not for the fact that they had borrowed a part of their invested capital, and were paying?tsu?y to their more thrifty or lucky comnpeers, or to the money lords and gentry. 16.

TRIBUTARY STORE KEEPERS AND CARRIERS: those who did not own, but pa’d rent for the wh)ole or part of the store houses, warehouses, vessels, or vehicles, they used in carrying on their business. 17. TRIBUTARY

HOUSEHOLDERS: those who, though free in other respects, })aid( rent for the private dwellings they occupied. 18. FICTITIOUS CAPITAIISTS: those of this general division whl-o carried on business with no capital but that which they borrowed and for which they pcai(i Utstuy. FOURTH GENERAL

DIVISION: WAGEMEN OR SERFS. 19. SUPERIOR OFFICIALS: salaried executive, judicial and other civil magistrates, governors, judges, clerkls of court, sheriffs, coroners, State counsel lors, and public prosecutors, mayors, notaries, recorders, justices of the peace, etc.; also, officers of the army and navy. I include only those who had not thie fortune required to be long to the fi?-st general division. There were many who’ had this. The heirs and relatives of the lords and gentry, generally held the higher and best paid offices. 20. ARTISTIC AND SCIENTIFIC WAGEMEN: professors, schoolmasters and other teachers, actors, musicians, acrobats, equestrians, dancers, and the like, who hire thelnselves by the day, week, month, or season, and are under obe dieitee to their employers. 21.

AGRICULTURAL WAGEMEN: ploughlimen, reapers, dairymen and women, gardeners, nurserymen, 13 145

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THiE EDEN OF LABOR. drovers, herders, apiarists, and others serving master agriculturists for wages. 22. MANUFACTURING WAGEMEN: maehanics, millers, editors, and generally those enumerated in the ninth class, but whlo serve master employers for wages, whether on time or by the piece. 23.

COMIIERCIAL WAGEMEN: clerks, salesmen, mies sengers, porters, carmnen, brakesmer, watch men, bookkeepers, tellers, sailors, boatmen, lightermen, canalmen, packers, stablemen, captains, supercargoes, pilots, steamboat-mnen, stewards, toll-gatherers, collectors, conductors, weighers, gaugers, measurers, samplers, and other employcs serving in the business of masters engaged in commerce, and who are paid wages on time or task for their services. 24. DOMESTIC SERVANTS: cooks, waiters, hostlers, coachmen, footmen, chambermaids, washers and ironers, butlers, seamstresses, and the like, who were not members of the family, but served for wages. 25. INFERIOR CIVIL OFFICIALS: deputy-shieriffs, con stables, policemen, detectives, watchmen, in spectors, deputy clerks of courts, city firemen, and the like, whose services were paid by fees, or time wages, fixed by law. 26. INFERIOR MILITARY OFFICIALS: common soldiers, seamen, and marines, enlisted for a term, sub ject to obey orders implicitly, and supported on fixed rations and pay. FIFTH GENERAL

DIVISION: OUTCASTS. ‘7. PAUPERS: such as beggars, the destitute con signed to poor houses, or admitted permanently to asylums and houses of refuge, where they are provided with subsistence. 28. CRIMINALS: such as thieves, forgers, vagrants, swindlers, prostitutes, gamblers, and the like; also, generally all persons convicted and under going imprisonment for felony.

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. Thle number of people belonging to each division and class was shown by this census. For instance, the census of the oldest Province of Nodland, which had a population of forty million, showed, on careful analysis, the number of souls under each division to be as follows: FIRST DIVISioN: 1st Class: Morey Lor(ls, their wives and children 2d to 6th Classes: Gentry, ” ” ” SECOND DIVISION: Tile four classes of Independents, ” ” THIRD DIVISION: The eight classes of Vassals, ” ” FOURTH

DIVISION: The eight classes of Vayemnen, ” ” FIFTH DIVISION: The two classes of Outcasts of both sexes and all ages…….. 1,000,000

40,000,000 Approximately, this was the case in every one of the Provinces of Nodland. It thus appeared that tile proportionl of Money Lords was one in four hundred; that of the Gentry, nine in four hundred; that of the Independents, thirty in four hundred; that of the Vassals, fifty in four hundred; that of the Outcasts, ten in four hundred; and that of the Wagemen, three hundred in four hundred, or three-fourths of the whole population. The Enosian census, compared with previous data, showed an illncrease of wagemen, paupers, and criminals, and a corresponding decrease of the other classes It was not that none of the wagemen ever rose to the better-portioned rank of vassals, or even as high as that of money lords; or that none of the money lords, gelntry, independents, or vassals ever descended to the grade of wageinen, or even of paupers; but, for many manifest causes, those who fell from affluence into bankruptcy and povertywere more numerous than those who ascended from serfdom to the domination of wealth. While a few wagemen, taking advantage of some exceptional skill 147 I ioo-,ooo 900,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 30,000,000

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. or talent they had acquired, or genius God had blessed them with, would be able to obtain a large remuneration from the rich, who, for the sake of pleasure or profit, would avail themselves of that skill, talent, or genius, at the same time many of the money lords and gentry would squander all. they possessed in extravagant display or ruinous investments-speculations in stock, and so on! While some of the vassals, taking advantage of opportunities-such as a new outlet of trade, the introduction of a new fashion or inivention, the development of a new source of production, or the means of supplying a demand of any kind at less cost-would thereby realize large gains, free themselves from debt, and become clear capitalists, many more would commit mistakes in the choice of their adventures, make false estimates, and act on delusive anticipations, and hence would be disappointed, make losses instead of profits, and silk into penury. While some independents, seizing the occasion of a run of custom, would hire wagemen to help them, and succeed in turning their little shops or stalls into factories and stores representing considerable net gains, a larger numTber would miscalculate the proportion of outlay and income, or the duration of the profitable custom, and hence would, at last, become hopelessly insolvent. In every rash undertaking the covetous aspirant would strain his credit, borrow money, give pledges, mortgages’and security to the lenders, pay away his profits in usury, till he could pay no more; and then see the usurers take away the properitv itself 6n which they had made the loans. Thus, though the number of the rich was constantly diminished, the amount of the capital they absorbed and accumulated constantly augmented; t/he sum total of weatltA was constaitly becominig greater, wvAile the pa2-ticie)ants were constantly beconmi?ng less numerous. In such a society I hardly need to say wealthy persons were in I high esteem; and the respect with which one was treated, the influence and power he exercised, 148

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. was in proportion to his fortune. This discrimination was so marked that, though there was no legal distinction of castes, it really existed; and by common consent practically prevailed. Indeed, one might always know to what caste a man belonged by his personal appearance; his dress, his manners, his degree of cleanliness, and other in(i’cia. The moneyed, landed. manufacturing, and commercial aristocracy were distinguishable l)y their luxurious style of living, their equipages, their supercilious deportment, and other modes of displaying their riches.

As the scale of fortunes descended, it was generally easy to detect a graded diminution of sumptuousness and( arrogance, or reserve, till, at last, with the wagernen all appearance of superiority vanished, to give place to humility, sordid apparel, coarse manners, and rough skins. There was a clear deniarcation between the wagemen and the other classes, not only in external appearance, but in thie more serious matter of social antagonism. With the exception of the superior officials, who were generally parasites of the appropriators, there was an insuperable social barrier between the classes of wagemen and wagepayers; a continual antagonism between them, carried on most always silently, but tacitly understood, on both sides, to be irrevocable. The capitalists would, it is true, compete with each other in trade, speculation, and adventure, but they acted in unison on one point: keeping downe the wagces of l(bor-.

They were unanimous and firm in repressing any demand of the wagemen for any remuneration above the minimum of subsistence. On the other hand, it was the general desire, if not the active undertaking of the wagemen, to obtain more just and sufficient compensation; but circumstances and pusillanimity prevented a determined and united enfobrcement of their wish. They were distracted by dissentions and treason. A great number, actuated by the fear of hunger and an exclusive care for self, were continually betraying their 13* 149

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T[IlE EDEN OF LABOR. brethren, and underbidding thle current rate of wago.

to obtain employment. It often happened to themn that to fail in getting work and wages was to fail in getting bread the next day for themselves and families. The appropriators had stores of provisions and money-had no such fear of famine; and thus enjoyed an advantage which, even when the wagemen were united, generally overcame their utmost perseverance. There was no work or wages to be rad, except sotch as the a?)-‘o]riatows were able and willing to gave, and of this there was hardly ever enough for all the wagemen, so that the latter, in their struggles to obtain it, were like shipwrecked persons in the deep, clinging to an over crowded raft, or fighting each other for a foothold upon it. Hlappy the laborer when labor was in demand, laborers few, and employers competing for their service; but, alas! this scarcely ever took place. The partition, or distribution anrid consumption, of the net products of industry, was entirely under the control of the approl)riators; and they (livided it among themselves, leaving only the crumbs for the wagemen, who were doomed to take this or notl-hig. This brings me to a set of facts which should be carefully noted in every mind. I call particular attention to them; for, without understanding them, the reader will not understand the political economy of Nodland, nor the events of its history that depended upon that political economy. (1) Capital, in Nodland, was correctly distinguished as being of two kinds, (1) productive, and (2) unproductive; and these again were either fixed capital, which consisted of lands, buildings, machines, and other long lasting property; or ” circulating” capital, which consisted of the movable and, to a great extent, rapidly perishable products of the last and few preceding years (such as provisions, materials, clothing, and other commodities and merchandise; also interest of money, rents, and profits) remaining unconsumed by incorporation in permanent property 150

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. or waiting to be consumed, unproductively or reproductively. The value and quantity of each of these species of capital, however great, was odef?tile; that is to say, did not exceed some positive amount whether known or unknown. All of it, even the permanent kind (except the land, and even that to a great extent),was:.Firsfly, co>is,i?)able and des’ructible; and secondly, from the total value and quantity of production being limited the increase of oie Iind necessarily implUie(d the decrease af another int any yi?)ei state of labor power. (2) All capital or all labor was not essentially of one or the other of these kinds. Some of it was essentially of one or the other species, as food, which is by its nature productive; or as tobacco, which is intrinsically unproductive; or as gardening, which in itself isproductive; or play-acting, which is inherently unproductive. But, to a great extent, capital and labor may be productive or unproductive accord(ing to the mantner it is used, or the pi?rpose for which it is consumed; as money, which may be used to buy bread or a trinket; or as plowing, which may serve for preparing a field for grain, or for levelling a lawn to beautify the foreground of a manasiol. (3) The appropriators were the owners and masters of all the fixed and nearly all the circulating capital, owners of the land, machines and bread; and(l therefore dictators of labor. Labor had no capital, had only brains and muscle, which lay powerless till employed and salaried or patronized by Capital. Ihence, it was the appropriators who decided what 2,)0p2)ortion of’ capital should be reproductively invested, what proportion unproductively consumed, what portion should remain circulating, and what should become “fixed.” They could direct labor to either or any of these ends: starve it or feed it as they deemned expedient or agreeable to themselves. (4) Every appropriator determined, for himself, in which of tlhese catag,ories-fixed, circulating, productive, or unproductive conslumrnptioin-he would put whatsoever belonged to him. One adopted the policy 151

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THE EDEN OF I,ABOR. of reproductive investnment, and was enriched. Another yielded wholly to the allurements of unproductive consumption, and was impoverished. The avaricious deprived themselves, and sought only gain.

The prodigals indulged themselves, and devoured or wasted all their substance. Few, however, pur,sued either policy absolutely. Generally they would each consume his income both productively and unproductively, and in various proportions, one differing from the other; but the inclination of tile great majority of the appropriators was to enjoy themselves display sumptuousness, revel in luxuries, seek pleasures and thus consume unproductively the greatest Oprt of their income, the largest portion of the net product of the labor of the wagemen. (5) The appropriators generally expended most of the’increase, and sometimes much of the principal, of their fortunes in such a manner that the cost of what they consumed excessively outweighed what would hive been the cost of commodities equally comfortable and useful had they chosen and encotiraged these. They preferred fin,ery, ornaments, toys, equip)ages, palaces, balls, feasts, idle travel, and the thousalnd other ways of spending capital or net products destructively. The effect, of course, was to give a great impetus to the p)ro(duction of tun-eprodtc live thitys-of things which did not serve to give or renew strength, health, comfort, or intellect; and which furnished no power to supply or restore their like through consumption, but which in each instance vwere consumned once and irredeemably. (6) True, a part of the price or cost of these things -tihe part paid to the waigemen who made themserved to sustain life and renew strength; and so far, but so fil only, the appropriators furnished out of thleir resources reproductive commodities to the wagemren; but this was only to enab)le the wagemen to 9’eplace the same vaint n’n(d nf”i things which had beenii unproductively consumed. hence the condition of the wagemen remained the same. 152

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. They could not purchase the fruits of their own labor with the wages of that labor. They maintained, or, if you will, even increased the wealth of the world, but not for themselves; not so that enough could be made for them to participate therein, except to a disproportionately small extent. They were as in a’ tread-mill, grinding out abundance of the costliest kind for the appropriators, but only a dole’of mlserable subsistence for themselves. They were prevented from producing an abundance of things “good for the poor,” and affording them an enjoyable life. (7) Thus, since capital aId income were not unlimited, but, on the contrary, of a positive amount, aiid tihe tendency was towards the production of a maximum of unreproductive capital and a minimum of reproductive capital, the more the appropriators gathered or cut out of the labor of the wagemen, the less, in proportion, remained for productive reillvestmrnent. The-e wvas a contin?tal diminution of the pro)por-tioni devoted to the production of necessary and com??)odrious thii,gs; and a progressive diverting of capital used to supply the wants of the wagemen, in order to invest it to gratify the desires of the sumptuous. and vicious. (8) Laborsaving machinery, discoveries of science, devices of inventive art, were preferably applied to increase the kind of production which the appropriators exclusively consumed. Their power of consumption of these thi)ngs was limited only by the extent of their capital and revenues; but these were great, and they could make purchases and exchanges in a liberal manner with each other. On the other lhand, the wagemen were limited to their wages, and these were so mean that they could only purchase necessary things at prices that yielded small profit.

No wonder, then, that the manufactlure of unreproductive luxutries was stiimulated. Thus, while science and art were continually discovering and inventing ways of dispensing with human labor, they directed the 153

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. main current of the enormous remainder towards the production of luxuries. Hlence, the number of persons needed for the new and luxurious manufactures were integrally more numerous, while the sum total, demanded for all work, was proportionally and progressively falliing, off. The capital and labor invested in the production of food, clothing, and shelter for the poor were reduced. The appropriator would invest in production of this kind only so far as it was necessary to supply the workmen they employed. -Hence, the reduction was of the number of wagemen that produced commodities of the necessary kind. Thousands were thrown out of employ, and the consequent competition brought on reductions of wages. Pauperism and misery spread among the masses; and induced many diseases, epidemics, and excessive mortality, as if to restore the equilibrium between population and subsistence. (9) But the real nature of the disturbance of equilibrium was between the reduced demand of the appropriators for reproductive labor on the one hand, and the increase of the excluded number of those offering to do that kind of labor on the other. If the appropriators had been willing, or their system of political economy had permitted, there would have been abundance of subsistence raised and made for a much larger population. Hence to a great extent, under their policy and caprice, the insufficiency of work, wages, and subsistence was independent of population. Even in a sparse population, the rich can, without em)loyinzy ALL those who abbe destitute of capitadl, determine the application of land, machines, and money mainly to supplying more and more luxuries inaccessible to the poor. In such a case, alas! too frequent, it is clear that those whose services they determined to dispense with were doomed to compulsory idleness, mnisery, disease, and death. Judge what the effect must have been in a thickly populated country such as Nodland was. (10) What the appropriators wanted was abundance 154

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. of all kinds of sumptuous articles and luxurious commiodities, cheap enough for themselves even thouglI too costly for the wagemen. The appropriators had power to direct their capital to this result, and did so. Capital pleased itself first, arid Labor, under penalty of exclusion from the table of life, fotunn( itself under the necessity of obsequiously seeking to please Capital. The appropriators would not part with enough wage money or necessary commodities to support the numbers of the poor except on tlhe tacit condition that the majority of the poor must devote their labor to the sumptuous and pleasurable things or services in which they, the appropriators, delighted. To enjoy these excellent things was thie motive of their extortion; the only motive of theii accumulation of capital, their only motive foy fuinlishing work and wages to the poor. Hence tlhe poor were forced to produce luxuries, vanities, fasliions, finery, amusements, shows, and even pander to vice in order to live. These were almost exclusively consumed by the rich. Nearly all that could be saved or reserved out of labor in excess of absolutely necessary subsistence, was invested in this way. Out of the residue left to them the wagemen were hardly ever able to make any savings. When they did make any saving, the amount was pitiful, and they were able to set it apart only by rigorously depriving themselves of every comfort. Few had sufficient courage and patience to do this. Thzey were tepted to imitate, i?; a,2)iserable way, the example of’ the vealtAy; and would spend all they could possibly spare, in buying cheap and detestably inferior qualities of pergiCioe?s things, such as strong and impure wines, or in gratifying a taste for low and demoralizing amusements, such as indecent buffooneries and balls, or even games of chance. These facts were scrupulously noted and tabulated by the commissioners of the census. Whlen they were laid before king Enos, he at once prudently ordered that they be withheld from the public, lest they iillight 155

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. furnish a clue to the causes of the poverty of the masses, and give rise to agitation for radical reform, or may be to revolution. Among the tables thus withheld was a curious one which made a divisiou of the eight clnsses of wage. men into four 7afl8ve7-8e categories which were denoted by distinctive titles, as follows: (1) refiners, (2) para. sites, (3) fructifiers, and (4) creepers. Tbey ao stated the number of wagemen, women and children, belong. lug to each of these cross categories. (1) The “]?efters” were those among the wage people of every trade or occupation who worked in producing such necessary and commodious articles as wele usually consumed by the wealthy, also ie makers of things and doers of service exclusively sumptuous. (2) The “Paries” were those who, among any class of wage people, were employed to subserve the intemperance, lust, vain display, and other vicious pleasures and wastefulness of the wealthy. (3) The “Fr?cfyers” were those who, among any class of wage people, devoted their labor.tiine to making products and rendering services “good for the poor,77 and at prices cheap enough to be paid for out of their wages. (4) The ” Ceepers” were those who, among any class of wage people, earned their subsistence by ministering, ia any way, to the intemperance and other immoral habits of the poor. these: That the wealthy would accept, for their own consumption, only articles or commodities, work or service of excellent quality; and which, therefore, involved an extra proportion of labor and skill; and, therefore, also required the best workmen and finest materials and products for their mantufaccture, so that even the necessary and commodious things they con 156

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. sumed-their food, clothing, houses, furniture, and fuel-were really sumptuous and luxurious. That the labortime (to say nothing of natural values) required for the sumptuous and pernicious products and services, consumed by the appropriators, vwhen compared with their small quantity, was enormnous. Their total valuation at the current money p)rices amounted to nearly three-fourths of the whole estimated value of the labor product of the country; the capital invested in lands, buildings, machines, and materials to make them, was two-thirds of the assessed value of all property; and the labor they required took more than one-havf of all the wage people, without counting the officials and soldiers. That the creepers, soldiers, and officials made onefo’urth of the wage people, and the fructifyers another fourth. That this last-named FOURTH produced the whole quantity of every commodity, and rendered every service usefully consumed by the wage people, who composed three-fourlhs of the whole populations Henee it was calculated that, if all the able-bodied men in the country labored to supply only that which was truly necessary and commodious, it would require only half time to furnish it in the greatest abundance. Finally, it was remarked that the products, the capital, tlhe-merchandise, and indeed all valuable things in the country, could be distinguished as belonging to one’or the other of two clearly marked destinations; (1) those that were only available to the appropriators, and (2) those that were only fit for the wage people. But, all these developments did not touchl tlhe heart of Enos, and induce him to make more equitable laws. On the contrary, he sought only to strengthen and perpetuate the class distinctions, the monopolies, and the other privileges enjoyed by the few to the detriment of the many. I-e resolved to rest his throne uponi this system. Ile hastened to create his projected aristocracy; and for this he 14 157

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. chose the very richest of tile money lords and gentry.

lie gave them the titles of Prince, l)uke, Count, and the like, decorated theiii with distinctive insignia, and endowed them with peculiar powers and immunities; but, subjected them to many conditions and duties for the rnainitenance of his royalty and dynasty. One of tile statutes of this aristocracy was, that it should be composed only of those whose wealth was very great and clear of encumnbraince. Elevation to higher rank, title, and power was to be the reward of increase of wealth, and divestiture and degradation, the immnediate penalty of incurring serious debts or losses.

Wealth being the foundation on which tlhe nobility rested, such a creature as a poor noblemn(an was not tolerated in Nodland. Ruined men, if they had been nobles, were severely punished whenever they attempted to use, or even boast of; their former distinctions and titles. At tlhe same time, Enos also determined on the conquest and subjugation of tle E(ldei-i of Labor. For this purpose he raised, armed, and traiiied a larger standing army than had ever been seen in the world before. Be found tlhis even easier than he expected; for the number of tlie unemployed poor was so great, thiat hundreds of thousands flocked to the service which secured them even a scanty and perilous existence. This accomplishe d, he invaded the Eden of Labor, and thoroughly succeeded in subjecting it to hlis sovereignty and institutions. The Patriarchls were deprived of all temporal authority, and forced to fly to the sterile mountains and deserts. It does not enter into the plan of this work to relate in detail, the means and circumstances of the violent substitution of the institutions of cupidity auid envy, to those of equity and brotherhood.

Suffice it to say that all the lands and other property of the Reductionese were confiscated and divided among an aristocracy composed of officers of the conquer 158

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. ing army, who were rewarded with dignities andl booty in proportion to their ranklc, while the conquered people were reduced to a serf(lorn similar to that of the feudal system established in Europe by Clovis and TlIeodoric. All tlhe aristocracies that ever existed on the face of the earth, whatever name they have borne, were really of wealth.

The moment any of them seemningly resting on military distinction or family right, b)ecame poor, it fell into contempt and imnpotency. Enos silnply made this practical fact ostensible. He knew that titles of nobility were useless ai(d riidiculonus without riches; aln(l that, with riclies tiiere was social elevation an(I itnfluence that coul(d, were it not for vanity, dispense with honorary names and escutchleons. I a-9

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CHAPTER X. DEGRADATION AND REACTION. OF course, the reader perceives that the institutions of Nodlatnd, and the events of its history, the wronigs and wars, the tyranny and miseries that befell the people of that country, were the natural-nay, the necessary-consequtences of the principle of cupidity and appropriation that prevailed there. It could produce no other result. Let us pursue the narrative. IRAD, the confounder of descents an(i races, succeeded his father Enos, who died about thle year 104O. Irad, during }is1 reign, which lasted one hundred and twenty five years, adopted the policy of encouraging marriages between the victorious and enriched families of Nodland and the rulined, but once distinguished, families of the Eden of Labor. hlis object was to reconcile the Reductionese to the institutions and order of things Enos had introduced among them. He thought, that, if he afforded their men opportunities of acquiring exceptional riches, he would tempt them to accept the manners and customs according to which such opportunities were presented, and such riches secured. His plan was destined to be ultimately successful. At first only’

a few of the race of Seth were induced to intermarry with the descendants of Cain; but when the enslaved people saw the parties and children of these alliances aggrandized and enriched, the cupi(dity of thleir souls was moved; and gradually more and more of them yielded to the allurement.

A door was opened through which, it seemed to every poor slave, lie night escape the distress and oppression he suffered. The selfish-the ambitious and covetous-feelings of

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. each individual were stimulated. Each imagined he nil-ht be the fortunate suitor of one of the “daughters of men.” The hearts of thousands of the once disinterested and fraternal Reductionese were now leavened with avaricious and inequitable hopes and desires. The greed of riches took possession of souls. which formerly gloxvwed with neighborly love, so that, as time went on, a majority was con,verted to the principles of their rapacious conquel,ors. Only one dissenting class of men prevented this selitiment from becominig quickly unlanllilnous. It was that of the priesthood, founded by Enocl-i, the son of Sethl, born in the vear 235. It was tlhe vocation of the priesthl-ood( to offer the daily sacrifice to the only God, and( to preserve and teach tlhe traditions of His law. This order still existed in the reign of Enos; and continued zealously for centuries after to fulfil their holy functions. They preacled against the growiong corruption, and( tlus greatly retard(led its progress. To defeat it entirely was impossible, on account of the abolition of the social and economic system their principles implied. They taught brotherly unity, but the tribes had been forcibly disorganized, farmilies dispersed, and the faithful were the slaves of cruel and insatiate strangers. Each of themi was robbed of the fruits of his labor, reduced to the smallest living measure; and this was all they could share with one another. Mutual assistaice in labor or suffering was almost im-lpossible; and floin amnollg themselves sprang shameless betrayers. But since the political and social orgtiiiz,,tion of the law of love was renderied impossible, the priests advised the disinherited poor to ftorm among themselves associations for mutual help, benevolent societies, unions, and guilds under divine protectioil.”lhese were voluntarily constituted on various plans. Flirom tlhe )begin)ning tlhey were fruitful of benefits to the members; but, what was more important, they served to prepare the slaves for the emancipation which 14* 161

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. followed the civil wars that broke out in different parts of Irad’s empire. The nobility }lad frequent quarrels with each other, arising somnetinies from personal insults, sometimes from an heiress eloping with the younger son of a neighbor, sometimes from depredations of the vassals of others, and sometimes from one nobleman harboring the fugitive slaves of the others.. Irad had the weakness to allow the nobles to make war on each other. He regarded it as of no consequence so long as they were dutiful in their allegiance to him, and ready to suspend their dissentions in order, if necessary, to defend his sovereign authority. In fact, their conflicts amused him; and he let them go on till they became so common that petty intestine war was the habitual state of the country. All disputes between the great were settled in that way; and such was the proud, jealous, and vindictive character of these nobles, that these disputes and consequent appeals to arms were of constant occurrence. To meet the exigencies, the nobles would often compose small armies of their slaves; and, to inspire these slaves with ardor, would promise them immulities, such as to commute their slavery for a stipulated tribute of small amount, or for a lease of land on shares of product, or for a percentage on the earnings of cooperative companies, which the workmen were allowed to form. In the mean time, the priests, while seeking, by anll means to induce the nobles to cease war and live in peace, encouraged-nay even suggested almost every concession made iu favor of the servile classes. They denounced the enslavement of persons as a sin, and wherever they persuaded the heart of a nobleman to submit to divine law, they induced him to celebrate his conversion by an act of manumrnission. Unfortunately, this was not as general as it ought to have been; but it was remarked that trade’unions of freedmen gradually tugmeniited; and that, in some parts, they comprised whole towns or commiunes, which prospered under charters of emancipatioli wrung by 16-4

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. necessity, or obtained through religion, from their former masters. In the midst of all this, after a reign of one hun dred and twenty-five years, Irad died, and his soii ascended the throne.

MAJUJAEL, the smitten of God, son of Irad, begali his reign about the year 1165. HIis first act of sovce reignty was to forbid the noblemen from grantinrg any further immunities to their menials and bond men. He prohibited any future liberation of slaves. He forbade the noblemen from making war against each other, ordered them to disband their military retainers, and required them to refer all their disputes to himn as their rightful arbitrator. He commanded all the free towns and communes to attorn to him, took away the charters the noblemen had given, and issued new ones with restricted conditions under tlhe great seal of State. A cry of indignation at these measures arose from all classes, and revolt w.Vas attempted, but there was no concert of action among the discontents.

Majujael sent disciplined armies to aill the provinces; and suppressed all signs of rebellion, inflicting the most cruel punishments on every man whose conduct or lukewarmness afforded the least ground to accuse him of disloyalty. Thousands were tortured and burned to death. Great estates were forfeited to the crown; and( given away to abject courtiers. But far from consolidating his sovereignty by this violent and sudden change of the policy of the State, or by this undue severity, a contrary affect was in it short time developed. Many of the patriarchs and their families had taken refuge in the mrountainous districts when Irad subjugated the Eden of Labor. There they had lived in peace, leading a pastoral life. Enoch, son of Seth, and Cainan, son of Enoch, had( presided over their restricted but undisturbed territory and fraternal society. To the same mountains great Jumrbers of the people now fled to escape Majujael’s persecution.

Malllaleel, now the ruling patri 163

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. arch (for Enoch and Cainan were (lead) was greatly embarrassed to relieve the wants of sucl a multitude of refugees. It was at oncle manifest that lie could not support them long, whatever generous sacrifices he and his people wvere disposed to miake. Their account of the barbarity of Majujael fired his heart with ind(lignation, but what could he do to succor them effectually? Suddenly he was “illumijied of God.” He observed that, as if inspired by a common thought, they had come to him for protectioni; and without pre-concert were here and now, as it were, an army of more than an hundred thousiand men providentially assembled and only needing orgalization and a leader. Without hesitation Mahlaleel availed hiiz-self of tlhe situation, procured arms aiili provisions, nmaislialled the fugitives, recruited reinforcemeln ts among the herdsmen of tlle mountains, marclied againist the tyrant, overthrew lhim in a great battle: and as Supreme Patriarch took upon himself the government of tlhe countlry where Adam had reigned wvith so much beneficenlce and wisdom. He exerted all his genius’ to re-establish- the laws and customs of the Eden of Labor; but met with ulexpected difficulties. The people had become corrupted by the principles of the Approprintive System. They clami, red for it in the name of’ Liberty. TI’ley understood as liberty the righit of getting rich utider the protection of uncharitable laws tfli-t guaratliteed to every man whatsoever he could gaiu fromrn thle nmaking of illequitable and uncharitable barg,ains with his neighbors, or bv the privileged appropriation of natural values, etc. The hope evei thle poorest entertained of’ wilnning a prize in this iliqulitous lotteIr, wilere nearly all the chances were hel(l by cap)ital agailist labor-, blind(led them to their true interests. Neverthleless, after 1)roclaitinilg tlhe elanceii)ation of’ tlhe slives, he persisted in his efforts to restore lReductioiiism, ald was making considerable hiough 164

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. prudently gradulated progress, when hle found himself obt)liged to engage in another war. MATHUSAEL, the death dealer, son of Majujael, had in the year 1195, succeeded his father as king of Nodland; and raised a new army to conquer the Eden of Labor again. He marched against Mahlaleel, van. quished and slew him. Not content with simple victory, he followed up his success by a general~massacre of those who had yielded even a semblance of allegiance to Mahlaleel’s government. Blood flowed in torrents over the whole land. The people were decimated, but, strange to say, they did not murmur; they only wept their friends and relatives; for with all his barbarity, Mathusael cunningly managed to console them. lie confirmed or rather imitated Mahlaleel’s edict of emancipation, disturbed no inheritance, and proclaimed whlt hlie called l’ree trade, but wliich could be only defined as a license to all men (particularly those who had managed to appropriate to self ani amount of natural values) to accumulate additional wealth tlhrough profit, rent, and usury which they deducted from the fruits of labor. Yet this was what tlhe gi-eat majority desired and applauded, so that, notwitlistandi ng his blood-thirsty ferocity, Matlhusael was popular and enjoyed a peaceful reign. LAIEcCH, conquerer of the poor, son of Matliusael became in 1260
the worthy successor of his father as ruiler of the nations. In the first part of his reign nothing occdeurred to disturb the settled policy and econiomic movement of the empire; but after some years a double evolution manifested itself. The aristocracy founded, as we have seen, on wealth claimed the right of taking part in the goverinment and demande(l a parliament, the wagemen began to realize the fact of the utter hopelessness of any amelioration of their condition fromnt any voluntary or initial movement on the part of their masters the appropriators. The wealthy arg,ue(I that since they supported the State; were taxed to pay all expenses of administration. the cost of civil 165

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. police and warlike defence, with armies, navies, an(l munitions, Lguards, detectives, constables, and judges, and were required generally to provide all the revenues needed for public works and public justice, they should be consulted and their consent obtained. They contended for the principle of no taxation without representation. The poor argued that true it was there should be no taxation withlout relesentation; but that all the taxes were in fact paid by them-paid from the proceeds of their labor, and hence the law and national institutions and economv should have due regard to their welfare. They were willing even to support the king should he refuse the representation the wealthy demanded; but Lamrnech was well aware that the whole fabric of the Nodlandic constitution was built upon the supremacy of the wealthy; and upon the design of securing quiet to the ownerships and appropriLtions acquired acceordiug to the intensely selfish legislation of Cain. Ie therefore cheerfully called the parliament required by the NOBILITY, and by the COMMONERS Who were p?-operty aoltleJs, but treated the timid petition of the wagemnen with utter contempt. To this parliament, which was composed of two houses, a senate of titled grandees, and a delegation of rich commoners, the wageiien appealed to obtain relief from many of the hardships their masters imposed; but it was a vain attempt; for it was really asking the appropriators to deci(le their own case against themselves. Thus repelled, the wagemen fell back upon their unions, and inaugurated strilkes; also tried to forin cooperative associations to do worklc on their own account: but in both these movements they met with the most effeetual opposition. The appropriators aiiswered thle strikes by lock-outs and combined ineritia; the cooperative enterprises by refusing the necessary funds except for usury, thus rendering the cooperation just as tributary to them as any other individual or partnership undertaking based onl borrowed capital, or they would combine to undersell 166

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. the cooperatives till they exhausted and ruined them.

Nevertheless these unions arid strikes were troublesome; and the appropriators resolved to get rid of them by means of invidious and punitory laws, wvhich were passed in the two houses, and which received the royal sanction, defiling the strikes as riotous assemblies and tlhe unions as conspiracies, and prohibiting as criminal ally attelmlpt to enlist, of to sharne, or deter, such workmen as were willing to accept whatever wages the employers chose to give. These laws were rigorously enforced, so that by tile time of Lamnech’s death the wagemen were comI)letely reduced to subjection. In the mean time, however, political events arose which it is useless to explain, but which induced Lameclh to think it good policy to strengthen for a while the voluntary unions the laboring people had fornmed. He granted them charters, witlh power to p)ass Xey,l(ations obligatory, AS LAW, upon every member. These charters decreed that (all the workers of the same trade should belong to the corporate body of his craft-that each union might ownl property and undertake works, in its corporate capacity-deterinine at what wages and during what number of hours per day it would be lawful for a member to swork and to refuse to allow a member to leave the uliion in which he had voluntarily enrolled hinmself. Soon, under these sanctions, the working class rose to prosperity, and even to power. lience they loved-were faithful to and proud of their orgaization. But Lamechi, covetous of the property they hlad acquired, seeking meanis to indulge the uiibounded luxury and pomp of his court, and to levy mcen and materials for building wonderful, but useless, paliaces and moiiumrnents, burdened the unions with enormous taxes and onerous services to the State; this to an extent the unions could not sustain. They were crushed under the load imposed by the arbitrary edicts of the emnpire; and tile iiem 167

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. bers fell into a worse slavery and poverty than before.

JABAL, JUBAL, and TUBALCAIN, the worldly producers and possessors, soils of Lamech, were, about the year 1360, severally called to rule over different parts of the empire of the world Their fathe; liad had four sons, two by each of his wives A da and Sella. He held tllem in equal affection; and, seeing that his empire was so large, conceived the idea of dividing his succession among them, which he did by means of a will of which he left a copy with each of them, to be opened only at the moment of his death. One day, however, for some slight offence, lie flew into a passion against the second son of Ada, and slew him. His sorrow for this was so great that -he never’ recollected himself sufficiently to think of correcting the dispositions of the will. Upon its being opened, it threw, as it were, the apple of d(liscord among the lords, comnmons, and people.

Hlow was the portion bequeathed to the murdered son to be disposed of or divided? Should the empire be divided at all? These were questions whichi aroused the ambition and the jealousies of different parties. Factions, each demanding a discordant solution, were formed; and in a few weeks the world was ablaze with civil war. It followed, after many years of bloodshed and devastation, that, instead of three orif’our kingdoms, double as many arose, and several oligarclies’and republics were constituted. The result of this revolution, so far as the wagemnen were concerned, was only this, that they a6quired everywhere the right of suffrage, but how to exercise it wisely, and to their owni and thle genei-al welfare, they failed to perceive. Demrnagogues went among them advocating the pursuit of many good objects, such as: the reduction of the hours of labor; education; the lending of capital to the poor that they might become independent producers; the tatxation of ezcell man’s gross capital, whetlher in debts due li’un or otherwise, and without regard to his net 168

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TlE EDEN OF LABOR., fortune; the encouragement of co.operative enterprises by the State; the division of lands into small farms; the abolition of usuryv, and the like; but none of the reformers were able to point out how these reforms were to be effected, either through violence or peaceful means. They kept the world in constant. agitation and apprehension, without thlere being any reasonable prospect of a happy chlange. Thie practical objections to their plans seemed insuperable. Education must be a rrmoeckery so long as the childiren of the poor must be set to work, at ten years of age, to avoid dying of starvation and cold. A dimiulition of the hours of labor must be vain so long as the rate of wages and the iiumber of wagemen cmployed dlepetided upon the will or ability of the criiployers. Strikes for higher wages in any trade could be efficient onlly in thle few cases where the profits of the masters afforded margin for compliance; but in every other instance higher wages coul( only ruin the masters and therefore the workmen also. Cooperation only instituted partnershi l composed of numerous members, but subject to all the accidents and losses of similar enterprises collducted by single persons or corporations. The pztrcellation of land inust be ineffective so long as it mnay be sold in perpetuity, and reconsolidated after division, and so long as the hiring of agricultural wtagemen was permitted. Usury could not be prevented by any imagiliabre legislation, so lollg as acculnulatioli of capital by one man and the need of it by anotlher is lawvtully possible, ald so lolug as rieiit, l)rofit, and credit can be legally stipulated betweeci contracting parties. Taxation iinposed in an unequtal or excessive manner, for the purpl)ose of compellilug the few whvo lhad accumiulated the capital of a c)ountry to distribute it amnong the maily, was not only coilfiscation, to the detriment of those who had at least a semiblance of title in order to pass that title to others who could show no clain wlha-ever; but suchl a mere clialige of title was an ad(iiiissioii of the very 15 169

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. property principle which it only served to cornplicate and embarrass, and was certain to bring on sudden ruin to all, without certalinty of benefit to any. Though obviously impracticable, the mere proposing of these measures terrified and angered the appropriators. TI)ey saw ruin to themselves in any legislative attempt, however short-liyed, to realize them, so they bethought themselves of every way in which the people mighlt be deterred from electing the wvould-be reformers who proposed them. Of colirse they diligently refuted theri through their orators and their presses. In doing this they enjoyed the greatest advantage; for the most eloquent speakers, the best writers, and the greatest publishers were at their service. Capital alone could furnish the patronage, the custom, and the readers. Capital could alone offer tihe reward or bribe which the speakers and writers coveted, and could alone print great quantities of papers and books. This did not, however, quiet the solicitude of the appropriators. They sought and found other means of turning the current of the universal desire for a better organization of society into useless reservoirs and deceitful eddies. They excited the people to take sides in regard to questions whlich might be decided in one way or the other without bringing about any change in the condition of the wagemeni: questions which onl’V concerned the interests of the appropriators in their rivalries of each other, or which were only idly speculative, or which mighlt corrupt pubIic aIIoraLls without destroying chances of gain or ambition. Among these were questions of war and peace between nations; tariffst; or free trade; the creation or destruction of monopolies; the proper imposition and standard of taxes; internal ilnprovements, whetller expedient here or there or at all; the good or bad admninistration of public revenues; the corruption or virtues of particular aspirants for popular favor; paper-money and bank.s, whether they should be al 170

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. lowed or not, and, if at all, to what extent and in what form; sectional interests-the interest of a district or locality treated as beneficial to every inhabitant when only its appropriators were concerned; State encoluragement of one religion and its persecution of another; vwomen’s rio’hts; free love; and so forth. On these and a Ihul(lred other Jftlse iss,?es parties were formed, and the nations kept in a stateof ccn tinual revolution, wlhile the appropriators watched every change to make speculations and derive gain. They were, as a body, indifferent of the success of any party or cause, provided they could foresee it, and make money by it. They advocated the party on whose chances of success they had staked investments, just as a sportsman bets on and praises the horse he thinks will win, though he has no real affection for the animal. They cared little what form of government existed. They only dreaded a change that might, in any way (1) deprive them of gain from natural values, (2) modify the ownership of land so that they could not derive rent from it forever, or (3) prevent them from taking for themselves any part of thle fruits of the labors of other men.

Whether they intended it or not, this agitation of every vain question, and the supremnacy universally conceded to the principles of the selfish system of political economy; tl-hee possibilities and opportunities this system presented for the accumulation of exceptional wealth, and the consequent enjoyment of exceptional slumptuousness and pleasure, corrupted almost every heart; tempted those who might hope to gratify their passions, and made those who could not have even the hope of justice, doubt the possibility of virtue. Even the Patriarch Mathl-usalechl joined the spoilers of labor, and revelled in every sensual excess. The common people gave t-hemrnselves to drunkenness and the other brutal vices. The lords and gentry were no better, only they veiled their corruption under appearances of polite refinemnent; but their excesses were really more debasing,7 171

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. and proved a less regard for divine commandments, than those of the rest of mankind. Nevertheless, it was an age of scierce and invention: an age of material progress. Jabal, Jubal, and Tubalcain were themselves great inventors. Tubalcain was not only deeply versed in mechanics, but also in the arts of war. It was he whom tlhe Greeks afterwards adored as Vulcau, or as Mars. His sister, Naoniah, the beauteous, was remembered and worshipped as Venus. On their palaces and cities, and on their persons and living, they lavished nillions. They sought to evince the beautiful an(l the sublime in all things material.

Thlev cultivated art for its own sake, and without regard to the true and the good. They brought music, sculpture, an(d painting to the highest sensual perfection. They built great mnonuments, erected wonderful machinery, )paved roads, dug canals; but above all things, invented and manufactured fearfully destructive arms, which t/he State only could command and possess in considerable quantity; and which the men ill power put into the hands of their numerous and subservielt soldiers, to keep the degrad(led people in complete subjection. 172

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COHAPTER XI. THE DELUGE OF SIN AND DEATH. ONE familyv only remained faithful to God: it,was that of NOAH, vwho was, thlerefore, reserved “to give us comfort from the works and labors of our hands on the earth which the Lord had cursed.” (Gen. v. 29.) Borni after the conquest of the Eden of Labor by Enos, and when the Reductionese had become to a great extent corrupted, the grace was given him to receive his early education from those who had preserved and imbibed the traditions of the early patriarchs, and particularly friom those who continued the teachings of Enoch, son of Jared, he of whom tlhe Scripturie says: “he walked with God; and was seen no inore, because God had taken him.” So, also, N’oahl “was a just and perfect man in his generations; he walked with God.” (Gen. vi.

9.) During the reign of Lamech, and of the three sons of Lamecl-i, Noah, inspired of God, sought to recall men fromt their iniquities, and to persuade them to resume volttitarily the brotherly exchange of labor for labor, which the Reductionese formerly practised. Noah understood the vanity of any attempt at material reform by any of the measures the politicians arnd economists were trying or proposing. Hence, he reminded the ancients, and endeavored to inform the young, of the systenm based upon the clear distinction between God’s share and mani’s share of all products, and on the gratuitousness of natural values, and the consequent limitation of price to labor value only. lie described the beautiful prosperity which lad prevailed while this principle was acted on; but at the same time, knolwing that the princip)le rested on religious conviction, and could be successtully applied only by those who believed it was the will of God 15*

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THE EDEN OF T,ABOR. and would obey it as such, he sought principally to rebukle infidelity and restore the true faith. Strange to say, that, though men were living who knew Adam and Eve themselves, there were great numbers of people who treated the history of creation and of Eden as dreams of deluded d(lotardcls or inventions of iml)ostoirs. Even among those who were regarded in popular opinion as faithful and pious, a large proportion conceived God as a being subject to external necessity; and, therefore, of limited power and wisdom. Many believed in the eternity of matter; tnd( in tIhe existence of an Evil Spirit, in every respect the equal of tl-he Author of all Good. Sorcery, di vination, the evocation and worship of demons, id((latry, and a thousand other superstitions had become comrnmon; but, worse than all, a wide-spread spirit of scepticism treated every point of faith and morals as an “open question,” which every man was left to decide for hiniself, as his measure of knowledge aind intellect enabled him, or as his passions dictated. By a strange inconsistency, howvever, the noisiest claimants of’ liberty of thought and action were fatalists and materialists who denied man’s freedom of will, declared that his acts were automatic, that hLis religion and morality were determined wholly by birtihplace, climate, education, and other extiinsic circumstances. They believed that there was no HeavenI-derived law, and that virtue was merely a word to,vhich various meanings were attache(d, according to the expediency or policy human reason or popular prejudice adopted inii the course (ff historical transitions. Ilence, in discarding revelation, they considered themselves as subjected to a coercion entirely accidental and material, a coercion that exempted themn from all moral responsibility, and authorized them to gratify every animal propensity or passion whenever they could, or thlought thley could, do so with i-mpunity. Hence, also, though they professed a scientific and aesthetical refinement, (lid made dissertations on natural morality, 174

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. their theory furnished tlhemrn with no sure and certain rule of conduct, tended to carry them into habitual vice, and to tempt tl-hem to the commission of every crime. Such indeed was tlhe result. “The wickedness of man was great on the earth, and… all the thoughts of their hearts were bent on evil at ali times.” (Gen. vi. 5.) Before God passed his final sentence, Noah sent amoong men, and threatened them with divine justice if’ they did not repent and turn to the Lord; but they derided himr as a madmran, and continued in their impiety, dissoluteness, and crime. Thinking that he reight find a few lhundred, who might be willing to separate themselves aid form a rigl,teous community, wlichl would, by giving an example of brotherhood and piety, excite the admiration of the world and( drawv it back to justice and to God, he devised a plan for t-hat purp-)ose. He proposed a league, which miglht be joined by anyv number of the class of fructifyers, that is to say, those who worked at )iro(duc(,ing whatsoever was “good for the poor,” auid within the means of tl-he pIoor; with a compact between the members thlat tlhey would exchlange their pro(lucts on the princil)le of labortime value for equal labor-timrne value. lie proposed that they should each devotedly COintraclet aid sternly) perform the obligation never to exchange a protlict or’ see-vice in whichl an ascertaintc(l av?oztit of ave-age l((bortime was eqnl)o(i?e(Z for a )o(1,ct or service of LESS aver-aye labortime va(lue. This LEAGUE would have dliffered lnatertiallv from the cooperative compaiies alnd guilds attempted in )previous and after ages; for, it was not to consist of men of a single trade, but of all trades doillg work of tlhe -NECESSARY kind, such as raisii)g provisions, buildii,, l)laili dwellillgs, illaking substiantial articles, providiilg fuel, besides constructing and rulning macliineiev and(l vehicles, or manutacturing and usiii, tools alld ilnplemenits fzecessory fi?’ suclh work. lle argued with them that if they did this, in a spirit of self-sacrifice and indomitable perseverance, they 175

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. would free themselves from the extortion of the appropriators of all classes. Ile showed them that ilidefiniite extension could be given to such a measure; and that all the wagemnen, and even the appropriators, might successively adopt it, so that mankind in general could be at last embraced in its operation, on this condition only, that, for the time being, they would cease the production of extravagant antil costly articles, and devote their labor only to what was really necessary alnd good for themselves and the rest of thle poor. He said tlheir labor should produce that whichl each one from his own labor might purcdase and live by; and that if a’-LEAGUE OF VARIOUS NECESSARY TRADES” were formed to work and exchange on tlhis principle, it would procure its mernmbers abundance of everything proper tQ use and consume; besides, at the same time, obtaining for every one of them abundlance of rest. Ile showed them tl)lt such a result could not be effected from tile simple cooperation of workmen of the samne trad(le. That a simple union of persons of a particular art, working together to produce a special commodity, then seeking to derive the higlhest price, and dividing the proceeds among themselves, only isolated the co-operators from the rest of the poor, made their interests distinct and adverse, even to those of associations of other trades, which worked on the same, plan of detached unions or partnerships. That the members of the same trade could not exchange their products with one another, and, therefore, that each of their associntions stood in the saiie relation to the rest of the world as ordinary individuals did, would be tempted by the same selfish mo tives, would act as all independent corporations doaim at monopoly and separate accumulation.‘lThe members of the shoemaker’s unions, for instance, could not exchange their goods with one another; the hatters could not exclhange with one anotlher; but exchanges are necessarily made between shoemakers and hlatters. He showed them that the same 176

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. objection waas also applicable to close communes or associations of cooperative labor, even thouyh they egieb(ace(l SEVERAL
trades; and that if excharnges are made between separate associations on the selfish principle, at money prices determined by tl-he caprice of desire, or thle speculations of competition, or the greed of monopoly, there would be no real change, but only a nominal displacement of private persons, and a substitution of corporations acting from the samine motives, and in thle same nianner as beforeseeking to extract the utmost profit fromn each other. Clearly a com2)lex atssociation of qnany trades, agreeing to exchange work and products, by labor value only, would remove conflicting interests, and permit the beLnefits of universal brotherhood to be realized. It would defeat all the machinations of the appropriato s.

HIe stugg,ested their primary attempts should be to form suckl a complex association of trades as would form a complete circuit and.conveyance of exchanges, tliough it might be on the smallest practical and economrnical sale. For this he enumerated the followinelements as necessary: (1) LAND, having cultivated fields, cattle, woods, water-power, clay, sand, and stone; (2) a COAL tINE; (3) an IRON MINE; (4) t MIANUFACTORY of utensils, findings, tools, and iinplements; (.) a FOUNDERY and forge for constructing engines; (6) a SAW MIILL, with carpenter, cabinetmaker, blacksraitll, and wheelwright shops; (7) a cloth and clothing FACTORY, for mnaking only suclh textile fabrics as are indispensable; (8) a TANNERY, with currier and shoemaker’s shop, soap and tallowi:-aker’s vats; (9) a FLOURING and GRIST MILL; (10) a KILN, for burning brick and lime, with bricknmaker’s and bricklayer’s appurtenances: and (11) a TYPE FOUNDERY, paper mill, and printing office. All these he calculated could be supported in certaini efficient and economical proportious, by a population of tell thousand mechanics and agriculturists ade. quately apportioned, so that no person’s time would 177

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. be wasted, and so as to supply one another with all things necessary and commodious in profusion. Noah even promised them riches if they followed this corunsel; and to prove the possibility of attaining riches by this means, he propounded what seemed a paradox, but was indeed a demonstration, as.follows: If everybody were poor, all would have to work; there would be no idleness. If none were idle and all were poor, everybody would have to work for the poor; there would be nobody else to work for. If there were none to work for but the poor, and none were idle, the poor would be working for one another, and they would only do or make things goo(d for thepoor. If all worked to make only such things as are good for the poor, there would be abundance of such things.

If the poor had abundance of all thlings good for them, they would not be poor, but rich; for abundance is riches. Hence the true paradox: if all zwe-e poor, all would I)e 2icli. Its truth will appear clearly to the mind by remeinbering the Eden of Labor where everybody worked at necessary and cheap yet commodious and beautifuLl production, and ilobod(v worked at sham, dead, or widked productionl; and whiere none could make profit on the work of others; and where it was iiml)ossible for individuals to accumulate exceptionar riches. Il that country there were 1no thieves, for its economic order gave little or no temptation to steal; there were no envyings, for no cause for them could arise. Hence, too, in that country, there was never occasion for lawsuits or quarrels for property anrd( no need of sheriffs or seizuries1 or the like. The iiitrinsis and self acting operations of its laws were such that withinii its borders there were nlo monopolies, no capitalists, no usurers, no hirers, no landlords, 178

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. no speculators, no drones, no luxurious living, no aristocracy of riches, no sumptuous fashions, no gew gaws, no frippery, no life of vanity and frivolity. Its people did not eat if thev did niiot work. They lived in brotherhood-were necessarily temperate produced and enjoyed all thing,s in mutuality and equity-enjoyed healthful rest and intellectual leisure wors-lipped and obeyed God, in truth and in love.

Hience the true paradox: If none evere alfowe-l to get richer thaez his brethren, all zvoulJi be rich. But all tile efforts of Noal wtere vain, all his arguinenits fell upon hearts and minds hermetically close(1. So corrupted had their souls become, that tl(y would not believe in his honesty, truthfulness, or d(lisinterestedtiess; and imagined he was actuated by some secret design of ambition or cupidity. Sometimes hle would say to them: “If you tlilnk it will take too long to restore the Eden of Labor to its plenitude and perfection, why (do you not attempt reforms which, though only partial and empirical, would have a tendency to that end? For instance, you might do this. Have an account taken to ascertai(n the average necessary annual expense of a workii,gruan’s family-the food, the clothes, the fuel, the Irent, the literature, the medicine which a poor family composed of husband, wife, and two children cannot dispense with without suffering. Say this would amount to eight’hundred ounces of silver per annum. Divide this by two hundred, and let the dividend be thle lawful nminiimT,?t price of one day’s work-the labor time being eight hours. A day’s wage would therefore be four ounces of silver-an hour’s wage half an ounce. But let this dividend vary with the rise and fall of the total price-current of things in  eluded in the account. For example, suppose the cost of a year’s poor living fell to seven hundred ounces, the wage would be 3, 0 ouncs. If the cost of living rose to niiie hundred oulices,tlhe (lay’s wvage would be 4, 50~. Have an irlexorable law declarillg I 179

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. that this niinimutm tlhus ascertained shall be paid for the fair amnount of work an average toiler can do, excess over the average to be paid at the same rate, per hour or per day. Th-us an e(]itlibr?iumi between the cost of living and the price of labor would be maintained. A margin would be left for the appropriatoi’s to prey upon each other, through speculations, demand, and supply, the competition pf desire and free trade, to the full extent of the surplus of iecessary products and of all commodious and sumptuous tlhings; but a limit would be set to their oppression of those wxvlose labor and skill produce the riches they app)ropriate. The poorest reward of labor would at least be guaranteed.

Perhaps you will object that many attempts have been made to fix the price of labor or commodities by means of leg,islatioii and authority-tthat these attempts hlave been’vain-thlat such laws have been always evaded and have alwz.ys produced the contrary effect. Yes, but it was because the law fixed the pricesarbitrarily-fixed them accor(limg to no principle. The law makers never thought to rest their tariff only on the primiary and necessary coisideiation of the cost of supporting labor-they have never thouLglt of tlhe rule that labor must at least reproduce itself-they have never thought of ma.intaimting the equilibrium between the cost of support and the price of labor on the principle and by tlhe means I suggest. The plates of the scales iri which these two al’e weighed against each other should all thle tiune be kept on a perfect level. As soon as the balance begins to be disturbed, the deficit of thle oit shiould be supplied, or the excedent of thie other be removed. Do you insist that such a law might be evaded by coIntiact a,,d acquittance by payrmeil)ts in inerc(haiidisc at excessive i)rices oi by the in(lirect return of’ a part of’ every paylnent, or by false acknowvled(gmnents of debt, or some other simulation-whichl the workman would from necessity be compelled to acknow ledge in writing or before witne-ses? I reply Eijforce honest and real payment by self-op)erative 180

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. laws. Declare that every contract of hire entered into for wages below the lawful rate is contrary to public policy, and therefore void so far as it attempts to evade that standard. Leave the inquiry into the real state of every case always open. Reserve to the hired workman who may have worked for less, the right, at any time afterward (for instance after ceas ing to work for an employer) to sue for the differet?ce between’what necessity compelled him to accept and the amount which would have been justly due him according to the statute.

Provide rules by which the truth may be manifested, and subterfuges detected. Admit all evidence, direct and circumstantial, of advantage taken of the workman’s distress, or of his hire having been unfairly withheld. Let his right of action descend to his widow and orphans. Such a law would rend(ler futile every attempt to evade it. It would deter the appropriators from even making such attempt; for, they would always fear that after the workman’s discharge he would demand justice, or that after his death his widow or orphans might unmask false appearances and inequitable artifices and thereupon would recover what had been fictitiously receipted for or unjustly withheld on colorable grounds. Yes, and it would be well to add that they should be on conviction condemned to pay fourfold. If such a law were passed I think the appropriators would cease from seeking an increase of profit or the avoidance of loss by reducing the price of labor below an adequate living standard. As the rate of wages would be ever and inexorably on a level with his adequate support, the appropriators would look for elements of profit outside of this condition. Perhaps (nay, certainly) they would provide for the production of a greater abundance of necessary things, which thereby would become cheaper, and thus procure a reduction of the money-price of wages without its affecting in the least the amount of things necessary for support which the workman would obtain.” 16 181

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. Many wageinen thought this was an excellent remedy for the oppressive advantage the approl)riators took, on every opportunity, to reduce the rate of wages. The unions in some places adopted it, and proposed to give their votes only to such candidates for office as would pledge themselves to carry it into effect; but, alas! they never could become unanimous in this or anything else. On this and many other plans and purposes they were ever in discord. They differed furiously and envioulsly on the choice of persons-they harbored jealous and malicious feelings toward each other  qtliarrelled and fought about every trifling matterpreferred failure and ruin to success and happiness that might be derived from the efforts of any one they disliked hate instead of love ruled their hearts and actions-they formed coteries whose principal business was to undermine each otl)er while they neglected the common ilnterests of’ their class-tihe glreat majority paid no attention whlatever to the questions that concerned the interests of labor-each man pursued only his momelntary impulse-transitory advantage-dominant passion or vice. They ran to and fro after the illusory changes proposed by demagogues and financiers-free traders and free lovers-liai’d and soft money men-e-liberals and atheists-spirit- raisers and sensational orators.

They lived in a chaos of impiety, hate, violence, sensuality, theft, fraud, falsehood, treachery, intemperance, and inconltinence. They had lost faith in God and mana -lost human synlpathyv-liad become sordidly set’ish-scoffed at philanthropy and virtue. Their degraation iand inability to act on principles of charity sank lowver every day. During Noah’s mission there happened a most extraordinary event which must not be left unmrentioned in this book. It was the discovery of prodigiously abundant mines of gold and silver in ten thousand places of’ the world. In every mountain range eager eyes and hands of searchers detected and 182

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. unearthed the precious ores in so many places and in such vast quantities that at last they became as common as stone. At first, a mine was discovered on the side of a mountain in an uninhabited territory. Hundreds, as soon as they heard of it and of the riches it afforded the lucky finder, made expeditions’ to the region, with the hope of similar good fortune. Thle world was in a fever of excitement awaitiing Che result. By and by, news came that the success of the pioneers was wonderful: that they had found much more than expected. Then some of them returned bringing great load(s of gold dust and virgin silver. 1On this, the fever iminediatcly rose to frienzv. The hundreds who went first were followed by tlhoIusald(s, and then by tells of thousands who left the labor they were doing in the fields and cities to appropriate the wealth profusely lavished by nature and which was easily and rapidly gathered.

Every one of these adventurers secured great heaps of the ol)ject of their cupidity. A great many of them established their permanent residence nlear the mines, and sent their great booty to the cities by every means of conveyance. Others returned home in the vessels and vel-hicles which carried cargoes of these enormous treasures. All imagined they had gaine(l exceediilgly great riches; but lo! they had defeated themselves, for they had such an overwhelming excess of gold and silver to offer in exchange for everything else,‘tiat these metals fell in comparative value to almnost nothing. The effect of this may be more easily imnagined than described. The currency, the medium of exchange, was ruined at its basis.

The common standard by which values were compared was lost. A great weight and volume of it was of small value. Its convenience for circulation was destroyed. Tile glory of hard money vanished. It had become as rubbish.

The term of computation of values, whetlher called a shekel or talent, ceased to have a meaning The currency had rested on the scarcity 183

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THiE EDEN OF LABOR. of gold and silver, and the slow increase of their total quantity in the world; but now these conditions no longer existed.

Hence all buying and selling or other contracts, by means of it, were impracticable; and commerce was deranged and retarded -nearly broken up.

Rich men whose fortunes amounted to millions in stocks, bonds, notes, coin and the like, now saw these things, recently’so valuable, had ceased to be so. Thousands of the wealthy were thus suddenly reduced to poverty. The most notable features of this crisis were (1) that the great commercial world (Babylon) found itself all at once without a circulating mediumn or even a basis for paper money; (2) that it was necessary to find a substitute for the former coins and for the paper that promised them; and (3) that it was necessary to invent a currency that had no reference whatever to any metallic unit. The world was confounded. The fable of Midas was now realized to almost every man. Gold and silver (now depreciated almost one hundred per centum) were tendered at their denominational stIlndardts to the creditor who demanded his due; and he turned away with disgust from the proffered payment, for healready possessed more of the glittering materialsthan hecould apply to any adequate use. The debtor, at the same time, had much more than enough to pay all he owed, but could buy hardly anything with the surplus. Every body was enraged. Quarrels and litigation arose on the obligation and performance of all previous contracts. The governments themselves insisted on paying their enormous national debts in the gold coin they had promised and which their enraged creditors were forced to take according to the figure of the weight printed on their bonds, though it represented a wonderfully less value than it did when the bonds were issued. Thus, having cynically cleared themselves of their debts, the governments breathed again, and rejoiced in the prospect of creating new debts as monstrous as the first. Producers and mer 184

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. chants who had stores of provisions and other commod(lities refused to sell for lawful money. Worlkshops and factories were suspended and stores closed. Vessels and carriages lay most of the time idle. Great numbers of wagemen were thrown out of employ just at the moment when the savings made by painful privations during years of hard labor, lost nearly all their purchasing value. The prolrietors of commodities concealed their stocks for fear the governnient would compel them to sell for money at fixed prices, or that the famishing people would forcibly despoil them. It was vain to attempt to preserve peace in the midst of this derangement and obstruction of trade, labor, and production.

The universal distress drove men to desperation. Mobs, proscrip)tion, pillage, and bloodslhed took place everywhere and on occasion of all inmanner of alarming rumors. Panics broke out and spread in every direction. Almost every act of the government was opposed by riot atid revolt. In the mean time, however, the ruin of gold and silver, as currency or basis of currency, became a settled and conceldedl fact.

lHence these metals were applied to new uses. Being cheaper than iron, glass, porcelain, or mahlogany, and at the same time more beautiful, they were used to make articles of furiiiture such as bureaus, desks, bookcases, tables, beldsteads, stoves, kitchen utensils, and even railiing,s of balconies and public squares. Indeed gold was preferred to iron in all instances in which iron had fornierly served to make things which had to be exposed to the weather; for it was less liable to corrosion, substantial enou,gh, and did not cost as much. But I need not attempt to describe the revulsion and disorder more particularly. The reader canl readily picture to himself wlat would be his situation, that of tlhe people in general, and that of the country and its affairs if all the coin and paper-mroney inl his own hands and in the hands of all other men in the world were suddenly so much red(uced in value 16’ 185

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. as to need to be increased ten thousand times in bulk, in order to represent an equal value; and this too when no substitute had been provided. There was, however, an effect that might not be thought of by every reader. This crisis did not ruin every body, but it increased the comparactive riches of those who possessed lands, houses, materials, hardware, dry goods, fuel, provisions, and othier property in considerable quantity. The moneyed men and those who depended on their prosperity were the only ones who were dir?ectly struck by the event. Those who possessed any valuable things except money were relatively enriched. In the midst of the turmoil and hardships of the crisis, the people had recourse to the primitive method of barter, whenever it was practicable to do so, but the cases were few and difficult. Something more effectual and general was absolutely necessary. Rapine by stealth-and violence were daily becoming more prevalent. The people must perish unless the regular round of (1) Labor, (2) Production, (3) Exchange, (4) Commerce, (5) Distribution, (6) Consumnption, (7) Demand and Labor, and Reproduction again were resumnied.

The popular voice spontaneously called for a new and safe currency as the only means of restoring peace and prosperity. Thus, every mind was intent upon finding a convenient, light, and quick medium of exlchange, based upon an irrefragable and universal unit of value, and excluding gold and silver, which were no longer fit for that purpose. In some places individuals or corporations tried ti supply this desideratum by issuing their personal’ notes, some promising to do an hour or a day’s labor for a definite quantity of a commodity or service they needed, and considered equivalent; or others would make notes promising a measure or weight of one commodity for a certain weight or measure of another; but as every bargain requires at least two persons to make it, several minds and wants had to 186

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. concur on the exact quantity of the two elements mentioned in the note as then respectively needed by the parties, and as being of equal value. Hence, with respect to every note it was necessary to find somebody ready and willing to deliver the precise thing demanded by the drawer of the note on the terms proposed, and also willing to rely on the drawer’s promise to redeem, by furnishing, on demand, at any future time the precise service or thing proffered in exchange. Indeed, these notes amounted simply to the tender, in each, of a specific contract of barter on cre(dit put into the form of a note, transferable by delivery.

If any one did not need to make that particular bargain, he would most probably refuse the note; but if, nevertheless, he gave his goods or work for it, he ran the risk of not finding any one willing to give him anything for it; besides the risk of the accidents which might happen to the maker; and also that of the maker’s imprudent proneness to promise more than he could fulfil; or, indeed, the risk of a dishonest repudiation of the obligation. The attempt to give circulation to such notes as a substitute for money was therefore a failure. Manifestly the government and the law, whether local or general, were alone competent to furnish the desired medium of exchange. (There was, indeed, a way for private enterprise to do so, but this was not perceived.) The princes and legislature were, therefore, clamorously called upon to undertake the task, and they were not slow in responding to the demand. The expedient most generally adopted was this: The government (1) imposed a tax PAYABLE

IN KIND; and (2) instituted an assize of equivalents for its payment. This assize was based on a unit of assessment called THE ACE, which was determined by declaring (according to the best results of a careful and searching comparison of former and recent market prices) what quantity and quality of each article should be taken as equal. For example: 187

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. Eight lbs. ordinary cotton… Six lbs. fair cotton…

250 lbs. gold 500 lbs. silver… Two barrels bituminous coal. One barrel and a half light or cannel coal. Five dozen eggs…. Six and a quarter lbs. prime sugar. Six and an eighth lbs. choice sugar ”hrIee yards No. 1
bolt linen (48 threads to inch) ‘I’hree-fourths of a yard No. 15 bolt linen (128 threads to inch)… 2000 er?ts type-setting and distribution and so on through all classifiable articles known to commerce, or services needed by the government. In advance of the collection of the assize tax the State issued notes of different decimal denomrninations; the lowest was for the hundredth 9f an ace; the highest was for one thousand aces In assessing the tax, the government valued all property in aces, and fixed the levy ait so much per centuln or per nill in aces, leaving it optional with the owners of the property taxed, to pay in the assize notes or in any comtmodity mentioned in the schedule of equivalents. If any one paid his tax in kind, the things he delivered were used by the government if it needed them for any purpose. If-it did not need them they were sold at auction for aces; but taxes were rarely paid in klind; for, as soon as the tax on any commodity was paid in kind, the assize on it was raised by proclamation to a stricter equation, so that the State might not lose by the sale at auction. As long as the government did not issue an excessive quantity of its notes, viz., not more than three times the annual revenue, this paper fulfilled all the purposes and duties of the former currency very well. Nor (lid this system interfere with the incurring of a new national debt to pay expenses of wars, etc. \N hlenever the government wanted to borrow, it issued bonds payable in aces, and bearing interest 1
s;_; One ace. 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 I 11 11 I I

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. payable in aces. At the same time, it raised the rate of taxation to pay the interest, and a certain portion of the capital annually, also payable in aces. Those who directly or indirectly furnished the government with arms, ammunition, and other thlings, those who had accumulated aces and wanted to invest them safely at interest, or who speculated on the fluctuation of “the funds,” would eagerly subscribe to the required loan. A metal basis for this operation was wholly unnecessary. The assize-tax, the’igiht of the governmnent to take the p2roperty of thie people, and hand it over in kind to pay the capital and interest due the bondholders, was a guaranty entirely adequate to a promise of coin, in times when coin was valuable. In determining the equivalents, this assize-moneysystem ignored the embodied average labor-timeprovided no way of computing it-did not recognize it the only constituent of value did not distinguish it from natural value or the value of desire-confounded and disregarded every element of value, to look only to the current market price, whatever it might be from the influences of free competition or successful appropriation. Noah thought this great money crisis would cause the nations to discern the error of their financial laws. While building the ark, and while as a priest he urged the people to repent their sins and return to God, he continued collaterally, as an economist, to advocate a restoration of the reductional system. By arguments and facts which would fill volumes, he demonstrated the superiority of the average labortime standard of value; but in vain. Tile people would not relinquish Mammon and his retinue of hideous evils and sins. They adhered to the cloudy basis of contingent COST for determining the assize and purchasing power of a unit of the national paper money.

They clung to it because it left prices to vary according to abundance and scarcity, or according to degrees of desire; and because it did 189

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. not interfere with the greed of gain, the chances of acquiring exceptional riches by speculation, adveii ture, credit, artifice, appropriation of the labor of others, etc; but, on the contrary, legalized the thousand ways by which men might prey upon each other, and gratify their covetousness and lust. Suchl strangers to God lhad they become, that, when he declare(t and confessed that reduotionisin was impossible without God-without faith and love to the true God-that even temporal and material prosperity eqttitab7l, di’tfb ute( could not be estal)blished without acknowledging God and Go(I’s exclusive title to natural values; but, that all tlhings were possibJe with God, and thlrough the motives His 1  lig,ion implanted, they lau,lghed him to scorn and(
spurned his propositions. Thev knew no motive but selfish desire and ambition, had taste but for the indulgence of dissoluteness and vice, no passion but such as gave rise to conflict and crime, and hence, when Noah told them his system would be slow in bearing fruit, and that those who enlisted in it must repress their evil inclinations, be actuated only by the spirit of love and sacrifice, and await the final benefit with patietlce, they were convinced he was an insane dreamer, fit only to be the object of children’s play and teasing. So the world continued in its sin and folly, which grew worse every day. It was whelmed and tossed by great wals and revolutions. For a long time the aristocracy of wealth held sway; but, attacked on every side by the envious and impatient poor whorrt economic customs and laws oppressed, they had to resort to the military force, and to rely on the support of the generals of the army. Thlese were not slow to take advantage of this for their own aggrandizement, and they seized the governmnent: made thenmselves kings and emperors, relying, in their turn, on their popularity among the common sol(iiei-y. At last the soldiers, having the most destructive wear)pons of war in their lithnds, after repressing every other 190

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. rebellion, themselves rebelled; and sold the sovereignty of the world at auction every year. Pestilence and famine were the proper consequences of such wide-spread violence and bloodshed; but these had no effect in turning men to God and virtue. On the contrary, they became more dissolute and cruel. The peoples lived in the midst of-and all took part in-robbery, fraud, forgery, Embezzlement, prostitution, calumny, impiety, oppression, extortion, adulteration, monopoly, revenge, murder, and every other imaginable excess and cri ine.

He!ce God said: “I will destroy man, whom I have created, from the face of the earth, and even beasts, …. creeping things, and…. fowls of the air; for it repentethl me I have made them. But Noahl found grace before the Lord.” Therefore he alone an(l those with him were saved in the day of Almi,ghty justice and indignation. 191

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POSTSCRIPT. NEW EDEN, OR HOW TO BE HAPPY ON EARTH., I HAVE shown that rest of body and peace of mind constitute happiness. It now remains that I should also show how this rest and peace-and, therefore, this happiness-may be attained. To do this I rely on two main facts: (1) that man is born a natural creature, but becomes a spiritual creature by receiving the Holy Spirit-the spirit of truth from God; (2) that the grace of the Holy Spirit modifies his soul, and even his natural body and mind, so as to make him, not indeed a different person, but so as to purify and exalt his intellect and his sentiments unto Christ and charity. Thus there are two kinds of men: the natural and the spiritual. The first are those who remained in the fallen state of Adam; and the second are those who through Jesus Christ are raised again to a state of grace. The natural man is an organism having (1) life, (2) sensation, (3) emotion, (4) thought or reason, and (5) an immortal soul. The spiritual man is the same organisnl, whose inherent faclties and soul are made new, and illuininated by a superadded and divine element or influence. I need not stop to marshal elaborate evidence of this division; for, the reader follows either the theories of material science, or the teachings of the church of Christ, and both of these guides agree on the matter of fact that there is one class of men who are (1) without God; that is to say, deny or repel God; (2) despair of immortality; and are (3) carnally minded; while there is another class who have (1) faith, (2) hope, and (3) cllarity.

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THE EDEN OF LAB’)R. The illfid(lel scientists say the one clas trlist )lly to the light of their inherent senses and reason, -,H;l are actuated by animal instincts and selfish rliotives, all of which they regard as being according to liatuI’e or ntaturcial; a.nd they say that the other class trust to the light of alleged revelation, that is to say, to aauthority superior to their reason, and are actuated by a desire to merit heaven, and by a resolve to’endure all sufiering, and to sacrifice themselves in order to serve their brethren, and even their ernemies, that they miay please Go(d-the which they regard as being contrary to nature-unznat?.‘al. This is precisely what the theologians, and with tlhem the religious scientists, affir r; and they add, it is not merely u-inatutral-it is supernatural-not possible wvithout God, without his Iloly Spirit,. without Clirist; and they add, furtlher, that thlese “‘peculiar peo})le” are those who believe in Clfrist-Go(ld, inenbers of Ilis chlurchl and none other. I could cite hunidreds of Scripture texts in wlhich tlhis distinction between the natural and spiritual in.an, tlhe old man and(l the lewv tnan, the fallen and thle raised again, tlhe flesh and tlhe spirit, the earthly and tlhe diviue man-, tlhe slaves of the d(levil and the free sons of God, is inade iai mally ways; but this is unnecessary; for every good Cliristian knows themr familiarly I therefore rimay rightfully pass on to this twofold propositioll: tliat the natural itlian cannot be haippy here or hereaftter; whereas the spiritual, that is to szty, the tvtuly religious luan, is and will be ever liat~lpy. This is, in other words, to say, thlat rest and peace, aild theretore happiness, can be attained only in all(l throuogh Christianity. But whlile we study the happy, let us iot lose siglht of the unhappy. The natural man is ever raging in discontent ald unrest even in the midst of bodily health and NoJ’ld(ly t)rIosperity; wlhile the sl)i-ituatl mna is ever 17 1 9.3

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. const)led even in the midst of material pain and d(lestitutiol wlilatever nmay be the intensity of these. Wily is tlhis?

Simply because the one that disbelieves God, disobeys God, and rejects immortality :nd heaven, must be and is SELFISH; while the )tiler believin g, and hoping in God and the word( of God, enlightened and moved by the HIoly Spirit, must be and is CHARITABLE. Thus, then, selfishness or egoism inevitably brings unhappiness, and charity assuredly procures happi nless.

Selfishness is the main, the general characteristic of the natural man.

True, the natural man is gregarious and sympathetic, but onily in the feeble inanneri of the beasts, birds, and insects, to which he is always comparing himself, and in whichl (such as beavers and dogs, pigeons and eagles, bees and spiders) he willingly sees himself morally alid intellectually-yes intellectually, asks Darwin and by which he justifies his sensuality Wand covetotsness. The prinicip)al and worst element of selfishness is covetousness. The Scriptures are full of texts warning us of the many tribulations, th-e unrest, and the idangers of riches, and the desire of riches. Indeed the grei-ed of riches is at the root of all evil; for it is the means eagierily sought by tile sensual, tile proud, the vaill, in ol(i-der to be able to satisfy their evil passionstheir selfishness. How shlall these evel have rest aid peace? The man whvio, by tile cuniiing artifices of s)eculation and traffic, or by the extortion of usuly or monopoly, accurnulates material wealth, (and through this secures the privilege of idleness and bodl’y ease, will be disapl)pointed, for he does not at the same timne gain thl-ose spiritual richles wherei2i abideth peace for the soull. Covetousness, tile first borni of selfishness, inilplies extortion aid usury, overreaching in trade, lies anid fraud, hard-bargailitig, appropriating the profit arisiig fromn the labor of others, which doings afford no rest or peace, but, ll,)4

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. on the contrary, solicitude, trouble, anxiety, envy of rivals, contention, vexation of heart, strain of mild, sleeplessness, fear, disappoiritinent, many sorrows, and all the other cares and sins of the world. Self  ishnless and her eldest daughter, Covetousness, incite nations to wars of invasion and conquest, ineite armies to commit pillage and levy contributions, incite princes and chieftains to usurpation.

Tihe-e is no rest and peace and therefore no.happiness in the world because of covetousness. But even worse thanl causilg war and its horrors, covetousness refuses labor its riglltful reward-withholds just wages, alnd by this cruel injustice keeps generation after generation of millions of men in perpetual poverty, deprivation of rest and comfort, and, indeed, in extreme misery. Oh! who can count the nurnl)er of victinms wvhichl have thus been consigned to inflicted sickness and premature death, while covetousness stands by callously unIconscious of having been guilty of inntmrnerable murders. The covetous Judas betrayed the Lord for thirty pieces of silver; but he, less callous than the world, was driven by his torture(l soul to suicide. Yet, even those who are insensible to the sul;ffrings of others will feel their own; and so it is with the pursuers of richles who torture and destroy one anothier by their perpetual and merciless scrambles, mancetivres, snares, impostures, and spoliations. Not only does selfishness incline us to cornniit those deeds of’rapine, fraud, and oppression which covetousness of wealth suggests, but it has a proneness for indulgence in those vices, and the perpetratioii of those crimes which the other instincts an(l feelings of the natural man, when unsubdued, induce. All propensity and passion naturally seek actual s.ttisf’tction;. and, if unrestrained by a higher niotive, become habitual, morbid, and excessive. Thus the capabilities of nutrition, generation, sensation, and emotion God has given us, in order that we may preserve ourselves, and reproduce our kind, are abused and transformed into gluttony, lust, ostenitatioli, 19 -0

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THE EDEN OF 1,ABOR. vanity, pride, and envy, which, when opposed, give(
rise to anger, late, revenge, boasting, calumny, insolence, violence, drunkenness, and libertinism. Satan is selfish, and, tlherefore, the instigator of every moral evil; the prince of liars, thieves, and murderers. Need I add, that, so long as selfishness is the leading motive of mankind in general, it will and must exclude that rest and peace, in which happiness consists, from the worl(‘? Sholl we not, therefore, seek happiness in the contrtary of selfishness; that is to say, in charity?

Charity is the main, the general, characteristic of the spiritual man; for it is essentially religious, implies love and aspiration to God, and that grace from God, which, by its illumination and power, imparts all trutl), and prompts man to seek himself in the angelic spheres; not down in the low range of his animral nature, but far above it. Charity is not the mere benevolence, or generosity, or feeling of commiseration of him who succors or relieves others when he can conveniently do so, or who helps another from motives of friendship or policy; but charity is that heaven-imparted impulse, which feels its own origin, extends its radiance to all inen, and reacting through works of piety, brotherhood(, and sacrifice returns to God froni whom it comes. Vainly wiould I attempt to write an a(1(quate description of the beauty and goodness of cliai’ity. To do so requires the eloquence of the inspired evangslists and apostles of Jesus Christ. It is in the Word of God, the example of Jesus and I-is saints, and the lessons of His church that we must study in order to understald the fulness of charity, and even then we should not known it if we did not also feel it, for it surpasseth all knowledge or learning. (Eph. iii. 19.) This mnuch, however, I must mention, that charity displays itself in affection, in brotlherhood, in unioii, in teldeirness, in meekness and modesty, in humility, 19(

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TIIE EDEN OF LABOR. in patience, in bearing and forbearing, iln self-sacrifice, in gladly acceptin tile will of God when I-e d(ispentises temporal suffering, and in fulfilling Ilis commandments, whatever trials and temptations are interposed to prevent us. Among the traits of charity, growing out of its very essen(e,‘is a just regard for the rights of the poor, considered as being with us the children 6f the same Father who is in heaven, and as being with us equal leirs to all thle natural bounties Hle has deposite(l in thel natural world. The solicitude of our Lord( for the poor, anld the riglhts of the poor, is manifested on every page of the New Testament. Before Ilis advent it was a grievous sin to detain the laborer’s wages, or to oppress the poor by a refusal of adequate wages; but the Lord,, wvllen hle came, claimed for the toilers all the consequeices of charity, one of which consequences is, that they must be loved and treated as associates, frien(ls, and equals among men. C}harity by its proper nature is the original source of true liberty, equality, and fraternity, which are inpossible among those who are actuated by atnbitionl and av.trice, or wvhlo admit the privilege of a few or even of the many to become tyrants ad(l persecutors of otlhers, or who glory in the acquisition and accuinulation of unjust gain. Charity, by the force of its inherent qualities, is necessarily a peace-maker; and by this sarne force brings men into union and harmony, community of labor and property, copartnership of joy and suffering, faith and hope, for the charitable do not seek their own but other men’s happiness. Clharity makes its votaries laborious; diligent workers with their own hands, doing that which is good, in order not to become a bur(den to society, and in order to relieve the wants of the brethren and others who cannot work. Chariitv is not solicitous of making store of provision and raiment, nor treasure of gold and silver; but 17* 197

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THE EDEN OF I,APOR. “seeks first the kingdom of God atid Ilis justice,”

that is: loves God and man, labors and distributes, obeys Christ and sacrifices self to Christ, fulfils commandments, precepts, and counsels of perfection, and( relies on the promise that through this peace and rest, abundance and happiness ” will be added unto him.” Charitv is perfectly and fully described by our Lord when He says: “A new cornnlandment I give unto you: that ye love one another as I1 have loved you.” Tlhilk of the mo(el of love wlhiclh is thus proposed to your imitation, and then you will have some idea of the intensity and immensity of real Clhristian charity. What a bold and glaring contrast there is between the natural man and the spiritual man the egoismn of the one, and the charity of the other; the endless fatigue and perpetual rage of the selfish, the rest and peace of the charitable. Let us suimi up the contrast in the words of St Paul. ” To be carnally mindced is death, but to be spiritually minded is life aind peace.” (Rom. viii. 6.) “”he fruit of the spirit is love, joy, peace, patient suferilass, gentleness, faith, mieekness, temperance, chastity (Gal. v. 22); goodness, righteousness, justice, ailid truth.”

(Eph. v. 9, 10.) “The works of the flesh are manifest, which are these: adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, luxury, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, enmity, strife, sedition, heresies, envyings, inu(rders, drunkennless, revellings and such like.” (Gal. v. 19.) I think it is now evident that charity is tl-he principle on which political economy should be based. The obstacle to this is irreligion. I have already said that charity is religious; and now I add as a further l)roposition that charity is impossible without God and Faith, that the works and fruits o’f charity are impossible apart from tlie Christian religion. The would-be philanthropists, who deny Christ and charity, iinagoie they can establish communnities or 198

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. reform thle wvorld by means of conventional agreemnents deduced from the operation of self-interests, or enacted by legislative power; but all their socialistic and communistic institutions must fall into corruption and expire, for they have within themselves the virus of selfishness. Thley may dream they have found charity in natural gregariousness and sympathy, or they mlay think to adopt the law of charity-* the law of’ love, without receiving Christ; but in this they commit a fatal error. It needs no argument to show that conduct proceedcs from an adequate motive, and that the motive itself must exist. If we rely only on the natural constitution of man for motives sufficient to establish peace and rest, we are self-deluded; foi-the reason that that constitution, instead of having charity, is suffused with selfishness. The natural man does not feel or knowv clharity. How then will selfishness be supplanted? How substitute clharity or any other sufficient motive?

Certainly arguments founded ()l self-interest will not do, for selfislhness will not be divided against itself, will not destroy itself; and, however much convinced of its own efficacy, will continue to be what it is in itself, the principle of repulsion and division, avarice and enmity, corruption and siln. A motive is required to induce men to banish selfisIhness, and give room in their hearts to love. What motive must this be? There is none other but FAITIJ. Thlere is no adequate progelnitor of genuine eliarity but religion. Our mind must he certain, without shadow of doubt, that Jesus Christ is God, before we can absolutely rely on the truth and wisdom of his teaching, and before He can acquire over us that perfect influence and authority, which is necessary to sway us into obedience of His precepts and counsels of love. \Ve may, regarding him only as a manl, admire and approve His moral system, pronounce it beautiful, ad( be inclined to carry it into effect; but will 199

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. never have the courage and perseverance necessry thlereto; for the twofold reason that egoism would st4ill have a stronghold in our hearts, and our conviction would still be less than certainty-would be a mere opinion, more or less strong, but ever subject to revision and reversal. We would fear to risk our welfare and happiness in a trial, apparently full of llardship, on the word of a man who,.afterlall, was fallible, and who asks us to begin by making the great sacrifice of ourselves to the happiness of others. But if this admniration of the beauty of Christ, this approval of His perfect doctrine, and(l the narration of His incomparable life, were to bring us to the recognition of His divinity-bring us to say this indeed is God-then we would not only be ready to obey Him with cheerfulness and confidenee, but we would be eager to gain and return His love, receive the grace, and act with the power of the Iloly Ghost, and thus be converted into the new man of charity. When the rich young man, after claiming, to have fulfilled the Mosaic law, asked Jesus what was lacking, then Jesus, behlold(ling him, loved him, and said to him: “One thing thou lackest; go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hlast and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven, and come, take up the cross and follow me.” On this the yoliig,, man went away grieved, for he had great possessions; and tlhe disciples were astonished and murmured, sayilng among, themselves, “Who then can be saved? And Jesus lookiing upon them said, things which are inipossible with men are possible with God.” Thierefore the fulness of charity, of rest and peace, of happinless, are only possible with God, through Clrist, by the Holy Ghost, and in the plenitude of the Chlristiaii religion. Hear then the invitation of Christ Jesus “Conme unto inc, all you who labor and are heavily laden, and I will refresh you. Take up my yokle ut)on you, and le,arn of rme, because T a,n,neck and humnble of heart, 200

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. and you will find rest to youi-souls, for my yoke is sweet and my burden light.” (Matt. xi. 28, 29, 30.) My argliment will, no doubt, sound to the Claristian reader as concluding that there must and should be a reig’n of Christ on earth, and that tlhe proper destiny of inan, so far as concerned with this rnortal world, is the millennium described in Scripture. This is certainly a true interpretation of my words. Few ChristialJs lave ianalyzed( t}he idea of the millennium. They generally content themselves with a very vague notion of it. A unliversal jubilee lastiing for centuries, a time of lhappiness to all mankind, a world of good(lness ruled by the Saviour. All agree that, in some way or other, there will be no misery, no tears, no war, no oppression, no wrong, and that love will reign supreme. There is no mistaking the Scriptures in these respects. If, however, you ask the questions: What that joy, that happiness will consist of’? or, How the necessary abundance of good things for all will be produced, and on what py)riinciple distributed? or, By what plan and appliances a profusion of wealth will be created, and yet all injustice be prevented? you will find few ready to answer with aIy degree of precision. Few thinlk of forming any exact conception of the social or(lder that wvill tlhen exist, or of what will then be the occupation of men. For instance, I.have never met witl anv one who had deliberately considered the question lwh-ethler, during the millennium, people will have to WORK. Yet, on this point, the Scrip)tures are clear.

In tlhe description of the day of the Lord, given by Isaiah and the other prophets, it is expressly stated not only that men will eat and dress, and live iii houses, but also that they will do the wvorko necessary now for obtaining food, clothes, and habitations. They will have and use the necessary tools and implements. They will beat their swords into?)loits]?ares an(i pru y hooks. T’hley will b?ild. They will )lant aict(-l reap. (Is. ii.) “Mine elect shall long enjoy the WORKi of tlleir hands,” saitll tl-he prophet 0 1

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. in the very passage in which hlie describes the New Jerusalem. (Is. lxiv. 21.) An hundred other texts might be quoted; but this is enough. Hence, we must bring into ourI image of the millennium men at work; tilling the soil, building houses, weaving stuffs, fashioning tools, etc. But the millennium will be a state of unmixed happiness, of unrestricted joy to all, ihougi work will be done. We will have to combine the picture of mankind at work with that of mankind enjoying perfect happiness. These two conditions must be made to fit each other. Here is a puzzle for the philosophers and political economists, who ignore God and the word of God. How call their laws of trade, of hiring, of relts, ()f interest, of profits, of capital, of supply and demand, of ftluctuating prices, of buying cheap and selling dear, of the relations of master and servant, of buying labor at starving prices, etc., be adapted to a system where, though work is necessary, it shall not be painful, make no one miserable, deprive no one of adequate rest and leisure, be no source of wrong, fraud, or oppression, but rather of pleasure? It is evident that all the means, customs, and laws whereby the few are enabled to take ad(vantag,e of the many, whereby one builds and another inhabits, must in the miillennial day be abolished. Certainly that day will not arise so loing as the present laws promoting individclual appropriation and accumulation are allowed to stand; for, while they last, the inequalities an(l swrongs which now torture the millions must continue.

What tlhen? Simply this, that in those days every mallyes, every man and woman without exception -will not only have to work, but to work as a real bona fi(le producer-a producer of tlhat whlich is good foir the commrnonwealth-a producer bringing his produets to tlhe-common store for general distribution a(nd exchange, on the principle that labor is the ineasure of value; that tlic labor IN a product (not the 2 0’ )

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. l)roduct) is what gives title to a reward, and, theref()re, is tlhe true basis for estimating that reward. On this basis will be found a sure anld practical footlhold for equal’ity. On this equality there will be no place for drones, but only for industry; and since equal industry implies universal industry, so universal industry, or all men beii)ng real producers, iinL}lics abundance for all; and Labund(lance with eqtality im plies a full measure of recreation, rest, and peace for every laborer. The combined laws of love and labor admit of no other realization. Work-but be not selfish or avaricious distribute in love. Work-but do not snatch to thyself the work of others-the laborer is worthy of his reward.. Work-but do not in vanity and egoism value your labor higher than that of others. Work-but takle only what is due to thy work itself, and exact not what God has given and is due to Him alone.

Work-but love, and do not attempt to lay up treasure in order to live the life of an unproductive idler, or of the extortive miser. Work-but seek not riches and its luxu-ies. Ye cannot serve God and mamnmon. “Seek ye first tlhe kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things”

(i.e., abundance, rest, and peace) ” will be added unto you.” Wilat, after all, will be the millennium but the simple fact of the conversion of men, without excepting one, to )2ractctieal Christianity? What, but the advent of a state of the world, during which every man will live so as to be worthy of taking immediate possession of his eternal inheritance through Christ? The unnninlity of mankind in Christiaiiity is what of itself will make the mnillennium-coiistitiite the new Eden of Labor. But, alas! “Oh Lord, how long?” When will thy 203

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THE EDEN OF LABOR. holy charity he unanimously practised by every man of all kindreds and tongues? Thy Scriptures reply. “The day and hour when thott wilt come knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but the Father only.” While thy people wait, shall they be indolent? Nay-for this much they do know: thou wilt tiot come till they have prepared the way.

Till, by thy grace, they have succeeded in this immrense work, the world, and they with it, must suffer-have no rest or peace-incur all the consequences of sin -groats with the orgies of the great and the miseries of the lov ly. Therefore, they will strive, endure and pray without relaxation, hatviing tlhe certainty that the greater their patience and fidelity in the fulfilmenett of this duty of preparing, thy. way, the greater vwill be their reward. It is the heavenly design that the world have happiness, thougli it is free to reject it; but if the vworld refuse to be hlappy, by the only course tlhiough which happiness is possible here and lhereafter, it is promised that the faithful and true who sufer here shall attaiiii beatitude hereafter. The world cannot deprive them of this final and heavenly happiness, by any conceivable act or artifice.

Those who labor to prepare the way for the coining of the Lord, tllough they expire before the work is done for the world, will not be kept waiting in the grave. They will instantly enjoy the Vision of God. Eye has not seen nor ear heard, neither can the irag,illation of man conceive what are the joys the beatific vision will impart. Hence there are no words in lhutnan ltlguage to tlescribe it adequately. This nmuch, however, cal be affirmed of IHeaven: that there we shall feel no more passions, but ollly perpetual and progressive delights -that no heavenly delight will ever satiate-that Heaven’s delights will accrue in succession and by addition; and each of them will come to tihe blest by an ineffable surprise. WVhile they enjoy the present vision and ecstasy they will not be able by 204

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TIlE EDEN OF LABOR. any effort even of their transcendent and celestially illumined mind(s to foresee or ijfer what the next insight and ecstasy will be. Each will impress them as not to be exceed(led as supreme and ultimate. Hlence nro desire wvill precede ally of the stages of beatitude.

They will constitute a series of immeasurable raptures ever extending broader, deeper, higher, and with increasing glory, without any one of them diminishing or imrnpairing those that have previously accrued; but all subsisting in their own peculiar vividness. Respectively they will be as different, while as simultaneous, as the enjoyment of the distinct senses and faculties of the human self, though infinitely purer and perfectly d(electable. Their numrnber will be illimitable, wlhile all will consist in knowing and enjoyiog God as He is, in some glory of His inexhaustible perfectioli. s18 I 205

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APPENDIX. EXPLANATION OF THE MONOGRAM. MASTERS of political economy are not unanimous when answering the question: What is the proper definition of that science? Quesnay, the great father of political economy, he who first conceived the possibility of a body of doctrine on the matter, regarded it as “the science of the natural rights of mren in their social relations so far as these concerned wealth or property.” A(lam?t Smith no doubt conceived it to be “the science of the’nature and causes of the wealtl of nations.” Condillac held that it is “the science of commerce.”

J. B. S(ty expressly defines it as “the science which treats of the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.” M1acLeod, the last author, well versed in the doctrines best accredited among the professional teachers of the science, says: “Economics is the science which treats of the ,laws whichl govern the relations of exch(angeab7,e values.” Accqrding to his idea, exchange is tlhe central point around which the whole science revolves, and to the understanding of which its study gravitates. To this object production, consumption, agriculture, manufactures, and carrying are merely subordinate or accessory. If I had the power to decide, I would say that “economics is the science of the principles or laws God has ordained, in nature and revelation, for the distribution or apportionmnent of the results of labor, that is to say, of wealth.” I have shown why an(i how I regard the exchangeable value of wealth as justly determinable only by the measure of average 0

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APPENDIX. labor time. In one word I would therefore say: Political economy is the science of the fundamental rights of labor.” But this has been discussed in the preceding pages; and my present purpose is only to present a monogram of economics as nowu practically operative under the laws which now govern the evolution, reservoirs and channels of wealth..

It seems to me that this monogram presents to the eye a good and true view of the principal features and movements which the political economy of the schools teachl-es and accredits. I would first direct attention to the reservoir furthest to the left in connection with the one furthest to the right. They are connected by tubes, one of which is the suction-pipe of a pumrnp, the handle of which is held and worked by a man: a personification of LABOR. This suction-pipe is marked REPRODUCTION. The reservoir on the left is CAPITAL, and is primarily supplied from nature, which, without cost, pours into it her wealth. This natural wealth, through the efforts of labor, is drawn out (extracted), pumped up (converted) into a reservoir of comnmo dities (or wages) necessary for the SUBSISTENCE or reproduction of the laborer himself. A surplus, not needed for the immediate subsistence or reproduction of the laborer himself, overflows; and is carried, by the conduit marked Ecoonomy iVo. 1, back to the reservoir of capital. This surplus flows back to ca,pital in the shape of nmade things, such as materials laid by, provisions stored, cottages built, articles manu’ factured, money saved, in so much as the laborer is allowed to have the results of his own toil, and sets them apart for future use. Thus the reservoir of capital becomes the recipient of two kinds of things, viz.: (1) raw or natural and (2) manufactured or artificial objects, the latter being always a combination of the work of man with the work of God. In the beginning there were no other draw-off’s, tubes, reservoirs or consumIIers between the reservoir 208

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EXPLANATION OF TIlE MONO(,RAM. of capital and that into which the laborer cast the results of his toil. All the surplus he made, and allowed to flow back into capital, continued to be his own property. All capital was owned by the laborer who produced it. But from this fact of ownership which was, by a violation of God’s will, allowed to include the natural value of capital, and from thle common consent tlmt it was just and proper to secure and defend (1) the usurpation of an ownership in natural values, and (2) the right of individuals to dispose as they pleased of wlhat was conceded to be their property, other reservoirs and draw-offs were logically and artfully fornl-e(l. These were the reservoirs and draw-offs of TAXES, USURY, RENT, and PROFIT. Look at the monogram, and you will see they get all their supply from the efforts of labor, which at first hla(d app)ropriated the ownership of natural values, but only so far as combined with labor values. Observe that the draw-offs of taxes, usury, rent, and profit, marked A, B, C, and D, are inserted between the lifting lever and valve F, worked by the laborer, and the draw-off E, through which hlie received the reward of his toil. Tlhus the fruits of that toil must firstly supply and fill the tubes or draw-offs A, B, C, and D, before sup)plying the tube E, or wages-fund-that is to say, supply the exigencies of taxes, usury, rent, and profit, before relucta!utly yielding to the necessity of supplying subsistence to that strength and skill on which all depends to make natural weailth available and fit to be used b)y htuman creatures. Between the reservoirs of taxes, usury, rent, profit, aid capital there are co(nduits marked Economy 2, 3, 4, and 5, wllicli are so disposed ils to earry off the surplus left uncolusumed by the toutr first named reservoirs to the fifth one, whicll is capital. Hence when we examine the arrang(ellent (of’ these reservoirs and conduits, the height at which the colduits marked Economy are placed, their necessary effect, and the 18* 209

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APPENDIX. order of antecedence and subsequence in which tlhey stand, we at once perceive that: Ust?ry is drawn from the leavings of taxes. Reent is drawn from the portion of production usury and taxes have, either voluntarily or involuntarilyv, failed to consume. Profit is drawn in the samne way from the portion of p)roduce left unconsumed by taxes, usury, mnd rent. ITVaye.s are the leavings of taxes, usury, rent, and profit.

(See draw-off E and conduit No. 1.) Capi’lal is the ecoinomiy or surIplus saved from irnmediate coni)sumption according to the relative precedence, power, craft, prudence, and opportunities ofgovernment, usury, rent, profit, and lastly of labor. The reservoir of capital is ima,gined as containing all that can be denoted by that name, no miatter wzvho may be the owner all that is saved from being consumed by the current support of the State, the usurers, and from the devouring requisitions of comfort and luxury. It is apparent that very little of the contents of the reservoir of capital can possibly belong to labor, though before God, labor is entitled to it all. Each of these reservoirs varies in capacity aeeordiig to the fluctuations of industry and commrnerce. So also do the delivering tubes chanye i?t size according to these fluctuations. It is reinark.ble that the tubes and reservoirs of usury and rent are being eontinually’enlarged. As to profit, its tube and reservoir expand and contract with wonderful elasticity. By their automatic elasticity, all the reservoirs atre kept up to the level of cir?culation. When any one of them, in consequence of the increase or diminution of loss or gain, supplies more or less to those who enjoy its share, they feed and feast, or, suffer and depart, become more or less numerous, accordil]g to the volume of that supply. LABOR is the only creator of exchanyeable value; the only cost of any commodity. This is generally admitted by the masters of political economy; but, 210

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EXPLANATION OF THE MONOGRAM. most times, they cloud the admission by ignoring comparative time as a necessary factor in estimating the value of labor, and by enlarging tile meaning of the word so as to include even the conception of a plan, a manceuvre in exchlianges, or a mercantile adventure, and the likle. It is apparent that the draw-offs of taxes, usury, rent, and profit must all be filled to the full extent of their deliveritug capacity before a drop of subsistence can be raise(d to the height of the last draw-off (E) which delivers the wag,es-fund to the laborers. If thl)e consumers of taxes, usury, rent, and profit could, they would so enlatrge the draw-offs that nothing would flow over to labor; but, since it is by its efforts that their own reservoirs are supplied, they are forced to restrict their draw-offs so as to afford at least a?v’nimitra of subsistence to the laborers. They are ever striving to bring down the vwages-fund to this mitnimumrn. They greet the inventioli of laborsaving machines, not because these teld to increase the amount and cheapness of subsistence, and of other thingis good for the poor, but because they may procure comforts, luxuries, and excesses, at less cost, and by feeding a lesser number of laborers. I admit there are superficial circumstances, such as decrease of demand or dearness of raw material, which, at a given moment, compel a reduction of wages; but the purpose of usury, rent, and profit to enlarge themselves at the expense of labor, tl-houghL individual consciences may feel no reproach, is the general and bottom cause of the superficial and irmmediate circumstances. It is but natural tliatr.pushed to the extreme, this tendency gives rise to unions and cooperations of laborers against profit, and strikes against the withholding, of living wag,-es. This tendency, in its (louble evolution of reductioni of wages, which the increase of population assists, and the reduction of the number of workmen, which 211

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APPENDIX., the invention of laborsaving machines permits, induces also PAUPERISM and EMIGRATION. Thus arise the most disagreeable of all the questions that can be propounded to political economists. What is the law, and what are the effects of the increase of POPIJLATION? What proportion of labor should be appropriated to?ecess(t?ry, comn?,o(lio?ts, and ?lixt2iois production respectively? What to the fine arts? Howv much and in what specialities (if any) to 2)e???‘ci’o?ts works, doings and products? What ratio of capital should be devoted to wages? How much production may be safely consu med un reproductively7 or howv much does reproductive investment absolutely require? WAhat of tl-he eigblt-hour movement? granges? womanr’s work? children’s work? etc. Since the slow infusion of christianity, the principle of charity has been influencing, more and more deeply, the peoples of Europe. Hence, labor has advanced from slavery to serfdom, from serfdom to wagedoin, and is now moving, through wagedom, to the freer life of piecework-whence it will doubtless wholly emancipate itself from masters-then rise to co-ope2-ative JOB-wo?-rk, and finally attain the heighlt of average labortime, made the common standard of all value. TAXES are the contributions of labor for social and national purposes. NVWouLld that they were now righteously levied and used o0ly according to that purpose. Whetlher first in historical order or not, the reservoir of taxes has logical precedence of the subdue-‘ tions from labor made by usury, rent, and profit. Taxes support government. Society is hardlv conceivable without government. The inference is, that taxes calnot be dispensed withl. But how?lc slhall they be? whlat for? how and to whom should taxes be distributed? what taxes are just and proper? how aiid on what basis should they be levied? what is thleir effect on the exchangeable value of land or goods? are questions which political economy can  212

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EXPLANATION OF TIlE MONOGRAM. not avoid, since they relate to the rights of labor, the wealth or capital produced by labor, and national prosperity. The most favorable view that can be reasonably taken of taxes is, that, with the exception of a few of them which produce public wealth and morality, the rest are either necessary evils or positive wrongs. The prod$tctive are those levied for making reads, bridges, and canals, deepening rivers and ports, lighting cities, and other such works. The necessary are those for adequately supporting a police, a judiciary, armies and navies, a fire department, and the like. The positively iijqturious are those which discriminate between the objects of taxation, such as protective tariffs and licenses; those which press heavily upon certain kinds of property, while some favored private property or business is exempted, or those which, tlhough bearing on all kinds, are unequally imposed; and( those which, though to a certain extent necessary, are levied in excess to furnish bounties, sinecures, and booty to corrupt and useless officers and other favorites of the State. The consumer of taxes is the sovereign; he who makes the laws and holds the sword of power. Some would like me to say the sword of justice, but alas! this term would not always agree with the fact. Whether the soverei,gn is hereditary or elective, a monarch or a representative body composed of many members and departments, is immaterial; for, in either case the sovereign entity is properly personified as sitting on a throne and holding the book aid the sword. Tile book defines, and the sword enforces the economic system of the country; they guarantee and defend the acquisition, enjoyment, and transmrnissioin of property. The book determines the nature and validity of contracts, and the sword compels the pLrties to a strict observance of their legal promises. The book, on its first or constitutional page, professes to secure to all life, liberty, and the pursuit of happilness-it almost says thle rights of labor. When, 213

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APPENDIX. however, we study it, we soon learn that usury, rent, and profit, no matter how extortionate and exorbitant, no matter whether they are derived from a righteous title, or from the usurpation of natural things, or from some other priinary wrong, are regarded by it as just rewards of labor. Thletl it graciously declares that wages must also be so regarded. Instead of translating the Scriptureto say, “the laborer is worthy of his rewv(r(l”-whichl miglht be interpreted to mean (tll lie has justly earne(l, all that his work has added to the material used, the version is made to say “the laborer is worthy of his hire,” vwhichl conveys a very different idea. Tlhe book of legislation, therefore, recognizes wages only as the rate of remnunerationfreely. consenited to between a laborer and an employer or master. “Freely” mea’ns that if labor will not take the leavings of taxes, usury, rent, and profit, it is free to starve, there being uo alternative. This is what the econonmists call free trade and human rights-a guaranty that every man slall have his owin-shall possess iand dispose of his person, property, and labor according to his own will uncontrolled by the caprice and uncoerced by the power of any other man. Tlhey mean, however, and even say, that this liberty and guaranty exist only inll so far as the book defines and permits. The book promises the dispensation of justice; but when we come to ascertain what this means, we find it is the’enforcement of the privileges and advantages of usury, rent, and profit over labor. It is tlhe justice of Shylock in disregard of the Sinaic deca’ logue, the Christian precepts and the Christian counsels of perfection. It institutes or sanctions the appropriation and transmission in perpetuity of natural wealth, such as wvild lands, mines, water-falls, mineral springs, fisheries, etc. It ratifies rapine, such as prize of war, or the capture fromn enemies of chattels, land(s, and prisoners; 214

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EXPLANATION OF THE MONOGRAM.I and endows individuals with the right of holding them as property. It confirms the gain or advantage any Ai?er derives from the work of an organism of combined or concerted labor, on condition of only paying each laborer as if he worked by himself, and as if nothing were due to the multiplying force and effect of united action.

I mean the united action which the ecnomists, by a singular contradiction, denote by the phrase “Division of La.bor.” I have written the word monopoly under the tliro)ned and diademed consumer of taxes; for from his boo’ proceed, and on his sword rely, all mnonopolies and privileges, the name of which is legion sutch as charters with exclusive license; enterprises favored with premiums, bounties, and subsidies; tariffs and duties protective or discriminating; national banks authorized to issue currency gtiaranteed( bv the State; unequal taxation levied so as to favor or exempt particular interests; contracts for supplying the State with material or service, or for coistrucLting public works awarded to favorites on conditiolls and rates which defraud and spoliate the public treasury. Firorm these taxes, raised by virtue of this book and sword, officials and their satellites are enriched, armies and lnavies are maintained, national wars are waged, custom-houses and forts are built to girt the land. True, in the mi’dst of all, much of what is good and nee(dful is accomplished; but it is drowned in an ocean of abuse and fraud. lienee political economy is called upon to consider the facts whicli bear upon these points, so far as they effect the production, exchange, and ap)propriation of the wealth of nations. USURIY follows taxes in logical order, thoulgh we call well see how profit and rent were probal)ly antecedeut in order of timee, and how the enriched minerchant and landlord sold out to devote his realized capital ex;clusively to the perpetration of usury, ald 215

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APPENDIX. himself to a life of ease, idleness, and unlimited indulgence.

Usury is the flnal pursuit or vocation of all those who have made net anid great fortunes from the favors of the State, the adventures of cornmmerce, and speculations in land. By beconing a usurer one yields his place in the State, in cornmmerce,7in land ownership, to new adventurers, commissioned to demand money in the name of the State, tit they may embezzle it, or use it for their speculations in cormmnerce, manufactures, and agriculture.

Usury is the razor that denudes the head and face of labor of every vestige of hair the scissors of taxes have left. Usury exacts good security, makes herself safe, while her borrowers are more liable to faitil. The result is the general enlargement of the wealth of the usurer.

Her tendency is to make every other pursuit tributary to her. She becomes continually more and more 7hol2tric. Her sphere is that of itatio)~a(l debts and bonds and CURRENCY, banks and bankiing, insurance, dealing in bills of exchange and well secured notes, the purchase of prosperous stocks, and all questions of CREDIT and FINANCE. It is in this sphere that political economy studies speculation in st(occs and gioiey, not mistakiing the imitators vwhio speculate iIl thle money-market on a small capital, and who risk all on a larg,e venture for real usuirers. RENT, seated key in hand in the iiidst of luxury, looks comrnplacently upon Labor cultivating his faIrms, or on Profit becupying his houses. Watchinga these and collecting his rentals is the only business that disturl)s lhis equanimity anid pleasures. Hlis studies in political economy (if he studies at all) comprise thle sections which treat of the TENURE of lan(l-the causes which influence the price of Ilaud( and the rate of R,ENTS-thle rise and fall of cities-the kinds arind methodl s of AGRICULTURE best suited to his coulntry’s soil, climate, and(
st,t)les-thle advantages and disadvantages of m)etey() and cotlier tenantcy-and of large and small farms. Anxious to increase his fortune by purcliasing lands or houses that will become more 216

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EXPLANATION OF TIIE MONOGRAM. valual)lc In the cotirse of time from the inicustry of others, lie surveys tlhe country aid the development of its resources inl order to invest in localities towards whlich a tide of population is flowling, and ill which improvemerts are progressin(Yg.

Political economy, as taught by the accredited mas ters, in accord with his feeli(ngs adn( supposed interest, furnishes himn with thle priliciple by which the tate of relt he may exact is to be (deterinined-” Bare subsistence for the cultivator, and all the surplus for tlhe proprietor.”

Tis fitct enal)les us to class under the caption of renlt ot olly agr1iculture but also MANUFAcTUREs. Relut is disguised or envelope(l in the income which ownvers of ftartns derive from the work of hiredl agriclItuial laborers, and whichl owners of factogie,s, aid( the like, derive from the service of their w’tgemel). \Wlilether they lease their farmrs or factories to (others, or carry them on themselves, the nature and source of the revenue is essentially the samne; it is derived fromr the working, ()cc ul)nyai,’ othler use made b)y others thaii themselves, of t}ieir laudled oi other propeitv and its accessories; an(il it is also the par; of the pro(luct left to the ovwner after dei(Iucting, the mere s’upt)or! of the cultivator or other ol-)peritive. When tlhe fretiner o man utcturer }iiliself works, hlie does so in a double capicity-lis ernings, in that case, include two eleineits lie receives a part aslalborei and a pi)rt as owvner of the propl)erty use(i; but his hired Iliil ollly get thle rfini/um atllowe(li to lal)or. \Wliiatever more is produced by his work, it is taken by tile owv)er; atld therefore this part is really rent. To the ct’te-oryv of relit also bt)elongs the incoine derived fli()t-n LANI) ANI) WATER CARRYING by tlhe owners of wageins, sl-hips, lii( tlhe like. The same renlarks I have made in egard(l to’ect, apply to fieig}lit auid filre. PROI’L‘1’ is till that one or 1)oti p:i-rl ies to(.,I exch(lanye receive in excess of the cosi of the thtillgs la 2 1

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APPENDIX. exchanged and the average waqe necessary for the support ofthe transferer, according to the proportion of time he consumes in rendering service to the transferee. In one word, all that a dealer is entitled to is cost and laborer’s wc(gee what more he gets is profit. In the monogramn Profit is represented differontly from Usury and Rent in this, that they are reclining or seated, but he is standing. He is neoessatrtly busy and active-runs to and fro-follows COMMERCE  travels by ship and rail buys and sells frequents the marts and markets is ever on the alert for a bargain speculates on d(ema-d( and supply, on fashion and credulity, on scarcity and abundance  spreads his nets and snares stretches his credit, and stakes his solvency on the chances of uncertain transactions. The distinguishing trait of profit is that it is made by two acts: (1) buying and (2) selling; or, wl)at is the same thl-ing, tile double act of barter or exchanye. All other income is from labor, taxes, usury, or relnt, and I note, as I pass on, that besides these there are other modes of acquiring property, according to some special and discretionary provision of law, such ias (1) preoccupancy, (2) prescription, (3) gift, (4) legacy, (5) inheritance, (6) vwager-won, (7) treasuretrove, (8) capture, and (9) salvage. These nine are the originl o’ most of the abuses and wrongs of whiclh labor complains. Politically, the votaries of profit are divided betweeil two parties: that of PROTECTION and that of FIREE TIRADE. CAPITAL now presents itself again and nmay be better nillderstood(. It consists of all valuable things or qualities of things appropriated or otherwise possessed by lmian wherewitll lie may reproduce himself, derive subsistence, utility, coinfort, or pleasure  lands, houses, cattle, machines, tools, implements, furniture, food, clothing, fuel, carriages, vessels, roads, books, MIONEY, and many other objects, even streligtli, health, knowledge, education, skill, genius, 218

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EXPLANATION OF TilE MONOGRAM. vutue, nothing being excepted but what is so abundnl)t, so available to all, so common that, though appropriated to any possible extent, it wonid cornmand no jriee, as the air, the se, etc Even the air or sea, if appropriated so as to exclude its use unless for a price, would thereby be converted into capital Suppose the military navy of a nation were so overpowering that it could forbid the use of the s to all vessels except those who paid fk)r a license to do so; the sea would then be a part of that nation’s capital. Perhaps some way mav be discovered of exactmg payment to appropriators for the air we breathe. Jt would thereby become pioperty or capital; the two terms are almost synonymous. Every specific piece of capital involves seven kinds of value; (1) a nuru7 value which is God’s property, (2) a l(‘o vue which is man’s property (3) an ex1orion7 value depending on the proportion in which it is subjected to monopoly, for in every thing there is a degree of monopoly (4) a a88ioflel value, which is according to taste or desire; (5) a compe1iive value, which depends upon demand and supply and the extent to which it is allowed to be made aii object of free trade; (6) a cost value, which determines the profit or loss made upon it tl)roligh purchase and sale or exchange; and (7) an exc/anjea.’)le value, which is the reduction of the six others into one, and comprises all their effects expressed by the term ])rMe, or mtarket-price, or the adage a thil)g is worth what it will bring.” Wealth or value is both POSITIVE an RELATIVE. Price is the exponent of the sum of elements, con relative. Natural value consists in the intrinsic qualities which render things or actions of persons and things fit for human uses. Of these qualities two are particularly notable in political economy, for they are factors iii every problem this science is called upon to solve. These are (1) durability anid (2) coinsumra 219

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APPENDIX. bility. Both exist in every particle of capital, but in proportions inversely related. D)uriabiity is the largest proportion of the value of land, of gold and thile like; and enables the appropriators of such things to derive a perennial revenue from them, through rent or usury. It is, to tlhemrn, the inexhaustible purse of Fortunatus, which, every time it was emptied, filled again of itself or from a talisinanio virtue requiring no labor or other effort of its possessor. Talough, by rent or usury, an appropriator of land or gold may have recovered all the labor-value ever put into it, ten times over, his right to own it as cap)ital andl to derive revenue from it remains intact. NAow it wo(suld seem as if this could not happen when the quality of co)is?87i?cabilily greatly predomninates iti tlhe thingll or service appropriated, as it dpes in tlhe value of foodl, clothing, fuel, and the like. Its ap)propriators cannot get pay for it more tlhan once: but customs and lawvs have established iand secured the draw off of profit; and enabled the a)propriators to( obtain, directly or indirectly, a bonues or premnium even greater than that of rent or usury, out )of tlhe labor of the final consumer. Labor-value, as I have abundantly shown in the first part of this book, consists of usefulness added or facilitated by labor for the benefit of the consumer of tlliigs or service. This value is created by three modes of effort: (1) Mlono-manual effort; (2) Associationial efiort; (3) Social effort. (1) J loto-manuall labor value is that which the work of a single person independently creates when it increases utility o0
facilitates consumption: Ex. a woodman may fell a tree and cut it up without help. (2) Associationtl labor-value is that whilch is imparted by the united or colncerted labor of several persons: Ex. the united efforts of several are necessarv to raise the framevworkI of a lhouse or bridge.

(3) Soci(il v(tl?c is that itilprted to property tihrou,lgh public works avd through improvenents caused by local increase of po)pulatioln, or is the abundance created by produ-(iLl 220

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EXPLANATION OF THE MONOGRAM. tion multiplied or labor saved through the progress of art, whereby labor may be liberated from one kilod of work and applied to another: Eyx. Land becomes more valuable by opening a road for the exportation of its products; the art of printing saves the labor of copying and multiplies books and makes them for a lesser price than they previously cost. But nearly all the values-the prolific and ecorfomical benefits-created by as,ociateda a(nd social labor, are intercepted by the draw-offs of taxes, usurtiy, renit, and profit to he almost entirely consumed in procuring comfort, luxury, an(l plethora for those who possess the reservoirs into which these draw offs flow. TlIe mass of positive wealtlh, capital, and value is enormously increased. Indirectly the laborei gets a smnall share of the benefits of general progress; b?it,thou.,qh, tlrotugOh the advance of science and art, ble can maie AI,L
li~ consutied( by worJliny THREE houf$s?)er d(ay, TEN, TWELVE, 0r SIXTEEN

]hour s per day all tlie year rot?nd(1 h(tar(lly sffice to p)iocuie it. We have already seen how capital may be made either reproductive or ounreproduetive. It is the way of the CONSUMPTIOX of wealth which determines its character in this respect. Thlere is, however, a kind of capital which, in itself, is u?treproductive, but which is never consumlned, and is, therefore, a species by itself. It is MONEY. rIhle disputes amongoa the economists and finallnciers al)oult the nature and basis of money involve so many questions that even a statement of the points in controversy would be too lengtlly for this monogramn. I will only give my oown definition of the thing itself. Money is a valuable object, OR a title to some property or right, whlich (by common consent and reasoi0s of commont interest) is accepted by any and every person, for any and every object or service. The tubes in the monogram represent the ftllnctioli)s of Imloney. Being a mere evidence of lille to property, money is nothing in itself. It is the evidence of the obligation which evely person in the 19-* 221

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APPENDIX. w)rld(, or a nation has tacitly or expressly contracted to furl)ish the bearer a certain amount of property on demand. As silch, it is an excellent med(lium of exchlange, for since its transfer conveys title to any and everythling, it dispenses him who passes or transfers it from delivering any particular property to.him wio receives it. The latter uses it in the same maniier is the former did, and so on acd it nf. It is lik-a waarehouse receipt, but the warehouse from whlich it is issued comprises all the property of the world, or at least of a nation. It is also like water, it flows through the tubes of cigc?tlation, instead of tlhe property which it transfers. It flows from reservoir to reservoir with corniiutative fluidity. Both it aqld tlhey are elcst’c in the same proportiol), so tlat w}ien its volume is enlaroed the tubes and reservoirs enlarge, alud when it is reduced t-hev colitratct. Since all tlhe reservoirs are connected, the fluid( circulation always stands at the same level in all of themn, no matter how little or hlow much each reservoir may contain. From the fact that money is a title leec( to any ancl all property which any and all owners may seek to exchallnge, it follows that, as tlhe number of units of Ii0oley is increased or diminislhed while tlle quantity oi’ property remains thle same, each unit becomes a title for less or wtiore of the sum total of p)roperty heldc for exc.hange, according to the variationI of the inumber of units in circulations. If it is the volume 6f excl)angeable property that is increased or diminished while the number of units of money remains unchanged, the srame relative effect is pro d(uced(. These changes, if slow aI(d giradual, are harmnless, but if a clIange in the volume of curlrency is sudden, it may make so great a difference (between the amount of property that was required to disclharge a debt at the time that it was incurred and the property required to discharge it whell it falls due) as to ruin the creditor if the change be to less, or the debtol if it be to more. Agail), thou,gh-currency is wo(derfu tIlly eltastic, an(! eachi of ils iinits or fractions 222

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EXPLANATION OF THE MONOGRAM. is a title to more or less property, according to their number; yet, if the numnber is very small, it would be necessary (if the currency is metallic) to divide the units inito parts so minute as to be practically useless. There was an approximation to this in the century which preceded the discovery of the Mexican and Peruvian mines. No better remedy was then thought of than official adulteration of the gold and silver, and a large coinage of ponderous copper. If, on the contrary, thle number of units (whether of paper or metal) were inordinately increased, eacll ullit would be a title to so small a part of the mass of property that the whole ant(l its divisions would be too cumbersome for the uses and functions of currency. An instance of this was the iron money of Sparita. It would help us to understand money, if we were to figure it to ourselves as a CARRIER. iFor instance, we might allegorically personify it under thle form of a flock of Hi])i)oyrfs engaged in bearing property, goods and chlattels, from one personi to another: each Hippogriff or unit gaining or losing strength or carrying power in exact proportion to the increase or decrease of the work required of the whole flock, provided they are always sufficiently numerous to attend to every service required, whether that service be small or great.

A developracnt of the details of this allegorical view would correct several popular errors oii the nature and functions of money; but the space I have here at my disposal is too limited for this, and I must therefore defer it to another occasion. But besides being (1) a title to merchandise, (2) a vehicle or carrier of merchandise, money is also (o) in itself merchlandise. All other things continuing to be deiianded and supplied as before, if the supply of money is increased while the number and amount of transactions for which it is needed remain the same or are diminislhed, its value or purchasing power and the rate of interest will fall. The contrary will happen. if the supply of money is diminislied, while 223

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APPENDIX. the number of transactions remains the same or is increased; also if the supply of monev remains the same, but the number and amount of transactions are increased. Hence money is merchandise; for it is boughl-t, sold, and hired, its fluctuations are precisely tllose of merchandise, and governed by the same ]a\ws. When our Lord wished to draw and show the line between secular and holy things, he poilited out money as the representative of all that is secular or temporal. This sphere he intrusted to Ctesar, and gave him (the State) dominion over it. Hence the State can make moneyand the concerns it represents to be blessings or curses according to the wisdom or foolishness of expediency and policy.

All the rest he reserved as sacred to God: viz., conscience, religioii, morals, education-everiything that concerns the indivi(lual min-d aud soul. These are inviolable. The State has no right to interfere with them-n-no authority over them. On the contrary, the State itself mnust submit and conform itself thereiii. He tauglht that hlie and his church alone had jurisdiction in this supreme and holy sphere, thle great law of wlhich is to obey God rather than man: suffer death rather tlani lose our soul. But alas! for the sake of Cmsar’s money and tl-he material goods it represents and purchases, we refuse to render unto God that which is G(od’s, and surrender even our immortal souls to the world and hell-wrest, by force and false pretences, the labor and portion of our brethren-ati(id recognize no law but Cmsar’s book and sword; and would fain evade even these to indulge the perversity of corrupted nature. Now viewing the monogram yenerally, I have onily four or five more short remarks to make before I stop. 1. The same person may cumulate several sources of income or several kinds of capital. He may be an officer of government receiving a salary out of tne taxes while being a usurious lender of funds, a 224

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EXPL,ANATION OF THE MONOGRAM. lessor of land(s, houses, rna(hines, sllips, carriages, or chattels, and a speculator buyilg aild selling at the risk of losing or gaining from the rise or fall of prices. This cumulation may and does vary in multitudles of ijdividual cases which are more or less complicated. It would be tedious to state merel the most comrnmon instances. Even tile poor laborer may earn his wages and, at the same time, draw a driblet of usury ma-de on his deposits in the savings balnk.

2. The size and I)r()portion of each draw-off attd reservoir mniay be and is coitiunally changing-their contents vary froin day to day while one enl,arges the other contracts, except the opposite reservoirs of capital and labor which mnaiiitaini without much alteration their respective proportions to each other and to the whole, while, however, the tendency of capital is to a imaximulm share, and the force of the system is to reducie labor to a mrnininmumn allotment. 3. The total population, by force of natural law and the volume of capital, by force of social laws, would, if not hiidclered, increase concurrently by incrernents which would progress in geometrical ratio, but tils tendency is opposed alnd its course impeded( by causes whichl accordil~g to political economists are either REPRESSIVE or PREVENTIVE. The repressive causes are the most numerous. I will oinly nention a few, already alluded to in preceding patges. (i.) q’here is a prevailing spirit of cupidity and pride, selfishly seeking riches and power through public spoliation and war, or private artifices and violence, by wh,ich nmillions of lives are diverted trom reproductive industry and finally sacrificed. (ii.) Labor is comI)elled to devote itself principally to such wvorks as provide for the gratification of the desires and tastes of the capitalists, so that only the number of’ workinen needed for this purpose are allowed to work and live. (iii.) Though there is a constant increase of capital 225

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APPENDIX. appropriated to the support of labor, the difference betwveeii total population and total laborers and between total capital and total labor-fund is constantly changing, so that the share of wealth accruing to capitalists is continually becoming not only greater in amount but greater in proportion. (iv.) There is constantly increasing difference between the number of wagemen actually wn2plo’e(i and the number actually UNei)ployed-the increase being on the side of the latter’ and this, for those who are employed, implies less wages; while for tllose who, at one time or another, are unemployed it implies no wages; hence, pauperism, disease, and inordinate mortality. (v.) Necessity drives men, women, and children, into deleterious manufactures and other unhealthy works, or to premature and excessive work. (vi.) The control of the application of new discoveries and inventions, for saving labor and mnultiplyinlg products, enables the appropriating class to dispense with a still greater proportion of the laboring class, so that the very fact of progress in science and art is perverted to increase the proportion of unemployed hands. (vii.) Since repressive causes operate to the inifliction of death only because of an excess of population, composed of unemployed and starving, or deleteriously and excessively wvorked, wagemen, it is manifest that the number of the wage people is always ahead of the amount of the wage-fund that capital has devoted to their subsistence. (viii.) The fear of aggravating poverty by attempting to raise a family, incites thousands to commit, by indirect and even direct means, abortion and iifanticide. These repressive causes are summed up in the Scriptures in three words, War, Famnine, Pestilence, or in one… Murder. I know only one cause opposed to the natural increase of population, which may, ill colitradistinction 226

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I EXIPLANATION OF TIIE MONOGRAM., to the precedi llg, he considered as PREVENTIVE. It is that voluntary ald holy chastity whiclh is counselled by religion and which once covered the face of Eutrope with convents and monasteries. 4. Now let me try to represent these remarks by means of numbers. The nflattrtl tendency of population and wealth is to increase (tlhe one by generation and the other by cooperative labo-) according to the following progi-essioni: 100; 200; 400; 800; 1600; 3200; etc. The act?ual averag,e increase of population is according to the followilg progression: Capitalists: 10; 12 14; 16; 18; 20; etc. Wagemen: 90; 108; 126; 144; 162; 180; etc. Total 100; 120; 140; 160; 180; 200; etc. The aUcti,l proportional difference between the illcrease of employed and unemployed wagemenr is accordi)g to the following progression:Employed class: 89; 106; 123; 140; 157; 174; etc. UIelnployed: 1I; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; etc. But tlhere is a proportion which the repressive causes will never permit the pauper class to exceed: sav about a fifth o0r a fourth. Beyond this, death is inexorably ilflicted b)y all the n-means we have noted. The (ctuatl average in)crease of wealth is according to the followving progressionBy numbers: 90; 100; 120; 150; 190; 240; etc. By inventions: +

10; + (20; + 30 + 40; + 50; + 60; etc. ‘i’()tal 100; 120; 1,0; 190; 240; 300;etc. ‘I’) ta I100; 120; 150; 190; 240; 300; etc. But of t}his progressionr of actual we.tlth, the actual shatre of the appropriators ad(
wageineii )e) capitt is (Lecording to the following ratio:”lie aplrolpriators take: 90; 110; 140; 180); 230; 290; etc. ‘I’lie w,agemen are allowed: 10; 10; 10; 10; 10; 10;etc. ‘I’otal 100; 120; 150; 190; 240); 300; etc. -) 2 7

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APPENDIX. Observe that this ratio is per c(pita; and that the ratio of the wagemen is rarely above the minimum of subsistence. In other words the capitalists get the wealth that should be divided among those who produce it, according to actual average labortime. Observe that when at any point the share of ani appropriator is n.ine times greater thail that of a wag,,ernan, at the next point it is ten times, and so on i ldefinitelv. 5.

Manifestly it is the right, as well as interest of labor to close up or at least diminish the capacity of the parasitic or intermediary draw-offs I have described; for every l)it of capital is either (1) the free g-ift of God and therefore comnmon property, wvitlhout ralnsorm being due to alny person, or (2) it is value wvlicli labor alone has added to natural thiings, and so fir, therefore, the rightful property of labor alolle. To a./.nfla,anLe?tal ch(tnge of sy.ste,’- must, therefore, the world look for a restoration o(f the economic equilibrium; and there is no prospect of this but inl oiie direction. It’ labor and capital were uiiited ill the same persons, and these were united by the law of love vwhich is from our Lord Jesus Christ, there would be ABUNDANCE for all markind. 228

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CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL ANCD SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, -PIUBLMISHED BY HENRlY

CARlEY BAIRD & CO., Industrial Publishers and Booksellers, NO. 810 WALNUT

STREET, PHILIADEILPHIIA. Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free o! postage, at the publication price. ‘ A Descriptive Catalogue, 96 pages, 8vo., will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will furnish the publisher with his address. ARLOT.-A Complete Guide for Coach Painters. Translated from tile French of M. ARLOT, Coach Painter; for eleven years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Ap pendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United States and Great Britain. 12mo……….. $1.25 ARMENGAUD,, AMOROUX, and JOHNSON.-The Practical Draughtsman’s Book of Industrial De sign, and Machinist’s and Engineer’s Drawing Companion: Forming a Comp!ete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof. of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers.

Rewritten and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By WILLIA.M JOHNSON, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of “The Practical MIechanic’s Journal.” Illustrated by 50 folio steel plates, and 50
wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to….. $10.00 I

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2 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. ARROWSMITH.-Paper-Hanger’s Companion: A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Sys tematically laid down: with Copious Directions Preparatory to Paper ing; Preventives against the Effect of Damp Oil Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes of thile Trade; Observations and Directions for the Panielling and Ornamenting of Rooms, etc. By JAMES

ARROWSMITH, Author of “Analysis of Dra pery,” etc. 12mo., cloth…………. $1.25 ASHTON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of De signing Fancy Cotton and Woollen, Cloths from Sample: Giving full Instructions for Reducing Drafts. as well as the Methods of Spooling and Making out Harness for Cross Drafts, and Finding any Required Reed, with Calculationls and Tables of Yarn. By FREDERICK T. ASHTON, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With 52 Illustrations. One volume, 4to………. $10.00

BAIRD.-Letters on the Crisis, the Currency and the Credit System. By HENRY

CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet…….. 05 BAIRD.-Protection of Home Labor and Hlome Pro ductions necessary to the Prosperity of the Ameri can Farmer. By HENRY

CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper…….. 10 BAIRD.-Some of the Fallacies of British Free-Trade Revenue Reform. Two Letters to Arthur Latham Perry, Professor of History and Politi cal Economy in Williams College. By HENRY

CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet…………….. 05 BAIRD.-The Rights of American Producers, and the Wrongs of British Free-Trade Revenue Reform. By HENRY

CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet…….. 05 BAIRD.-Standard Wages Computing Tables: An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or hour, maybe ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGLER BAIRD*. Oblong folio……………. $5.00 BAIRD.-The American Cotton Spinner, and Mana ger’s and Carder’s Guide: A Practical Treatise on Cottonl Spinning; giving the Dimensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc.; with notices of recent Improvements: together with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn.

Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo. $1.50

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. BAKER.-Long-Span Railway Bridges: Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Prac tical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction; with numerous Formule and Tables. By B. BAKER. 12mo l…………….. $2.00 BAUERMAN.-A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron: Containing Outlines of the History of Iron AIanufacture, Mletllods of Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. BAUERMIAN, F. G. S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. First American Edition, Revised and En larged. With an Appendix on the Martin Process for Making Steel, from the Report of ABEAM S.

HEWITT, U. S. Commissioner to the Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867.

Illustrated. 12mo.. $2.00 BEANS.-A Treatise on Railway Curves and the Loca tion of Railways. By E. AV. BEANS, C. E. Illustrated. 12mo. Tucks… $1.50

BELL.-Carpentry Made Easy: Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, BArn Frames, MAill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable Tables. Illustrated by 38 plates, comprising nearly 200 figures. By WVII,LIAM E. BELL, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo.. $5.00

BELL.-Chemieal Phenomena of Iron Smelting: An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances which determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature of the Air, and the proper Condition of the Materials to be operated upon. By I. LOWTHIIAN BELL. Illustrated. 8vo…

$6.00 BEMROSE.-Manual of Wood Carving: With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected Designs. By WILLIAM

BEMEOSE, Jr. With an Introduction by LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., cloth…. $3.00 BICKNELL.-Village Builder, and Supplement: Elevations and Plans for Cottao_es, Villas, Suburban Residences, Farm Houses, Stables and Carriage Houses. Store Fronts, School Houses, Churches, Court Houses, and a model Jail; also, Exterior and Interior details for Public and Private Buildinas, with approved Forms of Contracts and Specifications, including Prices of Building Materials and Labor at Boston, Mass., and St. Louis, MIo. Containing 75 plates drawn to scale; showing the style and cost of building in different sections of the country, being an original work comprising the designs of twenty leading architects, representing the New Eng land, Middle, Western, and Southwestern States. 4to.. $12.00 1 3

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4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. BLENKARN.-Practical Specifications of Works exe cuted in Architecture, Civil and Mechanical Engi neering, and in Road Making and Sewering: To w-hichl are added a series of practically useftil Agreenieits and Re ports. By JOHIN BLENKARN. Illustrated by 15
large tfol(ig pla,,tes. 8vo..9.00 BLINN.-A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers: Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers; Practical Geometry; Alensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables (,f the Weights of MIetals, Lead Pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By LEROY J. BLINN, Master MIechanic. With over 100 Illustrations. 12mo……………. $2.50 BOOTH.-Marble Worker’s Manual: Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of Mlarble; MIosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by AI, L. BOOTIr. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth. $1.50 BOOTH AND

MORFIT.-The Encyclopedia of Che mistry, Practical and Theoretical: Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Ge ology, MAedicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMEIS C. BOOTII, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by CAMPBELL MIORFIT, author of “Chemical Manlail)ulations,” etc. Seventh edition. Royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations.. $5.00 BOX.-A Practical Treatise on Heat: As applied to the Useful Arts; for the Use of Engineers, Architects, etc. 13By TIIOAlAS Box, author of” Practical Ilydraulics.”

Illustrated by 14 plates containing 114 figures. 12imo…… $4.25

BOX.-Practical Hydraulics: A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By THIOMAS BOX. 12mo…………$2.50 BROWN.-Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements: Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Ilydran lics, Ilydrost’ltics, Pneumatics, Steam E,ngines, Mtill aidl other Gear ilF, Presses, Ilorology, and Miscellaneous MIachinery; aiinl iiicludiilg many movements never before )publlished, and sever-il of which have only recently come into use. BIy IIENRY T. I]ROWN, Elitor of the “America Artisan.” In one volume, 12ino… $1.00

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. BUCKMASTER.-The Elements of Mechanical Phy sics: By J. C. BUCKM.ASTER, late Student in the Government School of Mines; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the Royal Polvtechinic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. Ill one volume, 12so….

$.50 BULLOCK.-The American Cottage Builder: A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to,20,000, for Ihomes f)r the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil i Lgiueer, MAechanician, and Editor of “The Rudi merits of Architecture and Building,” etc., etc.

Illustrated by 75 en gravins. In one volume, Svo……….. $3.50 BULLOCK.

The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmeni, Machinists, Engi neers, and MAeehanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of “The American Co(ttage Builder.” Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one volume, 8vo………. $3.50 BURGH.-Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines: Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low Pres sure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Illustrated by 20 plates, double elephaut folio, with text…

$21.00 BURGH.-Practical Rules for the Proportions of Mo dern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes. By N. P. BU-RGH, Engineer.

12mo……… $1.50 BURGH.-The Slide-Valve Practically Considered. By N.

P. BurGIr, Engineer. Completely illustrated. 12mo. $2.00 BYLES.-Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Politi cal Economy Examined. By a BA.rRISTER

(Sir JOHN BARNARD BYLI,ES, Judge of Common Pleas). First American from the Ninth English Edition, as published. by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. In one volume, 12mo. Paper, 75 cts. Cloth………… $1.25

BYRN.-The Complete Practical Brewer: Or Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing ice(r, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer, all the Sniall Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger-pop, Sarsaparilla beer, Mlead, Spruce Beer, etc., etc. Adapted to the use of Public ]3rewers and Private Faiiiilies. By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo……….. $I.25 5

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a HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. BYRN.-The Complete Practical Distiller: Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical De scription of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; direc tions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, Ml. I). Eighth Edition. To which are added, lrac tical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer and Distiller.

12mo………….. $1.50 BYRNE. Handbook for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engineer: Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive Processes, Lapidary WVork, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and Polishing, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 wood en gravings. In one volume, Svo……….. $5.00 BYRNE.-Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engi neers: Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Layipg out Rail road Curves, Switches, Frog Angles, and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYR,NE. 18mo., full bound, pocket book form…………….. $1.75 BYRNE.-The Practical Model Calculator: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volumne, 8vo., nearly 600
pages………… $4.50 BYRNE.-The Practical Metal-Worker’s Assistant: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; HIardening and Tempering; Melting and Mlixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Shleet Metal; The Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most nImproved Processes and Tools employed by Metal Workers. Witl the Application of the Art of Electro-MAletallurgy to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupol(l, Plumier, Napier, Scoffern, (‘lay, Fairbairn, and others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A new, rev ise(, and improved edition, to which is added An Appendix, con tainIing THE MAIANUFACTURE OF RUSSIAN

SHEET-IRON. By JOHN PERCY, M. D., F.R.S. TIHE MANUFACTURE OF MALLEABLE

IRON CASTINGS, and IMIPROVEMENTS IN BESSEMER STEEL. By A. A. FEFSQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With over 600 Engravings, illis trating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo…. $7.00 Cabinet Maker’s Album of Furniture: Comprising a Collection of Designs for Furniture. Illustrated by 48 Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one vol., oblong $5.00

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. CALLINGHAM.-Sign Writing and Glass Emboss ing: A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By JAMES

CALLINGHA3I. In one volume, 12mo…….$1.50 CAMPIN.-A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engi neering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work shop MAachinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manlutfacture of Steam engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix onI the Analysis of ironl and Iron Ores. Bv FRANCIS CAMIPIN, C.E. To wvhich lye added, Obser vations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smokle Preventioni; with a Chaplter onI Explosions.

By RIt. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Latlhe, and for a Wheel cutting Mlachline. By J. LA NICCA. MAanagemenlt of Steel, Includ img l’orgiug, Hardeniing, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Ex pansioin. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8VO. Illus trated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings… $6.00 CAMPIN.-The Practice of Hand-Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc.: With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal ag may be re. quired in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, an Appen ix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMIPIN; with Numerous Illustrations. 12mo., cloth……….. $3.00 CAREY.-The Works of Henry C.

Carey: FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper. 25 HARMAONY

OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Commercial. 8vo., cloth…….. $1.50 IMANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey’s “Prin ciples of Social Science.” By KATE MICKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo. $2.25

MIISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising “Harmony of Interests,” ” MAoney,”

“Letters to the President,” “Financial Crises,” ” The Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her,” “Resources of the Union,” “The Public Debt.”

“Contraction or Expansion?” “Review of the Decade 1857-‘67,”

“Reconstruction,” etc., etc. Two vols., 8vo., cloth………… $10.00

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTUIRE. 8vo….. $2.50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3
vols., 8rvo., cloth $10.00 THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it Ex ists, and lIow it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo., cloth. $2.00

LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT (1867). 50 TIlE UNITY OF LAW: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, Social, Mental, and Mloral Science (1872). In one volume, Svo., Ipp. xxiii., 433. Cloth………… $3.50

CHAPMAN.- A Treatise on Ropemaking: As Practised in private and public Rope yards, with a Description of the alaiufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trades, Shipping, MAlining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT CHIAPMIAN. 24imoio…………..$1.50 7

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. COLBURN.-The Locomotive Engine: Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capa bilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Manage nient. By ZERAII COLBURN. Illustrated. A new edition. 12mo. $1.25 CRAIK.- The Practical American Millwright and Miller. By DAVoID CRAIK, Millwrighlit. Illustrated by numerous wood en graviigs, and two folding plates. 8vo…… $5.00 DE

GRAFF.-The Geometrical Stair Builders’ Cluide: Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel Engrav ings; together with the use of the most approved principles of Prac tical Geometry. By SIMION DE

GRAFF, Architect. 4to.. $5.00 DE KONINCK.-DIETZ.-A Practical Manual of Che mical Analysis and Assaying: As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce.

By L. L. DE KON INCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by ROBERT MALLET, F.R.S., F.S.G., M.I.C.E., etc. American Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. FESQURT, Chemist and Engineer. One volume, 12mo……… $2.50 DUNCAN.-Practical Surveyor’s Guide: Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. By ANDREWE DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth… $1.25 DUPLAIS.-A Treatise on the Manufacture and Dis tillation of Alcoholic Liquors: Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Asphodel, Fruits, etc.; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whis key, Rum, Gin, Swiss, Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aromatic Wa ters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the Aging of Brandy and the Inmprovement of Spirits, with Copious Directions and Tables for Testing and Peducing Spirituous Liquors, etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DUIPLAIS, Aine et Jeune. By M. AMCKENNIE, MA.D. To which are added the United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp., 8vo……… $10.00

DUSSAUCE.-A General Treatise on the Manufacture of Every Description of Soap: Compl)rising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Sa ponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apiparatuts necessary in a Soap Factory, Practical Instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of Soap, the assay of Soaps, etc., etc. Edited fronm Notes of Larm,-, Fontenelle, MAalapayre, Dufour, and others, with large and important additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one vol., 8ro.. $10.00

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. DUSSAUCE.-A General Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar: Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the Slow and the Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Malt, Cider, Molasses, and Beets; as well as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc., etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. In one volume, 8vo… $5.00

DUSSAUCE.-A New and Complete Treatise on the Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing: Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in.France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Docu nients of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Ren6, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc., etc. By Prof. H. Dus SAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. $25.00 JDUSSAUCE.- A Practical Guide for the Perfumer: Being a New Treatise on Perfumery, the most favorable to the Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Formuli of more than 1000 Prepa rations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Spirits, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pas tels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Mlessrs.‘Debay, Lu nel, etc. With additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. 12mo. $3.00

DUSSAUCE.-Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powders. By Prof. H. DUSSAU’CE. 12mo……….. $3.00 Dyer and Color-maker’s Companion: Containing upwards of 200 Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in exist ence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. In one vol., 12mo..

$1.25 EASTON.-A Practical Treatise on Street or Horse power Railways. ByV

ALEXANDER EASTON, C.E. Illustrated by 23 plates. 8vo., cloth……………… $2.00 ELDER.-Questions of the Day: Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIANT ELDER. 8VO.. $3.00 FAIRBAIRN.-The Principles of Mechanism and Ma chinery of Transmission: Comnprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplirng of Shafts, and Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By Sir WlILLIAm FAnTBA,’,-, C.ER., LL.1)., F.R.S., F.G.S. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume, 12mo………… $2.5)0 FORSYTH. Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and other Monuments: Containing 78 Designs.

By JAMES FORSYTH. With an Introduction by CHARLES BOUTELL, M. A. 4to., cloth…. $5.00 9

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10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. GIBSON.-The American Dyer: A Practical Treatise on the Coloring of Wool, Cotton, Yarn and Cloth, in three parts.

Part First gives a descriptive account of the Dye Stuffs; if of vegetable origin, where produced, how cultivated, aiid how prepared for use; if chemical, their composition, specific gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to de tect the adulterations, etc. Part Second is devoted to the Coloring of Wool, giv ing recipes for one hundred and twentyv-nine different colors or slhades, and is supplied with sixty colored samiples of Wool. Part Third is devoted to the Coloring of IRaw Cottoni or Cotton Waste, for mixing w ith Wool Colors in the Manufacture of all kinds of -Fabrics, gives recipes for thirty-eight different colors or shades, and is supplied with twenty-four colored samples of Cotton Waste. Also, recipes for Coloring Beavers, Doeskins, and Flannels, with remarks upoi Ani. lines, giving recipes for fifteen different colors or shades, and nine samples ofAniline Colors that will stand both the Fulling and Scour iiig process. Also, recipes for Aniline Colors on Cotton Thread, and recipes for Common Colors on Cotton Yarns. Embracing in all over two hundred recipes for Colors and Shades, and ninety-four samples of Colored Wool and Cotton Waste, etc. By RICHARD H. GIBSON, Practical Dyer add Chemist. In one volume, Svo… $12.50 GILBART.-History and Principles of Banking: A Practical Treatise. By JAMES W. GILBART, late Manager of the London and Westminster Bank. With additions. In onle volume, 8vo., 600
pages, sheep……….. $5.00 Gothic Album for Cabinet Makers: Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated by 23 large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong.. $3.00 GRANT. - Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the Beet. Bv E. B. GRANT. 12mo……….. $1.25

GREGORY.-Mathematics for Practical Men: Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS

GREGORY. 8vo., plates, cloth $3.0( GRISWOLD.- Railroad Engineer’s Pocket Compan ion for the Field: Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Con struction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Exalnples. By W.

GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks……….. $1.75 GRUNER.-Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena. 13v MA. L. GRUNER, President of the General Council of M,ines of France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines.

Translated, with the Author’s sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. B.

Gordon, F. R. S. E…. F. (,‘S. Illustrated. 8vo….. $2.50

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 11 GUETTIER.-Metallic Alloys: Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Tralislated from the French of A.

GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of Foundries, author of” La Fouderie en France,” etc., etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo…… $3.00 HARRIS.-Gas Superintendent’s Pocket Companion. By IHARRITS & BROTHER, Gas Meter Manufacturers, 1115 and 1117 Cherry Street, Philadelphia. Full bound in pocket-book form $2.00 Hats and Felting: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Ihatter.

Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo…. $1.25 HOFMANN.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufac ture of Paper in all its Branches. By CARL HOFMIANN. Late Superintendent of paper mills in Ger many and the United States; recently manager of the Public Ledger Paper Mills, near Elkton, Md. Illustrated by 110 wood engravings, and five large folding plates. In one volume, 4to:, cloth; 398 pages……………. $15.00

HUGHES.-American Miller and Millwright’s Assist ant. By WM. CARTER HUGHES.

A new edition. In one vol., 12mo. $1.50 HURST.-A Hand-Book for Architectural Surveyors and others engaged in Building: Containing Formulh useful in Designing Builder’s work, Table of Weights, of the materials used in Building, lMemoranda connected with Builders’ work, MIensuration, the Practice of luilders’ }leasure ment, Contracts of Labor, Valuationi of I’rolperty, Stummiary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc., etc. By J. F.

]t’IST, C. E. S(onl(l edition, pocket-book form, full bound……. 2.50

JERVIS.-Railway Property: A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; (le signed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief Engineer of the IHudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. In one vol., 12mo., cloth $2.00 JOHNSTON.-Instructions for the Analysis of Soils, Limestones, and Manures. By J. F. W. JOHNSTON. 12mo……….. 38

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12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. KEENE.-A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: For the Use of Beginners, to which is added, A Chapter on Distill,. tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom IHou:e f(,r ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of II. I. Customs. 8vo. $1.25

KELLEY.-Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on In dustrial and Financial Questions. PBy Hon. VWILLIAMS D. KELLEY, M[. C. In one volume, 544 page, svo……………. $3.00 KENTISHII.-A Treatise on a Box of Instru~ments, And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim ber, Cask and Malt Gaaging, Heights, and Distances. By TIIOIAs KEsNTISI{. In one volume.

12mo………$1.25 KOBELL.-ERNI.-Mineralogy Simplified: A short Method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from the last German Edition of F.

VON KOBELLI, with an Introduction to Blow-pipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ER.NI, MA. D., late Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of ” Coal Oil and Petroleum.” In one volume, 12mo.

$2.50 LANDRIN.-A Treatise on Steel: Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, and Use. By M. H. C. LANDrIN, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi neer. With an Appendix oni the Bessemer and the Martin Processes for Manliufacturing Steel, from the Peport of Abram S. lIcwitt, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 12mo…………… $3.00 LARKIN.-The Practical Brass and Iron Founder’s Guide: A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc.: to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manu facture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By JAxIIEs ,LAPKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Rleany, Neafie & Co’s. Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo… $’ 5o LEAVITT.-Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel: With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; together with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chal) ter onIL the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an) Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, specially adapted for Steam Service. By T. H. LEAVITT. Third edition. 12mo…. $l.75

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. LEROUX, C,-A Practical Treatise on the Manufac ture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns: Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English and French methods of Comnbing, Drawing, and Spinning WVorsteds andil MAlanufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the Frenchl of CHAERLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a SpIinning Mill, b1 HORAPTIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and(l Engineer. Illustrated by 12 large Plates. To which is added an Appendix, containing extracts from the Reports of the Initer national Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee app)inted by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woollenf and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as e xhibited in the Paris Universal Exposi tion, 1867. 8vo., cloth…….;5.00 LESLIE (Miss).-Complete Cookery: Directions for Cookerv in its Various Branches. By AlISS LESLIE. 60thl thousand. Thoroughlly revisedl, withl the addition of New Re ceipts. In one volume, 1i2mo., clothl….. $1.50 LESLIE (Miss).-Ladies’ House Book: A Manual of Domestic Ecoinoiiiv.‘20tli revised edition. 12mo., cloth. LESLIE (Miss).-Two Hundred Receipts in French Cookery. Cloth, 12mo. LIEBER.-Assayer’s Guide: Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, )by lleat and by AVet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Mletals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of Coal, etc.

By OSCAI Ml. LIEBEI. 1l2mo., cloth… $1.25 LOTH.-The Practical Stair Builder: A Complete Treatise on the Art of Building Stairs and Ilaid-Rails, Designed for Carpenters, Builders, and Stair-BIuilders.

Illustrated with Thirty Original Plates. By C. EDWARD L1,OTII, Protssioiial Stair-Builder. One large 4to. volume….. $10.00 LOVE.-The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and Finishing, on the Most Approved English and French Methods: Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, WVoollens, and Cottons, Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bled and Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. 13Bv TIIO.MAS LOVE, a Working Dyer and Scourer. Second American IEdition, to which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aullinie Colors. Ini one volume, 8vo., 343 pages……… $5.00 Is 13

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14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. MAIN and BROWN.-Questions on Subjects Con nected with the Marine Steam-Engine: And Examination Papers with hlints for their Solution. By THOMAS J. M[AIN, Professor of Mlathemiatics, lRoyal Naval College, and TIiOMIAS B3rOW-, Chief Engineer, R.N. 1-nimo., cloth….. $.1.50 MAIN and BROWN.-The Indicator and Dynamo meter: With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THiOMIAS J. MAIN, M.

A. F. R., Assistant Professor Royal Naval Collecc, Ports mouth, and TIhIOIAS BRowx, Assoc. Inst. C. E., (Clief Eiineer, R. N., attached to the Royal Naval College. Illustrated. F’romn the Fourth London Edition.

Svo………… 1.50 MAIN and BROWN.-The Marine Steam-Engine. By TIO.MIAS

J. MAIN, F. R.; Assistant S. Mlatlhemnatical Professor at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THIOMAS l,1iOWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the l]oval Naval Col lege. Authors of “Questions connected with the Marine Steam-En gine,” and the “Indicator and Dynaminometer.” WAVith numerous Illus traftions. In one volume, Svo…….. $5.00 MARTIN.-Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Me chanical Engineers: Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for Malking the Uni versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer.

8vo……………… 50 Mechanics’ (Amateur) Workshop: A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula tion of AVWood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, Sol dering, and Carpentry. By the author of the “Lathe and its Uses.” Third edition.

Illustrated. 8vo………. $3.00 MOLESWORTH.-Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engi neers. By GUILFORD L.

MOLESWORTHI, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second American, from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full’ bound in pocket-book form………… $2.00

NAPIER.-A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. By JAMIES NAPIER, F. C.

S. A New and Thloroiughly Revised Edi tion. Completely brought up to the p)resent state of the Scieince, irnclu ding the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQUET,‘lChemist and Engineer. With all Appendix on Dyeing and (Calico Printilng, Is shlown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illustrated. Il one Volume, 8vo., 422 pages………. $5.00

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. NAPIER.-Manual of Electro-Metallurgy: Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By JAM_ES

NAPIER. Fourth American, from thle Fourth Londoin edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one vol., 8vo. $2.00 NASON.-Table of Reactions for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Poly technic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated by Colors… 63 NEWBERY.-Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every style: Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the best-English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By ROBERT

NEWVBERIY. 4to………… $15.00 NICHOLSON.-A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding: Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. 1:mo., cloth. $2.25

NICHOLSON.-The Carpenter’s New Guide:, A Complete Book of Lines for Carpenters and Joiners. By PETER NICHIIOLSON. The whole carefully and thoroughly revised by H. K. DAVIS, and containing numerous new and improved and original De signs for Roofs, Domes, etc. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect. Illus. trated by 80 plates. 4to………… $4.50 NORRIS.-A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Machinists: Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, etc., etc. By SFPTIMIUS

NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated. 12mno., cloth. $2.00 NYSTROM.-On Technological Education, and the Construction of Ships and Screw Propellers: For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W.

NYSTROM, late Act ing Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised with additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo… $1.50

O’NEILL.-A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Print ing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O’NEILL, An.t lvtical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London; Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society (,f Manchester; Author of “Chemistry of Calico Printing and l)yeing.” To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and engineer. With an Ap pendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one volume, 8vo., 491 pages.. $6.00

15

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16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. ORTON.-Underground Treasures: How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES ORTOX, A. M. Illustrated, 12mo………… $1.50 OSBORN.-American Mines and Mining: Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. OSBORN. Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) OSBORN.-The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches; with special reference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and wood-engravings. 8vo…………. $15.00 OVERMAN.-The Manufacture of Steel: Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel.

A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Ihard ware, of Steel and Iron, and for MAen of Science and Art. By FRED ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the “Manaufacture of Iron,” etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer…………. $1.50

OVERMAN.-The Moulder and Founder’s Pocket Guide: A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Ifollow ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds bfor Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, Wax, and other articles commonly used in Casting; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals; the Com position of Alloys and their Nature. With an Appendix containing Receipts for Alloys, Bronze, Varnishes and Colors for Castings; also, Tables on the Strength and other qualities of Cast Metals. By FEED

ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of “The Manufacture of Iron.” With 42 Illustrations. 12mo. $1.50 Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s Companion: Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Grainiing, Marbling, Sign-Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc.; and a Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with an Appendix.

Containing Colors and Coloring-Theoretical and Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul’s Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. 12mo., cloth. $1.50

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. PALLETT.-The Miller’s, Millwright’s, and Engineer’s Guide. By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo.

$3.00 PERCY.-The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. Bv JOIHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines, and to The Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of” Metallurgy.” With Illustrations. 8vo., paper…….

5… 0 cts. PERKINS.-Gas and Ventilation.. Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagramrs. By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth……… $1.25

PERKINS and STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet iron and Boiler Plate Roller: Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles to produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the ]ar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and col lected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE……

$2.50 PHILLIPS and DARLINGTON.-Records of Mining and Metallurgy; Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter. By J. ARTHUR

PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imnperial School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo… $2.00 PROTEAUX.-Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper and Boards. By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts and MAanufactures. and Director of Thiers’ Paper Mill, Puy-de-D6me. With additions, by L. S. LE NORMA.ND. Translated from the French, with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B., M.D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the “American Artisan.” Illus trated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Mqcehi nery, Plans of Paper-MAills, etc., etc. 8vo…. $10.C0 R.GNAULT.-Elements of Chemistry. By M. V.

REGNAUI,T. Translated from the French by T. FORREST BETTON, lM.D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter and Refiner U.S. stint, and WVMI. LI,. FABER, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth…. $7.50 17

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18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. REID.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Portland Cement: By HENRY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A. Lipowitz’s Work, describing a New Method adopted in Germany for Manufacturing that Cement, by W. F. REID. Illustrated by plates and wood engravings. 8vo……. $(;.00 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Var nishes. By vI M.

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. F. MfALEPEYRE
and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER. Illustrated. In one volume, 8vo. (In preparation.) RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting: Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and in most General Use. By AM M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOLTSSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. F. MAIALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER.

Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi neer.

Illustrated by Engravings. In one volume, 650 pages, Svo. $7.50 ROBINSON.-

Explosions of Steam Boilers: How they are Caused, and how they may be Prevented. By J. R. ROBINSON, Steam Engineer. 12nio.. $1.25 ROPER.-A Catechism of High Pressure or Non Condensing Steam-Engines: Including the Modelling, Constructing, Running, and Management of Steam Engines and Steam Boilers. With Illustrations. By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Full bound tucks… $2.00 ROSELEUR.-Galvanoplastic Manipulations: A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electro-plater and the Galvanoplastic Operator.

Translated from the French of ALFRED ROSELEUR, Chemist, Professor of the Galvanoplastic Art, MAanufactu rer of Chemicals, Gold and Silver Electro-plater. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by over 127 Engravings on wood. 8vo., 495 pages…………… $6.00 This Treatise is the fullest and by far the best on this subject ever published in the United States. SCHINZ.-Researches on the Action of the Blast Furnace. BY CHARLES SCIIINZ. Translated from the German with the special permission of the Author by AVILLIAI IH. MAW and MORITZ MUII. LER. With an Appendix written by the Author expressly for this edition. Illustrated by seven plates, containing 28 figures. In one volume, 12mo……………

$4.25

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. SHAW.-Civil Architecture: Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By EDWARD SHAW, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M.

IIARDING, Architects. The whole illustrated by One Hundred and Two quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to., cloth.. $10.00

SHUNK.-A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Location, for Young Engineers. By WILLIAMS F. SIIUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo… $2.00

SLOAN.American Houses: A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings.

Illustrated by 26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive R’eferences. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect, author of the ” Model Architect,” etc., etc. 8vo.

$2.50 SMEATON.-Builder’s Pocket Companion: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo. $1.50 SMITH.-A Manual of Political Economy. By E. PESHINE SMITH. A new Edition, to which is added a full Index. l2mo., cloth……….. $1.25 SMITH.-Parks and Pleasure Grounds: Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By CHARLES

H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc., etc.

12mo……. $2.25 SMITH.-The Dyer’s Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wvool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs., and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of suc’ work. By DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth… $3.00

SMITH.-The Practical Dyer’s Guide: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, Ditto from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, A Treatise on the Art of Padding. By D)AVID SMITHI. In one volume, 8vo. Price… $25.00

STEWART.-The American System. Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, princi. p)ally delivered in the House of Representatives of the UInited States By ANDREW STEWART, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. In one volume, 8vo., 407 pages. $3.00 19

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20 IIENRY CAPEY BAIIRD’S CATALOGUE. STOKES.-Cabinetmaker’s and Upholsterer’s Com panion: Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinetmaking and Up holstery, with Familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabi net-work; the Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Direc tions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make Frencli Polish; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts particularly useful for workmen generally. By J. STOKES. In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations… * $1.25 Strength and other Properties of Metals: Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. WVith a Description of the Machines for testing Metals, and of the Clas3ification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ord nance Department U.S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War.

Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In one volume, 4to.. $10.00

SULLIVAN.-Protection to Native Industry. By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of “Ten Chapters on Social Reforms.” In one volume, 8vo… $1.50

Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc., By Measurement. Cloth…………. 63 TAYLOR.-Statistics of Coal: Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Maiiu facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S.S. HAL DEMA’N-. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth……………… $10.00 TEMPLETON.-The Practical Examinator on Steam and the Steam-Engine: With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of Engineers, Students, and others. By WNI. TEMPLETON, Engineer. 12mo……………… $1.25

THOMAS.-The Modern Practice of Photograph By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth….. THOMSON.-Freight Charges Calculator. By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 24ino… TURNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the Hand or Foot Lathe: With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs.

4to……………. $3.00 75 $1.25

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. Turner’s (The) Companion: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn in,: also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Di rections for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A new edition in one volume, 12mo.

$1.50 URBIN.-BRULL.-A Practical Guide for Puddcing Iron and Steel. By ED.

URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Pize Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Mleeting of 1865-6. To which is added A COMPARPISON OF THE

RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. B.y A. BREULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Che mist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. $1.00

VAILE.-Galvanized Iron Cornice-Worker’s Manual: Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Ma king Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES

A. VAILE, Superin tendent “Richmond Cornice Works,” Richmond, Indiaa.

Illustra ted by 21 Plates. In one volume, 4to….. $5.00 VILLE.-The School of Chemical Manures: Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the French of M. GEORGE VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi neer. With Illustrations. In one volume, 12 mo… $1.25 VOGDES.-The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket Com panion and Price Book: Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo decimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of U. S. Measures Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, AVood, Stone, and various other Materials, Quantities of Materials in Given Sizes, and Dimen sions of Wood, Brick, and Stone; and a full and complete Bill of Prices for Carpenter’s Work; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing Brick anid Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering, etc. By FRAN-EK W. VOGC)ES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket book form……………. $2.00 Bound in cloth…………..

1.50 WARN.-The Sheet-Metal Worker’s Instructor: For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain ing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple Rules for descril)ing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN

H. WARN, Practical Tin plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instruc tions for Boiler Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules fot Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by 32 Plates and 37 Wood Engravings. 8vo….. $3.00 21

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22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. WARNER.-New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams for the Computation of Earth-Work: Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes sional Computers. In Two Parts, with an Appendix. Part I.-A Practical Treatise; Part II.-A Theoretical Treatise; and the Appen dix. Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Expla nations of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. The whole illustrated by numerous original Engravings, comprising Explanatory Cuts for Definitions and Problems, StereometricScales and Diagrams, and a Series of Lithographic Drawings from Models, showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining and Mechanical Engineer.

8vo……….. $5.00 WATSON.-A Manual of the Hand-Lathe: Comprising Concise Directions for working Metals of all kinds, Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to produce Elabo rate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of” The Scientific American,” Author of” The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers.” Illustrated by 78 Engravings…………….

$1.50 WATSON.-The Modern Practice of American Ma chinists and Engineers: Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, with the most Economical Speed for the same; the Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of the “Scientific American.” Illustrated by 86 Engravings. In one volume, 12mo…………… $2.50 WATSON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power: With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 8vo……………… $10.00

WEATHERLY.-Treatise on the Art of Boiling Su gar, Crystallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods. 12mo…………….. $2.00

WEDDING.-The Metallurgy of Iron; Theoretically and Practically Considered.

By Dr. HERMANN WED DING, Professor of the Metallurgy of Iron at the Royal Mining Academy, Berlin. Translated by JULIUS Du I MONT, Bethlehem, Pa.

Illustrated by 207 Engravings on Wood, and three Plates. In one volume, 8vo. (In press.)

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. WILL.-Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By Professor HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi tion. Translated by CHARLES F. HIM)ES, Ph.D., Professor of Natu ral Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. $…50 WILLIAMS.-On Heat and Steam: Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explosions.

By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3.50 WOHLER.-A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis. By F. WOHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University 1f Gb;ttin gen. Edited by HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.

Illustrated. In one volume, l2mo…………. $3 00 WORSSAM.-On Mechanical Saws: From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W.

WORSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large plates. 8vo… $5.00 23

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