A Comprehensive View of our Country and Its Resources by James Dabney McCabe
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Title:A comprehensive view of our country and its resources. Giving a brief outline history of the birth and growth of the nation and each state separately … and following with graphic descriptions of the rivers, lakes, mountains, cities, soil, climate, productions, minerals, manufactures, internal improvements, commerce, finances, government, schools, religious denominations, etc., etc. … By Jas.

D. McCabe, jr.

Author:McCabe, James Dabney, 1842-1883.

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Permission must be received for subsequent distribution in print or electronically. Please contact umdl-info@umich.edu for more information.

Print Source:A comprehensive view of our country and its resources.

Giving a brief outline history of the birth and growth of the nation and each state separately … and following with graphic descriptions of the rivers, lakes, mountains, cities, soil, climate, productions, minerals, manufactures, internal improvements, commerce, finances, government, schools, religious denominations, etc., etc. … By Jas. D. McCabe, jr.

McCabe, James Dabney, 1842-1883.

1241 p. incl. front., illus. col. fold. map. 23 cm.

Philadelphia,

Springfield, Mass. [etc.]

Hubbard brothers; [etc., etc.,

1876]

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‘, (I __ .- ~~~~~~~~~__________ 017 11I.’. llIIU ;~~~~~~~~~___ II. I UII

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mm ffi __ _ ____ ffiThfflffi TIE NATION’S CAPITOlQ i

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A COMPRE.HENSIVE XIEW Oui COUNTRY AND ITS iESOLS RI Brief Outline Hlistory of the Birth annd Growth of the Nation and each State separately, AND

T’IIUS INTIROIDUING THE READER TO THEIR PRESENT VAST EXTENT AND VARIED

RESOURCES, AND FOLLOWING WITH GRAPIIC DESCRIPTIONS OF TIE Rivers, Lakes, Mounfains, CITIES, 8oil, Climafe, Productions Minerals, Manufactures, Internal Improvements, Commerce, Finances, Government, Schools, Religious Denominations, ET Ca, E.T C. INTERSPERSED WITH MANY EXCITING INCIDENTS IN

AMERICAN HISTORY, AND CLOSING WITH VIVID WORD-PICTURES OF THE MOST

WONDERFUL THINGS IN NATURE AND ART IN AMERICA, AN ABLE HISTORY OF THE

AMERICAN FREE SCHOOLS, AND A RESUME OF THE GLORIOUS RESULTS OF A CENTURY

UNDER FREE INSTITUTIONS. (r By dAS. DP..McABE, dr., AUTH}R OF “GREAT

FORTUNES,” ” PLANTING THE WILDERNF,SS,” “CROSS AND CROWN,” ETA PROFUSELY

ILLUSTRATED I-IUBBARD BtOTIIEl’IS: PI’ILADELPHIA, SPRINGFIELD, MASS., (CINCINNATI ANID CIHICAGO. AxC-tOR PtrBLI$IING CO, ST. LouAs, 51(X. A.L.

BNeNCPOFT & Co., SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. OF: GIVING A

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Enitered accordinig to Act of Coigress, ii the year 1876, by HUBBARD

BROS., In the Office of the Librarian of CoIgress. at Washington, D. C.

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PRPEFACE. ,jMID the rejoicings and congratulations which will occupy the /‘A people of the United States during the Centennial year now opening, we mlay with profit and wit th pride turn our atten c tion from the consideration of our history to an examination of the actual condition of our country at the close of its first century o)f national existence. Few of our people are well informed as to the land of their birth. They have a vague idea that it is a “great (o()untry,” but they have but a faint conception of the immense size of the Republic. Some years ago an English traveller published the following comparative view of the magnificent extent of our (ountry, and his statement seemed to take even our own people by surprise. He said: “Yes, the Republic is a big country. In Englandf we have no lines of sufficient length, no areas of sufficient width, to convey a just idea of its size. The State of Oregon is bigger than England; California is about the size of Spain; Texas would be larger than France, if France had won the frontier of the German Rhine. If the United States were parted into equal lots, they would make fifty-two kingdoms as large as England, fourteen empires as large as France. Even the grander figure of Europe fails us when we come to measure in its lines such amplitudes as those of the United States. To wit: from Eastport to Brownsville is farther than from London to Tuat, in the Great Sahara; from Washington to Astoria is farther than from Brussels to Kars; from New York to San Francisco is farther than fiom Paris to Bagdad. Such measures seem to carry us away from the sphere of fact into the realms of magic and romnance. 5 4-i1 j’ - ‘It-,,,.,, I.’, t - - X, - L 7

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PREFACE. “Again, take the length of rivers as a measurement of size. A steamboat can go ninety miles up the Thames, two hundred miles up the Seine; five hundred and fifty miles up the Rhine. In America, the Thames would be a creek, the Seine a brook, thie Rhine a local stream, soon lost in a mightier flood. The Mississippi is five times longer than the Rhine; the Missouri is three times longer than the Danube; the Columl)ia is four times longer than the Scheldt. From the sea to Fort Snelling, the Missouri is plowed by steamers a distance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-one miles; yet she is hut the second river in the United States.

“Glancing at a map of America, we see to the north a group of lakes. Nowv our English notion of a lake is likely to have been derived from Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda. But these sheets of water give us no true hint of what HIuron and Superior are like, scarcely indeed of what Erie and Ontario are like. Conistoln, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda, put together would not cover a tenth part of the surface occuplied by)v the smallest of the five Amrerican lakes. All the waters lying in Swiss, Italian, English, Irisll, Scotch, and German lakes might be poured into Michigan without making a perceptible addition to its flood. Yorkshire might be sunk out of sight in Erie; Ontario drowns as much land as would make two duchies equal in area to Sehleswig and Holstein. Denmark proper could be washed by the waves of Huron. Many of the minor lakes in America would be counted as inland seas elsewhere; to-wit: Salt Lake, in Utah, has a surface of two thousand square miles; while that of Geneva has only three hundred and thirty; that of Como only ninety; that of Killarney only eight. A kingdom like Saxony, a principality like Parma, a duchy like Coburg, if thrown in one heap into Lake Superior, might add an island to its beauty, but would he no more conspicuous in its vast expanse than one of those pretty gre (a islets which adorn Loch Lomond. “Mountain masses are not considered by some as the strongest parts of American scenery; yet you find masses in this country which defy all measurement by such puny chains as the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Savoy Alps The Alleghanies, ranging in height between 6

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PREFACE. Helvellyn and Pilatus, run through a district equal in extent to the country lying between Ostend and Jaroslaw. The Wahsatch chain, though the name is hardly known in Europe, has a larger bulk and grandeur than the Julian Alps. The Sierra Madre, commonly called the Rocky Mountains, ranging in stature from a little below Snowdon to a trifle above Mont Blanc, extend from Mexico, through the Republic, into British America, a distance almost equal to thait dividing London fromn Delhi.” Such are the territorial dimensions of our country, as measured by a foreigner, and that they are in no way exaggerated will be found by all who study the subject. But the greatness and interest of the Republic do not consist in its vast size. We have within our limits nearly every variety of climate known to man, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The ground is rich in mineral deposits, from the useful, but homely veins of coal, to beds of the most brilliant and valuable jewels. The earth yields us not only our food, but the rarest medicines and drugs. It pours out in streams oil for burning, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs, salt that requires but the heat of the sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth likle the dust in the highways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. Such are the natural advantages of our favored land. All these existed at the time when our fathers laid the first foundations of the great nation into whose hands the destinies of this wonderful land have been committed. Looking back over the years that have elapsed since the period of colonization, we can trace the successive steps by which the country has been brought to its present state of prosperity and power. We can note the unprecedented increase of’

population; the civilization and building up of all parts of the vast continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from British America to the Gulf og Mexico; we can see stately and populous cities rising where less than a century ago the red manl roamed through the forest; I

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PREFACE. we can trace the long lines of railway stretching over the Union where once the Indian trails were the only paths, and can count by millions the value of the mighty inland commerce which has succeeded to the ventures of the insignificant traders of a hundred years ago. Surely a more profitable or engaging study cannot employ our time (luring the Centennial season we are now celebrating. Trhe aim of this work is to present to the reader in a compact and convenient form the means of pursuing such a study with but little trouble to himself. The work is meant to show at a glance the actual condition of the Republic at the present day, its achievements, wealth, power, prosperity, resources, and liabilities. It is believed that nothing that can contribute to this end has been omitted. The tables and other statistics in the body of the book are from the latest reports, both State and Federal, available. The census of the whole country is taken but once in ten years, and for many of the items the census of 1870 is the only authority accessible. The book presents the latest information to be obtained on the subjects of which it treats. It is to be hoped that among the achievements of our country during the next century the provision of a more perfect system for the collection of statistics, both State and Federal, will he numbered. The author would here express his grateful acknowledginents to General Francis A. Walker, the accomplished Superinn tciident of the Census of 1870, for assistance received from him. It is hoped that the illustrations will aid in bringing to the mind o)f the reader a vivid picture of the busy, restless, energetic Republic (of the West, and also render him more familiar with some of the (,harms of American soenery. J. D. McC. January l1t, 1876. 8 I

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I (I. PAGE 1. Agricultural Department Building, Washington, D. C…………… Frontispiece. 2. The Capitol at Washington……………………………………………..1 3. Rapids of the St.

Lawrence………………………………………………………………..51

4. A View on the Alleghany

Mountains…………………………………………….. 9……. 5.

A View on the Rocky

Mountains…………………………………………………………

61 6. Ploughing on a Western

Prairie……………………………………………… 63 7. Life in New England, 1776……………………………………. 64 8. A Western

Homestead………………………………………………………………………

78 9. View on the Hudson River, showing the Steamboat, Telegraph, and Railroad….. 84 10. Indians Viewing the Pacific

Railr’oad…………………………………………………… 87

11. Sioux Indians Burning a

Prisoner………………………………………………………..

88 12. An Indian Village in

Winter………………………………………………………………

105 13. Ruins of Jamestown,

Va……………………………………………………………………

109 14. Plymouth

Rock………………………………………………………………………………

111 15. First Settlement of New York

City……………………………………………………… 113

16. First Settlers of America Clearing

Land……………………………………………….. 115 17.

Burning of Deerfield,

Mass………………………………………………….. 119 18.

Ruins of

Ticonderoga………………………………………………………………………

130 19. Independence Hall in

1776………………………………………………….. 133 20.

Scene of the Battle of Lake

Champlain………………………………………………… 148 21.

Plain of Chalmette; Scene of the Battle of New

Orleans…………………………… 150 22. The Pine Forests of Maine…………………………………………………………………

197 23. Lumberman’s Camp in the Woods of M a i n
e…………………………………………… 200 24. City Hall and Court House,

Portland…………………………………………………… 212

25. Scene on the White

Mountains……………………………………………………………

219 26. The State House at

Concord………………………………………………………………

228 27. A View of Montpelier,

Vt…………………………………………………………………241

28. A View of Rutland,

Vt…………………………………………………………………….244

29). Harvard University, Cambridge,

Mass………………………………………………… 257 30. A View of Boston…………………………………………. 267 31.

Chickering & Sons’

Manufactory…………………………………………………………

268 39. State House at B o s t o
n……………………………………………………………………..

269 33. Faneuil Hall, at

Boston…………………………………………………………………….

270 34. Bunker Hill Monument, at B o s t o
n……………………………………………………… 278 3a.

Coast

Fishing…………………………………………………………………………………

308 36. Narragansett Bay, R.

I……………………………………………………………………..

310 37. A View of Newport, R.

I…………………………………………………………………..

313 38. A View from Mount Holyoke,

Conn…………………………………………………….. 321 39.

Yale College, New Haven,

Conn………………………………………………………… 328

40. A View of New Haven,

Conn……………………………………………………………..334

41. A Scene in the Catskill

Mountains………………………………………………………

350 42. A View on the Hudson

River……………………………………………………………..

355 43. Scene on Lake

George………………………………………………………………………

356 44. The Falls of

Niagara………………………………………………………………………..

359 45. New York City in

1664…………………………………………………………………….

375 46. A View of Albany, N.

Y……………………………………………………………………

379 47. A View of New York

City………………………………………………………………….

383 4,S. New York Life Insurance Company’s

Building………………………………………. 384 49. Scene on Broadway, New York

City…………………………………………………….. 386

50.t) Scene on Fifth Avenue, New York

City……………………………………………….. 388 1. View in Central Park, New York C i t y……………………………389 2.

The Water Terrace in Central Park, New York

City………………………………… 390 53. City Hall, New York City………………………………………………………………….

393 54. Academy of

Design………………………………………………………………………….

395 55. New Post Office, Broadway, New York

City…………………………………………… 397 ,56. Steinway & Sons’ Piano

Manufactory………………………………………………….. 398

57. High Bridge,
atharlem……………………………………………………………………

400 58. Union Square and Washington

Monument…………………………………………….. 403 59.

United States Navy Yard, Brooklyn, L.

I…………………………………………….. 407 9

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. PAGE 60. View from West Point………………………………………………………….

410 61. Genesee Falls, at Rochester, N.

Y…………………………………………………….. 413 62.

The (Celebrated Ten-Cylinder Rotary Printing

Press……………………………….. 414 6). Gathering Watermelons……………………………………………………………………

433 (;4. Pas s aic Falls. at Paterson, N.

J………………………………………………………. 443 65.

A Scene at Atlantic City, N.

J………………………………………………………….. 445

66. A View on the Juniata

River…………………………………………………………..

453 67. The Schuylkill above

Philadelphia…………………………………………………….

454 68. Mauch

Chunik………………………………………………………………………………

455 69. Old Portage

Road…………………………………………… 456 70.

Nesquehoning

Bridge…………………………………………………………………….

456 71. (-)Mountt Pisgah and the Coal

Region…………………………………………………….. 4,57

72. Deep Cut on the Pennsylvania

Railroad……………………………………………… 465 73. The Susquehanna above

Harrisburg…………………………………………………… 467

74. The Girard

Bridge………………………………………………………………………….

469 75. League

Island……………………………………………… 470 76. Fort Delaware……………………………………………… 470 7.

Philadelphia, from Fairmount

Park…………………………………………………… 471 7X.

The Wissahickon, at Chestnut

Hill…………………………………………………….. 472 79.

Philadelphia Small

Homes………………………………………………………………

473 80. The Led(ger Building,

Philadelphia…………………………………………………….

474 81. Fairmnount Water Works,

Philadelphia……………………………………………… 475 82.

The \Vissahickon, Philadelphia…………………………………. 476

83. The l Union League Building,

Philadelphia……………………………………………. 477 84.

The New Masonic.Temple,

Philadelphia………………………………………………. 478

85. -leiullock Glen, Fairmount Park,

Philadelphia……………………………………… 479 86. New Academy of Natural Sciences,

Philadelphia…………………………………… 480 87.

AWissahickon New Drive,

Philadelphia………………………………………………… 481

88. The Schuylkill River, at the Falls

Philadelphia…………………………………… 482 89. Chesttntt Street Bridge,

Philadelphia…………………………………………………..

483 90. A Public Fountaii,

Philadelphia………………………………………………………..

484 91. lnde)peidence Hall in 187i 2,

Philadelphia…………………………………………….. 486 99.

A View of Pittsburgh,

Pa………………………………………………………………..

489 93. Manlatfacture of Glass

Bottles…………………………………………………………….

490 94. A View of Scranton,

Pa…………………………………………………………………..

500 95. A View of Easton,

Pa……………………………………………………………………..

501 96. A Peach Farm in

Delaware……………………………………………………………..

524 97. Oyster Fishery,

Miarylad……………………………………………………………….

527 9)8. Battle MAlonument at Baltimor
e………………………………………………………….. 541

(9. A Scene on Baltimore

Street……………………………………………………………..

544 100. Scene on Baltimore and Ohio

Railroad……………………………………………….. 547 10].

Columbian Deaf and Dumb

Institution………………………………………………. 553

102. New Building of the Y. M. C. A.,

Washington……………………………………… 554 103. United States Treasury Building,

Washington………………………………………. 568 104. United States Patent Office, Washington…………………………… 571 105.

Natural Bridge, Virgi n i
a………………………………………….581 106. Little Stony Falls,

Virginia…………………………………………………………….

585 107. A View of Richmond, \Vi
rginia…………………………………………………………

596 108. Mount

Vernon………………………………………………………………………………

600 109. A View on the Sea Coast of North Caro l
ia…………………………………………… 616 110. (Capitol at Raleigh, N.

C………………………………………………………………….

625 Ill. Rice

Fields…………………………………………………………………………………..

634 1 12. A View of Charleston, S.

C…………………………………………………….643 113. A View of Savannah, G e o r g i
a…………………………………………………………… 660

114. St. John’s River, F l o r i d
a………………………………………………………………….667

115. St. Augustine, Florid
a……………………………………………………………………..

678 116. A Bluff ol the Alabama R i v e
r………………………………………………………….. 682

117. Capitol at Montgomery, Al a b a m
a………………………………………………………. 693 118.

The Landing at M o b i l
e…………………………………………695 119. Picking Cotton………………………………………………………………………………

700 120. Jackson,

Miss………………………………………………………………….707

121. Natchez, M
iss……………………………………………..708 122. A View of Vicksburg, M i s
s………………………………………………………………

709 123. Hauling Cotton to

Market…………………………………………………………………

710 124. Gathering Sugar C a n
e……………………………………………………………………..

718 125. A Sugar Hoi
e…………………………………………………………….

721 126. Scene on St. Charles Street, New

Orleans…………………………..731 127. J.ickson Square. New O r l e a n s…………………………………..734 128. Lafa~yette Square, New O r l e ans………………………………….737 10

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. PAGE 129. On the

Gulf……………………………………………………………………………….

748 130. Galveston,

Texas…………………………………………………………………………..

764 131. The Alamo, San Antonio,

Texas……………………………….. 750 132. A View of Harper’s Ferry, West Virginia……………………………………………

770 133. A View of Wheeling, West

Virginia…………………………………………… 778 134.

Nashville,

Tern……………………………………………………………………………

798 135. MAemphis,

Tenn…………………………………………………………………………..

800 136. Inside View, Mammoth Cave,

Ky…………………………………………………… 807 137.

Frankfort,

Ky……………………………………………………………………………..

815 138. Louisville,

Ky……………………………………………. 816 139. State Capitol at Columnbus,

O…………………………………………………………… 832

140. A View of Cirncinnati, O……………………………………..

835 141. Slaughtering

Hogs…………………………………………………………….

836 142. Scene on Fourth Street, Cincinnati,

O………………………………………………… 837 143. The Tyler Davidson Fountain, Cincinnati,

O……………………………………….. 839 144. Scene on Superior Street, Cleveland,

O……………………………………….. 843 145. State House at Indianapolis, Ind…………………………………………………

855 146. Evansville,

Ind…………………………………………………………………………….

857 147. Lafayette,

Ind………………………………………………………………………………

853 148. New Albany,

Ind…………………………………………………………………………

858 149. State House, at Springfield,

Ill………………………………………………………… 873

150. A View of Chicago, Ill………………………………………

875 151. McCormick’s Reaper

Manufactory…………………………………………….. 876 152.

The Tribune Building, Chicago,

Ill…………………………………………….. 879 153. Scene on Lake Street, Chicago,

Ill………………………………………………. 883 154.

Quincy,

Ill………………………………………………………………………………….

890 155. Alton,

Ill…………………………………………………………………………………..

894 156. Chicago in

Flames…………………………………………………………………………

897 157. Grand Pacific

Hotel………………………………………………………………………

898 158. A Western River

Scene…………………………………………………………………..

907 159. Capitol of Michigan, at

Lansing………………………………………………… 917 160.

Trout

Fishing………………………………………………………………………………

918 161. A Copper Mine in Wis
consin……………………………………………………………

928 162. Madison,

Wis………………………………………………………………………………

935 163. River View in Milwaukee,

Wis………………………………………………………. 937

164. Falls of St. Anthony, Min
i……………………………………………………………..

940 165. St. Paul, M
in……………………………………………………………………………..

948 166. Davenport, I
owa………………………………………………………………..

958 167. Dubuque, Iowa…………………………………………….

959 168. Burlinigton

Iowa…………………………………………………………………………

960 169. Floating Island, on the Missouri Ri v e
r………………………………………………. 968 170. Court House, at St.

Louis………………………………………………………………..

978 171. Little Rock, A r
k…………………………………………………………………………..

991 172. Helei)a,

Ark………………………………………………………………….

992 173. Indians Attacking U. S8. Overland Mail

Coach……………………………………… 999 174. Indian Cemetery……………………………………………………………………………

1000 1 75. Crossing the

Plains………………………………………………………………….

1006 176. Depot at

Omaha……………………………………………………………………………

1011 177. Miners Around the Camp F i r
e………………………………………………………… 1012

178. A View of Omaha, N
ebraska……………………………………………………………

1013 179. The Palisades, IIumb’oldt River,

Nevada…………………………………………… 1015 180. Silver Mining, N e v a d
a…………………………………………………………………..

1017 181. Original Big Tree,

California……………………………………………………………

1024 182. Hydraulic Mining,

California………………………………………………………….

1030 183. A View of San

Francisco………………………………………………………………

1041 184. Gathering

Hops…………………………………………………………………………….

1042 185. Cape

Horn………………………………………………………………………………….

1053 186. An Oregon

Valley………………………………………………………………………….

1064 187. Natives House

Building………………………………………………………………….

1077 188. Skin Canoe and

Indians…………………………………….. 1077 189. Moose Hunting in Yokon

River………………………………………………………..

1078 190. Mount St. Elias,

Alaska…………………………………………………………………

1080 191. Sitka,

Alaska………………………………………………………….

1082 192. Aztec

Mountains………………………………………………………………………….

1084 193. A Rest on the

Prairies……………………………………………………………………

1085 194. Procuring Poiron for his

Arrows……………………………………………………… 1086

195. A Cation in the Rocky

Mountains…………………………………………………… 1093

196. Indians Hunting

Bison………………………………………………………….

1095 197. The Great Shoshotie

Falls………………………………………………………….

1096 11

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. PAGo 198. A Frontier

City…………………………………………………………………………..

1102 199. Santa Fe, New

Mexico…………………………………………………………………..

1105 200. The Tabernacle, Salt Lake

City……………………………………………………….. 1109

201. -Aain Street, Salt Lake

City……………………………………………………………

1111 202. View of Great Salt

Lake…………………………………………………………………

1112 203. A Street in O l y m p i
a……………………………………………………………………….

1121 204. A Prairie Dog Ci t
y………………………………………………………………………..

1123 205. St. L o u i
s…………………………………………………………………………………….

1165 206. St. Louis

Bridge……………………………………………………………………………

1166 207. Bronze Doors of the

Capitol………………………………………………………….

1173 208. Bronze Doors of the

Capitol…………………………………………………………….

1174 209. Big

Trees…………………………………………………. 1181 211.

LakeTahoe…………………………………………………………………………………

1182 212. Gr eat Geyser of Fire Hole

Basin…………………………………………………. 1197 213.

Near View of Yosemite

Falls…………………………………………………………..

1197 214. Mirror

Lake………………………………………………………………………………..

1198 215. Seltinel

Rock………………………………………………………………………………

1198 216. Crater of the Giant

Geyser………………………………………………………………

1201 217. The Fan

Geyser……………………………………………………………………………

1201 218. Lower Falls of the

Yellowstone………………………………………………………..

1202 219. Alud

Volcano……………………………………………………………………………….

1202 220. Coats of Arms of United

States…………………………………………………………

1205 221. ” ” Maine………………………………………. 1205

222. ” ” New Hampshire………………………………. 1205 223. “

Vermont…………………………………… 1205 224. “

Massachusetts………………………………………………………..

1205 225. ” ” Rhode

Island…………………………………………………………

1205 226. ” “

Connecticut…………………………………………………………..

1205 227. ” ” New

York…………………………………………………………….

1206 228. ” ” New

Jersey…………………………………………………………..

1206 229. ” “

Pennsylvania…………………………………………………………

1206 230. ” “

Delaware…………………………………………………………….

1206 231. ” ” Maryland…………………………………………

1206 232. ” ” Virginia…………………………………….. 1206

233. ” ” North

Carolina………………………………………………………

1206 234. ” ” Georgia…………………………………….. 1206

235. ” ” South

Carolina………………………………………………………

1207 236. “

Florida………………………………………………………………..

1207 237. “

Alabama………………………………………………………………

1207 238. ” “

Mississippi………………………………………………………….

1207 239. ” “

Louisiana……………………………………………………………..

1207 240. ” “

Texas……………………………………………………………….

1207 241. ” ” West

Virginia……………………………………………………….

1207 242. ” ” Ten
nessee……………………………………………………………..

1207 243. ” “

Kentucky……………………………………………………………..

1208 244. ” “

Ohio……………………………………………………………………

1208 245. ” ” I n d i a n
a………………………………………………………………..

1208 246. ” “

Illinois………………………………………………………………..

1208 247. ” ” M i
chigan………………………………………………………………

1208 248. ” ” W
isconsin…………………………………………………………….

1208 249. ” “

Minnesota……………………………………………………………

1208 250. ” ” I o w
a…………………………………………………………………..

1208 251. ” “

Missouri………………………………………………………………

1209 252. ” “

Arkansas………………………………………………………………

1209 253. ” “

Kansas…………………………………………………………………

1209 254. ” “

California……………………………………………………………

1209 255. ” “

Oregon…………………………………………………………………

1209 256. ” “

Colorado……………………………………………………………….

1209 257. ” “

Utah……………………………………………………………………

1209 25S. Independence

Hall……………………………………………………………………….

1210 259. Carpenter’s

Hall…………………………………………………………………………..

1210 260. Birthplace of

Liberty…………………………………………………………………….

1210 261. Main Exhibition

Building…………………………………………………………

1224 262. Art

Gallery…………………………………………………………………………………

1224 263. Woman’s

Pavilion……………………………………………………………………….

1224 264.

Machinery’Hall……………………………………………………………………………

1225 265. Agricultural

Hall…………………………………………………………..

1225 266.

Horticultural,Hall…………………………………………………………..1225

12

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CONTENTS. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Description of the American Continent-Its grand divisions-North America-Di mensions and Divisions-The United States of North America-Description of the Great RepublicIts dimensions and political divisions-Its population, showing the increase since 1790-The rivers of the United States-Description of the great water system of the Republic-The Mississippi-Its wonderful history-Its wealth and peculiarities-The Missouri River-How the Mississippi Valley is drained The other tributaries of the “Father of Waters “-The Great Lakes of the North Explanation of the mountain system of the United States-The wonders of the Rocky Mountains-Soil of the United States-Statement of the various qualities of soil existing in the Republic, and of their capacity for adding to the national wealth -Description of the Climate of the United States, showing the peculiar features of each section of the Country-Relative healthfulness of the various States, showing which is the healthiest-Description of the mineral wealth of the Republic, showing where the different minerals are found and in what quantities-The undeveloped riches of the country-Products of the soil-Animals of the United StatesA brief sketch of American natural history-Characteristics of the population-The distin guishing marks of the inhabitants of the various States-Table, showing arrivals and destination of emigrants since 1820-What emigration has done for the UnionThe agricultural resources of the United States-List of the agricultural products, show ing where each is grown, and the portion of the country to which it is best adapted -Facts for producers and consumers-The manufacturing interests-Rapid growthr and great extent of this portion of our wealth-The commerce of the United States -Its vast proportions-Our internal improvements-History of the rise and growth of the canal, railroad, steamboat, and telegraph in this country-Our educational system-Explanation of the American system of Free Schools-The Press Its importance and power-Number of newspapers and periodicals published-The postal system of the Republic-Religious denominations, showing the strength of each religious sect in the United States-Population of the leading cities of the Union-Explanation of the Government of the United StatesA concise view of the Federal Constitution-The Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary, and their duties-Relations of the States to the General Government-Powers and limitations of the General Government-The Army and Navy of the Republic-Their strength -Financial condition of the United States in 187-History of the United States General view oLthe Indians of North America-Who they were-Discovery of America by Columbus-Other discoveries-Expedition of De Soto-Efforts of the French and Spaniards to settle the South-England alarmed-Raleigh’s colony on 13

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CONTENTS. Roanoake Island-The settlement at Jamestown-Voyages of Captain John SmithFirst Legislative Assembly in America-Introduction of African Slavery into Virginia-The Plymiouth colony-Landing of the Pilgrims-Internal organization of the Colony and its progress-Foundation 0
the Colony of Massachusetts Bay-Consolidation of the Massachusetts settlements-Settlement of Maine, Connecticut, and Rhode Island-Discovery of the Hudson River The Dutch settle New York-History of the Colony-It is captured by the English-Settlemert of New Jersey and Delaware-Settlement of Pennsylvania and Maryland-The Carolinas and Georgia colonized by the English-Prosperity of the Colonies-Different characteristics-Establishment of common schools and colleges-Troubles with the Indians-Aggressions of the French -Their success in the Mississippi Valley-They aid the Indians in their attacks upon the English-King William’s, Queen Anne’s and King George’s wars-Capture of Lo’iisburg-Trouble with the French on the Ohlio-Washington’s journey-Military operations west of the Mountains-Braddock’s defeat-” The Old French War” in the other Colonies-Failures of the English-A chanige of ministry-William Pitt-Capture of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne-Death of Lord Howe-Capture of QuebecExpulsion of the French from Canada-The conspiracy of Pontiac-Services of the Colonists during the wars with the French-Injustice of Great Britain toward the Colonies-Resistance of the Americans-The unjust taxes-Further aggressions-The call for a Continental Congress-Meeting and acts of the first Congress-Suicidal policy of the British Government-The “Boston Massacre “-The tax on tea-Destruction of tea in Boston harbor-Closing of the Port of Boston-The Colonies make common cause with Massachusetts-The second Colonial Congress-Its acts-The petition for redress-Stubbornness of the King-General Gage brings matters to a crisis-The conflicts at Lexington and Concord-The beginning of the RevolutionThe Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence-Meeting of the Continental Congress-Measures of resistance-Washington appointed to the command of the American army-Battle of Bunker Hill-Organization of the American Army-Siege of Boston-The invasion of Canada-The British fleet repulsed at Charleston-Vigorous measures of Congress-The Declaration of Independence-Battle of Long Island-The British occupy New York City-Gloomy state of affairs for the Colonies-Battle of Trenton-A gleam of hope-Defeat of the British at Princeton-The “Articles of Confederation” adopted-Events of the campaign of 1777-Capture of PhiladelphiaBattles of Germantown and Bennington-Surrender of Burgoyne’s army-The treaty with France-Great Britain’s efforts at conciliation-Too late-The winter at the Valley Forge-Arrival of the French fleet-Battle of Monmnouth-Capture of Savannah by the British-Naval affairs-The British take Charleston, S. C.-Partisan war in the South-Gates defeated at Camden-Battle of King’s Mountain-Greene sent to the Carolinas-Treason of Arnold-Battles of the Cowpens and Guilford Court House -Washington goes after Cornwallis-Siege of Yorktown-Surrender of CornwallisThe close of the war-Condition of the country-Organization of the Republic of the United States-Adoption of the Federal Constitution-Washington’s two Administrations-Admission of new States-Washington retires to private life-Administration of John Adams-War with France-The Administrations of Jefferson-Political disiutes-Purchase of Louisiana-The affair of the Chesapeake and the Leopard-British and French outrages upon American commerce-The Embargo-James Madison elected President-The second war with England-Its events by land and sea-The battle of New orleans-The peace of 1815-The Barbary States chastised-The Hartford Convention-Re-election of Mr. Madison-The Bank of the United StatesAdmission of Louisiana and Indiana-Mr. Monroe elected President-Admission of 14

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CONTENTS. Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri into the UnionThe slavery excitement-The “Missouri Compromise”-” The Monroe Doctrine “-J ohlin Quincy Adams elected President-The Tariff question-Administration of Andrew JacksonThe National Bank question-The Nullification troubles-Firmness of the President -His opposition to the National Bank-He removes the public funds-The National Debt paid-Admission of Arkansas and Michigan-Election of President Van Buren -The commercial crisis of 1837-Election of President Harrison-Death of General Harrison-John Tyler becomes President-His Administration-Admission of Texas -James K. Polk elected President-The war with Mexico-Results of the war-Settlement of the Oregon question-Admission of Wisconsin-General Taylor elected President-The “Wilmot Proviso”-Discovery of gold in California-Admission of California into the Union-Political strife The “Compromise of 1850”-Death of General Taylor-Mr. Fillmore’s Administration-The Japan expedition-Election of President Pierce-The Kansas-Nebraska controversy-The Republican party-The antislavery agitation increases-Efforts to purchase Cuba-Filibustering expeditions -The Know-Nothing party-Election of President Buchanan-Admission of Minnesota-The Kansas war-The Mormon troubles-The John Brown affair-The Presidential contest of 1860-Threatening condition of public affairs-Election of President Lincoln-Secession of the Southern States-The Civil War-Formation of the Southern Confederacy-Inauguration of President Lincoln-Attack on Fort Sumter Proce lamation of President LI,incoln-Secession of the Border States-Preparationls for warBattles of Bethel Church and Rich Mountain-Battle of Bull Run-The war in Mis. souri and Kentucky-Capture of Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal-Thle Mason and Slidell affair-Opening of the campaign of 1862-Battle of Mill Spring-Grant captures Forts Henry and Donelson-Loss of Kentucky and Tennessee by the Confederates-Battle of Shiloli-Capture of Island No. 10-Bragg Invades Kentucky-Battle of Richmond-Failure of the Confederate invasion-Bragg retreats into East Tennessee -Battle of Perryville-Grant’s campaign in Northern Mississippi-Battles of Iuka and Corinth-Rosecrans advances-Battle of Stone River-Grant’s first campaign against Vicksburg-Capture of Roanoake Island and the North Carolina ports-Surrender of New Orleans-Engagement between the “Virginia” and the “Monitor “-Johnston retreats from Centreville-Transfer of the Army of the Potomac to the PeninsulaThe siege of Yorktown-The Union Army before Richmond-Battle of Seven PinesJackson’s victories in the Valley of Virginia-The Seven Days’

Battles before Richmond Retreat of McClellan to the James River-The Campaign in Northern Virginia-Second Battle of Bull Run-Invasion of Maryland by the Confederates-Battle of Antietam-Retreat of Lee-Battle of Fredericksburg-The Emancipation Proclamation-Battle of Chancellorsville-Death of Stonewall Jackson-Invasion of the North-Battle of Gettysburg-Capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson-Battle of Chickamauga-Blockade of Chattanooga-Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge-Siege of Knoxville-Capture of Fort Wagner-Grant made Lieutenant Gen_ eral-Advance of the Army of the Potomac-Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court House-Battle of Cold Harbor-Graniit crosses the James River-Siege of Petersburg Early’s advance upon Washington-Sheridan’s victories in the Valley of Virginia-Advance of Sherman into Georgia-Johnston gradually falls back to Atlanta-Is removed fromn his command and succeeded by Hood-Capture of Atlanta by Sherman-Hood’s Tennessee campaign-He is routed by Thomas at NashvilleSherman’s “March to the Sea “-Capture of Savannah-Battle of Mobile Bay-Sinking of the Alabama-Re-election of President Lincoln-Nevada admitted into the UnionThe Hampton Roads Conference-Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington 15

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CONTENTS. Sherman advances through the Carolinas-Battles of Averasboro and Bentonville-Advance of Grant’s army-Lee retreats from Richmond and Petersburg -Surrender of Lee’s army-Assassination of President Lincoln-Punishment of the assassins-Surrender of Johnston’s and the other Confederate armies Close of the war-Andrew Johnson President-The Army Disbanded-Finances-The Thirteenth Amenldment-Quarrel between the President and Congress respecting the Reconstruction of the Union-Severe measures of Congress-The Fourteenth Amendment-Admission of Nebraska-The South under military ruleImpeachment of President Johnson-Release of Jefferson Davis-Mexican affairs-The Atlantic Telegraph-Alaska-U. S. Grant elected President-The Fifteenth Amendment-The Pacific Railway-Reconstruction accomplishedThe Alabama claims settled-The Chicago Fire-Re-election of President Grant-Fire in Boston-Cuban affairs-The Panic of 1873-Centennial celebrations…………………………………………………….

31 THlE NEW ENGLAND STATES. MAINE. Area in square miles-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe Description of the topography of the State-Its bays, islands, rivers, mountains, and lakes The woods of Maine-Their beauty and resources-Description of the Lumber region-The minerals of Maine-Agricultural resources of the State-Its com merce and manufactures-Internal improvements-The railroads of Maine The Common School system-Explanation of its features-Statement of the schools and colleges of the State-Its newspapers and libraries-The penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Constitution and Government-History of Maine-The visit of Gosnold-First settlement of Maine-Its early history Period of the Revolution-Admission into the Union as a State-Inroads of the Rebels-Statement of troops furnished to the United States army during the Civil War-The chief cities and towns-Description of Augusta-Portland Bangor-The story of Arnold’s mnarch to Quebec…………………..193

NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the Globe-Description of the topog aphy of the State-The White Mountains and their beauties-The lakes and rivers of the State-The Isle of Shoals-The agricultural products-Descrip tion of the soil of the State-Commerce and manufactures-Internal improve ments-The educational system-Description of the penal and charitable insti tutions and their present condition-Religious denominations-The State Gov ernment-Explanation of its various features History of New Hampshire First settlements at Dover and Portsmouth-Trouble with the Indians-The Revolution Enters the UnionTroops Furnished during the Civil War Description of Concord, Manchester, Portsmouth, and Dover-Story of the burning of Dover by the Indians…………………………………. 217 16

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CONTENTS. VERMONT. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the Globe-Physical features of Ver mont-The Green Mountains-Lake Champlain-Mineral wealth-Climate Description of the soil-Agricultural products in detail-Commerce and manu factures-Internal improvements-The Free School system-The charitable and penal institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State -Its government and internal system-History of Vermont-First settlement -Troubles with New York-The Revoltion-Capture of Ticonderoga-Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain boys-Vermont refuses the British offers-Ad mission into the Union-War of 1812-15-The St. Albans affair-Troops fur nished during the Civil WarDescription of the principal cities-Montpelier Burlington-Rutland-Bennington-The battle of Bennington-The taking of Ticonderoga………………………………………………….. 233

MASSACHUSETTS. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Description of the topo graphical features of the State-Its islands, bays, rivers, mountains and lakes Beauty of the scenery of Massachusetts-Its mineral wealth-Climate-Descrip tion of the soil-Its agricultural wealth-Commerce-The vast manufacturing svstem of the State-Its internal improvements-The Free Schools of Massa chusetts-A noble system of public education-Harvard University-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Massachusetts-Dis covery-Gosnold’s colony-Landing of the Pilgrims-Growth of the Plymouth Colony-Settlement of Massachusetts Bay-Troubles with the Indians-Internal troubles-Accession of William and Mary-Consolidation of the Colonies-The Salem Witchcraft-Wars with the French and Indians-Resistance to the injustice of Great Britain-The Revolution-Massachlusetts enters the Union Shays’s Rebellion-War of 1812-15 Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Boston-An inside view of the Metropolis of New England-Its public institutions-Its characteristics, sights, habits, etc.-History of the city of Boston from its settlement to the present day-Roxbury and Dorchester-Story of the Boston Massacre-Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor-Charlestown Bunker Hill Monument-Battle of Bunker Hill-Cambridge-Harvard Uni versity-Lowell-An inside view of the factories of Lowell-Springfield-The United States Armory-Taunton-Salem Plymouth-Miscellanies Arrival of the Pilgrims at Cape Cod-The first Sabbath in New England-The first crimes in New England-Story of the Salem Witchcraft-A wonderful relation-Prim itive extravagance-A fearfuil snow storm-The men of “Seventy-Six “-The great f i r e……………………………………………….. 250 RHODE

ISLAND. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Minerals-Climate-Soil and agricultural products-Commerce-Im portance of Rhode Island as a manufacturing State-Internal improvements Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denomin ations-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of Rhode Island-Settlement by Roger Williams-Early years of the Colony 2 17

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CONTENTS Death of King Philip-Colonial history-The Revolution-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of Providence-Newport-The most fashionable watering place in America-Early history of Newport-Seizure of General Prescott-Destruction of the

Gaspe…………………………………….. 302 CONNECTICUT.

Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topographical features of the State-Mineral wealth of Connectiut -Climate -Description of the soil and agricultural products of the State-Commerce-Manufactures-Interesting details of the factories of Connecticut-Internal improveminents-The Common School system of the State-A noble school fiend-Yale College-Penal and charitable institutions-The system of instruction for the deaf and dumb-Re., ligious denominations-Finances of the State-Its debt and annual expenses Explanation of the State Government-History of Connecticut-DDutch settle ments-The English in Connecticut-Founding of Hartford and New Haven Wars with the Pequots-The affair of the Charter Oak-Colonial history-The Revolution-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of New Haven-Yale College and its history-Capture of New Haven by the British -Hartford-Extracts from the old laws of the city-Norwich-Bridgeport Waterbury-New London-Norwalk-Middletown-The Blue Laws of Con necticut-The Regicides-The penalty for kissing-The dark day-American Independence-Election day in the olden time……………………… 320

THE MIDDLE STATES. NEW YORK. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-The Hudson-The Catskills-Lake George-Niagara Falls-Long Island-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions of the State-Statemnent of the foreign and domestic commerce of New York-Manufactures-Magnifi cent system of internal improvements-The Erie Canal-Educational system -The Free Schools-The colleges-Newspapers and periodicals-Penal and charitable institutions-A noble system-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of New York-Discoveries of Champlain and Hudson-The Dutch at Manhattan Island and Fort Orange-The Province passes into the hands of the English Early troubles-Injustice of the Crown-Wars with the Indians and the French -The Revolution-Controversy with Vermont settled-War of 1812-15 Internal improvements begun-Completion of the Erie Canal-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription and history of Albany-The city of New York-Description of it-The Metropolis of the Uiiion-Its palaces of trade and art-The Central Park-Commercial importance of the city-The ferry system-Places of amusements-Public buildings-Schools-Scientific, literary and benevolent institutions-Prisons-Croton water-History of the City of New York-Brooklyn-The city of churches-The United States Navy Yard -Prospect 1ark-Buffalo-Its commercial importance-Ancient laws of New York-Old time customs of New York City-The Negro Plot in New York -How Rochester was saved from the Britisli………………………… 349 18

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CONTENTS. NEW JERSEY. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography of the State Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and manufactures -Internal improvements-The school system-Penal and charitable institu tions-Religious denominations-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of New Jersey-It passes into the hands of the English -The Revolution-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of Trenton-Newark-Its manuifactures-Jersey City-Battle of Trenton-Mur der of Rev. James Caldwell-A mutiny in the Continental Army………… 430

PENNSYLVANIA. Area-Population in 1870-Topographical features of the State-Mineral wealth of Pennsylvania-Its extent and importance-Climate-Soil and productions Commerce-Manufactures of Pennsylvania-Internal improvements-The canal system-The Free Schools and Colleges-The Press-Libraries-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Pennsylvania-First settlement of the State-The grant to William Penn-Settlement by the Quakers-Philadelphia founded-Treaty with the Indians-Progress of the Colony-The Revolution-Philadelphia occupied by the British-The whiskey insurrection-Invasion of the State during the Civil War-Battle of Gettys burg-Description of Harrisburg-Philadelphia-Its location-Description of the city-Its dimensions-Fairmount Park-The Public buildings-Markets Schools and Colleges-Literary and scientific institutions-Prisons-Hospitals and Asylums-The Press-Importance of the manufactures of the city-Com merce-United States Navy Yard-History of Philadelphia-Pittsburg Sketch of its manufactures-The American Birmingham-Scranton-Reading  Easton-Old time customs in Philadelphia-Massacre of Wyoming-The sermon before the Brandywine-Battle of the Brandywine-Adam Poe’s fight with the

Indians………………………………………………. 451

DELAWARE. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Minerals Climate-Soil and
productions-Manufactures-Internal improvements-Edu cational system-Religious denominations-Finances Explanation of the State Government-History of Delaware-First settlement-Becomes a sep arate Colony-The RevolutionThe Civil WarDescription of Dover Wilmington………………………………………….. 517 THE

SOUTHERN STATES. MARYLAND. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topographical sketch Chesapeake Bay-Duck shooting-Mineral wealth of the State-Climate-Soil and productions-Manufactures-Internal improvements-The new Free School system-Colleges ewspapers and periodicals published in the State-Penal 19

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CONTENTS. and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of Maryland-Explanation of the State Government-History of Maryland-Settlement on Kent Island-Arrival of Lord Baltimore’s Colony-Trouble with Clayborn-Religious freedom guaranteed-Civil War-Triumph of the Puritans-Annapolis made the capital-Baltimore settled-Wars with France-The Revolution-Sufferings of the Bay counties during the war of 1812-15-Battles of Bladensburg, Fort McHenry and North Point-The Civil War-Invasion of the State by General Lee-Battle of Antietam-Description of AnnapolisBaltimore City-Washington Monument-Public institutions and buildingsHistory of Baltimore-The Baltimore Riot-Anecdote of Charles Carroll….. 525 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area-Population in 1870-Dimensions-Explanation of the new Territorial Government-History of the District-Washington City-Description of it The Public Buildings-The Capitol-Its magnificence without and within The White HouseThe Treasury building-The Patent Office-The General Post Office-The Navy Yard-The Department of Agriculture-The Smith sonian Institution-The Washington Monument-Georgetown…………… 551 VIRGINIA. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the Globe-Detailed description of the physical features of the State-Its various divisions, rivers, mountains, etc. The Dismal Swamp-Mineral wealth of Virginia-An opportunity for capital ists-The mineral springs-Agricultural products-Commerce-Manufactures -Internal improvements-Thle educational system-The University of Virginia -Penal and Benevolent institutions-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of Virginia-The settlement of Jamestown-Colo nial history-Introduction of slavery into the colony-Virginia sides with the King-Treaty with the Commonwealth-Baron’s Rebellion-Williamsburg made the capital-Troubles with the French on the Ohio-Washington’s mis sion-Resistance to the aggressions of the Crown-The RevolutionThe war in Virginia-Surrender of Cornwallis-Formation of the Union-War of 1812-15

-The Southampton Massacre-The John Brown affair-The Civil War-Prin cipal cities-Richmond-Description of the city-Norfolk-Portsmouth United States Navy Yard-Alexandria-Mount Vernon-The home and tomb of Washington-The first Legislative Assembly in America-Treaty between Virginia and England-Introduction of Tobacco into Europe-Anecdotes of Patrick Henry-Speech of Logan-Washington and the Widow Custis-Death of Washington………………………………………………. 575

NORTH CAROLINA. Area-Population in 1870-Topographical sketch of the State-Climate-Soil and productions-Natural growth of North Carolina-Mineral deposits-Manu factures-Commerce-Internal improvements-Educational system-Thle Free Schools-University of North Carolina-Penal and charitable institutions Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of North Carolina-The Colony on Roanoake Island -The grant of Charles II.-Locke’s Constitution-Early troubles-War with the Indians-Separation of the Carolinas-The RevolutionThe Mecklenburg L-.o

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CONTENTS. Declaration of Independence-Battles of King’s Mountain and Guilford Court House-Cession of Tennessee to the United States-Events of the Civil WarDescription of the cities of Raleigh and Wilmington-The First English Colony in America-The Greatest

American………………………… e613 SOUTH CAROLINA.

Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Physical features of the State -The Sea Islands-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Com merce-Manufactures-Internal improvements The educational system-The Free schools-The Colleges-Penal and benevolent institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of South Carolina-Explanation of the State Government-History of South Carolina-Settlement of Port Royal by the French-The English occupy the country-Formation of the Province of South Carolina-Troubles with the Indians and Spaniards-The Revolution Attack on Fort Moultrie repulsed-Enters the UnionThe Civil War-Recoin struction-Description of Columbia-Charleston-Detailed description of it An incident in the life of Sergeant Jasper……………………………

631 GEORGIA. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the Globe-Topography of the State Mineral wealth of Georgia-Climate-Soil and agricultural products-Com merce-Manufactures- Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition Explanation of the State Government-History of Georgia-First settlement Severe conditions-They are withdrawn-Wars with the Spaniards-Introduc tion of negro slavery-Growth of the Colony-The Revolution-Capture of Sa vannah-Removal of the Indian tribes-The Civil WarDescription of Atlanta -Savannah-Thlle “Forest City”

of the South-The Empress of Georgia…… 650( FLORIDA. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical features of Florida-The Everglades-Climate-Description of the soil-Agricultural products-Commerce - Manufactures-Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of Florida-Early settlements-Florida under Spanish rule-French settlements-Troubles with the English-Florida ceded to Great Britain-It is restored to Spain-Pur chased by the United States-War with the Seminoles-Florida admitted into the Union as a State-The Civil War-Reconstruction-Description of Tal lahassee-Pensacola-St. Augustine-A peculiar city…………………..

6C5 ALABAMA. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography of the State The Alabama river-Soil-Climate-Agricultural products-Minerals Manu factures-Commerce-Internal improvements-Educational system-The Uni versity of Alabama-Penal and benevolent institutions-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Alabama-De .

Soto’s expedition-Settlement of Mobile-Alabama under British rule-Indian wars-Admission of she State into the UnionThe Civil War-Reconstruction -Description of Montgomery-Mobile-The battle of HorseShoe Bend…… b(

21 t

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CONTENTS. MISSISSIPPI. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Climate-Soil -Agricultural products-Commerce and manufactures-Educational system Penal and charitable institutions-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of Mississippi-First settlements-Extermination of the Natchez Indians-(rganizatioii of Mississippi-Admission into the Union as a State-Events of the Civil War-Reconstruction-Description of the cities of Jackson, Natchlez, and Vicksburg Full account of the extermination of the Natchez Indians-Mason the outlaw………………………………. 698

LOUISIANA. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Climate-Soil and agricultural productions-Manufactures and commerce-Internal improve mnents-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious de nominations-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government History of Louisiana-Discoveries of La Salle-Efforts to settle the Province Law’s scheme-Settlement of New Orleans-Growth o4 the Colony-New Orleans in Spanish hands-Louisiana restored to France-History of the pur chase of Louisiana bv the United StatesAdmission of the State into the Union -Events of the Civil War-Reconstruction-Detailed description of the City of New Orleans-Its mixed population-The public buildings and institutions -The Levee-Commerce of New Orleans-Manufactures-The Carnival History of New Orleans-Battle of New Orleans……………………… 715 TEXAS.

Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Mineral wealth -limate-Soil and agricultural products-Commerce and Manufactures Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions -Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Texas-La Salle’s Expedition-His death Settlement of Texas by the Spaniards-First struggle for Independence-The Texan RevolutionThe Republic of Texas-Annexation to the United States -Admission of Texas as a State-Events of the Civil War-Reconstruction Description of the cities of Austin and Galveston-The capture of the Alamo Fannin’s Massacre…………………………………………….. 747

THE WESTERN STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Harper’s Ferry-Climate-Mineral wealth-Soil and productions-Manufactures and commerce-Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Explanation of the State Government-History of West Virginia -The Civil War-Separation of the Western counties from the State of Virginia -Description’of Charleston-The Kanawha Salines-Wheeling-Its manufac tures-Border life, showing the trials and mode of life of the first settlers of the

West………………………………………………………… 769

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CONTENTS. TENNESSEE. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Mineral wealthl-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and mianufactures-Inter nal improvemenits-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-History of Ten nessee-First settlements-Siege of Fort Loudon-The Revolution North Carolina cedes Tennessee to the United States-Admitted into the Union as a State-Events of the Civil WarDescription of the cities of Nashville, Mem phis and Knoxville-The boyhood of Andrew Jackson…………………790 KENTUCKY.

Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and nianufactures-Internal iinprovements-Educational system-Penal and char itable institutions Religious denominations-Financial condition-Explania tioil of the State Government-History of Kentucky-Early discoveries First settlement of Kentucky-Wars with the Indians-The settlers desire a separate Governmenit Virginia cedes Kentucky to the United States Admission into the Union as a State-The war of 1812-15-The Civil War -Description of Frankfort-Louisville-A beautiful city-The Falls of the Ohio-Importance of the manufactures and commerce of the city-Daniel Boone’s account of his adventures………………………………. 805

OHIO. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Mineral wealtli Climate-Soil and agricultural productions-Commerce and mnanufac tures-Internal improvements-Educational system-The Ohio Free Schools -Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations Financial con (lition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Ohio First settlements on the Ohio-Wars with the Indians-The Revolution-Ces sion of the Northwest Territory-Emigration to Ohio-St. Clair’s defeat Settlement of Cincinnati-Organization of the Territory of Ohio-Ad’mission of the State into the IUnion-The war of 1812-15-Rapid progress of the State Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of Columbus-The State buildings-Cincinnati-Description of the city-Its commercial importance The river trade-Manufactures-Pork packing-History of Cincinnati-Cleve land-The Lake trade-Memoirs of Simon Kenton-Cincinnati in 1794……. 824 INDIANA. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and agricultural productions-Commerce and Manufac tures-Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Libraries and newspapers-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Indiana-Settlements of the French Missionaries-Indiana under French and British rule-The Revolution-Campaign against the British by General Rogers Clarke-Wars with the Indians-Efforts to introduce slavery-Battle of Tippecanoe-War.of 1812-15 Admission of Indiana into the Union-Rapid 23

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CONTENTS. growth of the State-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of the cities of Indianapolis, Evansville, Fort Wayne, and New Albany-Interview between General Harrison and Tecumseli-Capture of Vincennes…….. P4,, ILLINOIS. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-The prairies -Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and manufac tures-Internal improvements-The railroad system-Educational system Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Libraries and Newspapers-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Gov ernment-History of Illinois-Early French discoveries-Settlements of the Missionaries-The Revolution Admission into the Union as a State-The war of 1812-15-The Chicago Massacre-The Black Hawk War-The Mormon troubles-Troops furnished during the Civil WarDescription of Springfield Chicago-Description of the city-Situation on the Lake-Raising the grade of the city-Public buildings and institutions-Commerce of Chicago-The grain trade-An elevator examined-The pork trade-Ins’de view of a pork house -History of Chicago-Quincy-Galena-The lead mines-Alton-The Mas sacre at Chicago-Peter Cartwright and Joe Smith…………………….. MICHIGAN.

Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-The North ern and Southern Peninsulas-Mineral wealth-The Lake Superior Mines Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and manufactures-Internal im proveinents-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Finances-Explanation of the State Government-History of Michigan-Settlements of the French Missionaries-The French in the Province -Transfer to Great Britain-Conspiracy of Pontiac-Michigan Territory organ ized-War of 1812-15-Surrender of Detroit-Massacre at the River Raisin Emigration to Michligan-Admission into the Unioni as a State-Troops fur nished during the Civil WarDescription of the cities of Lansing and Detroit -Pontiac’s effort to capture Detroit-Massacre at the River Raisin………… 9ng WISCONSIN. Area-Population in 1870-Position upon the globe-Topography-Mineral wealth-Soil and productions-Commerce and manufactures-Internal im provemnents-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Re ligious deIiominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Wisconsin-Discoveries of the French-The Jesuit Missionaries-The Province passes into the hands of the English-Ad mission into the Union as a State-Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Madison-Milwaukee-The “Cream City “-The oldest man in the world……………………………………………………

MINNESOTA. Area-Population-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State Falls of St. Anthony-Mineral wealth-Climate-Resort for invalids-Soil and productions-Manufactures and Commerce-Internal improvements-Educa tional system-The Free Schools-Penal and benevolent institutions-Libraries 24 99-6

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CONTENTS. and newspapers-Religious denominations-Financial condition of MinnesotaExplanation of the State Government-History of Minnesota-First settled by the Jesuit Missionaries-French settlements-A part of Louisiana purchaseThe Fur trade-St. Paul founded-Admission of the State into the UnionTroops furnished during the Civil War-St.

Paul…………………….. 939 IOWA Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and manu factures-Internal iniprovements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government-History of Iowa-A part of Louisiana purchase-Julien Dubuque-The Lead Mines The Black Hawk War-Settle ment of Iowa-Admission into the Union as a StateDes Moines-Davenport Dubuque-The Lead Mines-Burlington-Frontier justice……………… 949 MISSOURI.

Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Manufactures and commerce-Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Libraries and newspapers-Financial condition of Missouri-Explanation of the State Government-History of Mis souri-First settled by the French-Under Spanish rule-Restored to France Events of the RevolutionA part of the Louisiana purchase-Organization as a Territory-Slavery agitation-The “Missouri Compromise “-Admission into the Union as a State-The Civil War-Jefferson City-Description of St.

Louis-Rapid growth of the city-Its public buildings and institutions-Its commerce and manufactuLres-History of St. Louis-Missouri during the war of 1812-15…………………………………………………… 967

ARKANSAS. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Mineral wealth -Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce and manufactures-Internal im provements-Educational system Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denomination-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Arkansas-Discovered by De Soto-A part of the Lou isiana purchase-Admission of the State into the UnionEvents of the Civil WarDescription of Little Rock and Helena…………………………

986 KANSAS. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Internal improve ments-Educational system-The Kansas Free Schools-Penal and benev olent institutions-Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State -Explanation of the State Government-History of KansasA part of the Louisiana purchaseMade free soil by the Missouri Cominpromise-Organiza tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska-Efforts to introduce slavery 25

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CONTENTS. into Kansas-Struggle in Congress-The Border War-Foundation of free soil Settlements-Admission into the Union as a Free State-Troops furnished during the Civil

War-Topeka-Leavenworth…………………………..993 NEBRASKA.

Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Minerals Climate-Soil and productions-Internal improvements-Educational system -Finances-Explanation of the State Government-History of Nebraska A part of the Louisiana purchase-Admission into the Union as a State Lincoln-The new capital-Omaha-Nebraska City……………………….. 1005 NEVADA.

Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topography-Mineral wealth-The gold and silver mines of Nevada-Climate-Internal improve ments-Educational system-Finances-Explanation of the State Government -History of Nevada-Discovery of Silver-CarsonI City-Virginia City…….

1014 CALIFORNIA. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographiical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth of California-Climate-Soil and productions-Coml merce-Manufactures- Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and charitable institutions-Religious denominations-Libraries and news papers-Financial condition-Explanation of the State Government-IHistory of California-Discovered and settled by the Spaniards-The Missions Becomes a part of Mexico-Efforts to throw off the Mexican yoke-The American settlers take up arms-Thlle war with Mexico-Acquisition of Cali fornia-Discovery of gold-Enormous emigration-Admission into the Union as a State-Early disorders-The “Vigilance Committees “-Description of Sacramento-San Francisco-A peculiar city-The Sand Hills-Rapid growth of San Francisco-Prosperity of the city-Its public buildings and institutions -The Chinese Marter-Commerce of San Francisco-History of the city San Jose-San Francisco in 1848-9-” The Vigilance Committee “……….. 1022

OREGON. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographlical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Climate-Soil and productions-Commerce-Internal improvements-Educational system-Penal and benevolent Institutions - Religious denominations-Financial condition of the State-Explanation of the State Government-History of Oregon-Discovery of the Columbia River -Expedition of Lewis and Clark-Astoria-Boundary disputes with Great Britain-The United States abandon their claim-Admission of Oregon into the Union as a State-Description of Salem-Portland……………………….. 1061 COLORADO. Area-Population in 1870-Position on the globe-Topographical sketch of the State-Mineral wealth-Soil and piroductions-Maianufactures and Com merce-Internal improvements-Educational svstem-Financial condition Explanation of the State Government-Historv-Denver……………….1070 26 I

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CONTENTS. THiE TERRITORIES. ALASKA. ‘eneral description of the Territorv-Practical value of the purchase-History of Alaska-Description of Sitka………………………………………1075 ARIZONA.

Topographical sketch of the Territory-Its nijiieral wealth-Capacity for agricul ture-Ilistory of Arizona-Description of

Tucson…………………….. 1083 DAKOTA. Topograph)lical sketch of tile Territory-Its magnificent river system-Capacity for stock raising and agricultiure-Thle Pioneer Schools-History of Dakota )Descripl)tioin of Yancton………………………………..1088 IDAHO. I)escription of the topographical features of the Territory-Its great mineral wealth 

Capacity for agricultiire-Ilistory of Idahlo-IDescription of Boise City…1092 INDIAN TERRITORY. General description of the Territory-Description of the Indian inhabitanits and the systeli of goverinment-Efforts to organize thle Territory……………1097 MONTANA Topograpliical sketch of Moiitana-A delightfiil climate-Capacity for agricul ture and stock raising-Mineral wealth -History of Montana-Its rapid growth-Descriptionl of Virginia

City……………………………..109 9 NEW MEXICO. ‘lTopograp)lical sketch of New Mexico-Capacity of the Territory for agriculture Stock raising-Undeveloped mineral wealth-HIostility of the Indianrs-His tory of New Mexico-Description of Santa Fe………………………1103 UTAH.

Description of the physical features of the Territorv-Tlhe’nointain s,vstem The great Basin-TlThe Great Salt Lake-Irrigation lecessary to the production of crops-What has been done for agriculture-Mineral resources-History of the Territory-Salt Lake City-The Mormon capital.l………………………1106 WASHINGTON. Topographical sketch of the Territory-The two great divisions-Climnate Agriculture-Mineral resources-The Ilumber trade-The Columbia River History of the Territory-Description of Olympia……………………………..1117 27

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CONTENTS. WYOMING. I)escription of the physical features of the Territor y-v-A griculture-Great mineral wealth-Thie Pacific Railway History of Wyoming Description of Cheyenne.1122 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED

STATES………….1125 WONDERS OF NATURE AND ART IN AMERICA. Our oldest iinhabitant-Thle American flag-The Astor Library-Operations of the United States Mint-The Piny Woods-The Indian sign language-The ice trade-An American enterprise-The Chicago lake tunnel-The Mount Washington railway-The New York clearing houseThe oil regions American glassware-The New York Post-Office-The salmon nursery in California-The fast mail service-The manufacture of tobacco-The Ice Mountain-The Natural Bridge-The St. Louis Bridge-Music by telegraph The Croton Water Works-The bronze doors of the Capitol-An American picture-The United States Observatory-The “Big Trees” of California The Hoosac Tunnel-The Valley of Yosemite-The Signal Service-The MIoqui Towns-The Yellowstone National Park……………………1141 A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT-ITS

RESULTS-A

CONTRAST……………………………………………………………

1211 28 I

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VW c- - I A 77 I -.. I - A-, i 11 - Ii i I I c: I v A_ m I I

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THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. THE Continent of America, though not discovered until a very late period in the history of the world, is the second in size of the great natural divisions of the earth. It extends from Point Barrow (on the north), ill latitude 71~ 24’

N., to Cape Froward, on the Straits of Magellan (on the south), in latitude 53~ 53’ 7” S.* It is known that the extreme northern lands of America extend beyond the seventy-eighth degree of North latitude, and the islands of Terra del Fuego prolong the land two or three degrees southward of the main land; but as these form no practical portions of our great division of the globe, we shall pass them by without further discussion.

The mainland, whilch is alone embraced in our estimate, is 10,500 English miles in length, and includes every variety of climate, soil, productionI, race, and natural formation known, covering as it does an area of about 14,950,000 square miles. The Continent, taking this estimate as our guide, is four times larger than Europe, one-third larger than Africa, and onehalf as large as Asia, including Australia and Polynesia. Its extreme breadth, north of the Equator, is between Cape Canso, in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout, in Oregon, a distance of 3100 miles, and very near the forty-fifth parallel of North latitude. South of the Equator it attains its greatest breadth between * This calculation does not include thie regions north of Point Barrow, or the Archipelago ot Terra del Fuego. 31

-1. o

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32 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cap)e St. Roque, ill Brazil, and Cape Parina, in Peru, a distance of 3250 miles, and between the fourth and seventh parallel of South latitude. The physical features of this great Continent are among the most remarkable and interesting in the world.

Constituting as it does about three-tenths of the dry land upon the surface of the globe, it is, in general, a region of great fertility. With the exception of about one-seventh, the entire Continent is susceptible of cultivation, and in its natural growths it is one of the most favored lands in the world. Its mineral resources are vast and inexhaustible, and embrace nearly every geological formation known to science. On the west side, the Continent is traversed by a vast range of mnountains, ten thousand miles in length, stretching from Point Barrow on the north, to the Straits of Magellan on the south, and rearing their lofty sunnmmits far above the region of perpetual snow. The rivers, bays, and lakes of America are the most magnificent and extensive in the world, and afford commercial advantages of the highest order. The Continent consists of two great peninsulas, known as North America and South America, connected by an isthmus called Central America. The relative importance of its great divisions may be seen from the following table, in which North and Central America are counted as one division: English Square Miles. North America…………. 7,400,000 South America,………….. 6,500,000

Islands,……………. 150,000 Greenland, and the islands connected with it,. 900,000 Total……………14,950,000 As it is not our purpose to devote any portion of this work to the other divisions of the Continent, we pass at once to a brief consideration of the division of NORTH

A.MERICA. Including Central America, this great division of the Continent lies between the sixth parallel of North latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and South America, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its length on the Atlantic side, from Hudson’s Straits to the Florida Channel,

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THE UNITED STATES. following the indentations of the coast, is about 4800
miles, an(l from thence to Panamia about 4500 more, miaking a total length of 9300 miles. Oil the Pacific side, the length, counting the coasts of the Gulf of California, is 10,500 miles. The north and northeast sllores are reckoned at about 3000 miles, which gives a total coast inhe of about 22,800 nmiles. According to Professor De Bow, the Superrintendent of the Seventh Census of the United States, North Anmerica comprises an area of 8,377,648 square miles, an estimate whlichl exceeds that already given by us. It is subdivided by him as follows: Square Miles. 3,050,398 3,306,865

1,0353, 34 394,000 384,000 203,551 8,377,648 British America.,…..

UTnited States……… Mexico………. Russian America,*….. Danish America (Greenland). Central America,……. The country lying north of the United States, and known as British America, extends from the States to the Arctic Ocean. It is settled thickly along its southern and eastern borders, but the remainder is a vast, untamed region, too cold for colonization by Europeans, and inhabited only by a hardy race of Indians, and by a few whites engaged in the fur trade. The country along the southern and eastern borders, however, is of the greatest importance. It possesses a population of over three millions, and will compare favorably in its civilization and material prosperity with the States adjoining it.

South of the United States is a vast region, nominally a Republic, but in reality a country afflicted with chronic anarchy, called AIMexico. Its people number nearly eight millions, and consist of a mixture of Spanish and Indians. They are but little more than half civilized, and are utterly incapable of conducting the government or developing the resources of their country, naturally one of the richest and most productive in the world. * Now a part of the United States, and known as Alaska. 33 …….

……. .e,

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THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Is the name given to the great and powerful Republic, occupying th( central portion of North America, and lying between Mexico and British America. The Republic lies between latitude 24~

30’ and 49~ N., and between longitude 66~ 50’ and 124~ 30’ W. It is bounded on the north by British America, and is partly separated from that country by the River Saint Lawrence, and Lakes Superior, Huron, Saint Clair, Erie, and Ontario; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southl by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It has recently added to its territory that country formerly known as fRussian America, now called Alaska, lying along the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, and between the fiftyeig,hth and seventy-second parallels of North latitude, and the one hundred and fortieth, and one hundred and seventieth degrees of West longitude. DIMENSIONS. This vast region covers an area of 3,306,865 square miles, and .comprises nearly onehalf of North America.

Its extreme length, from Cape Cod, on the Atlantic, to the Pacific Ocean, is ablout 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Madawaska, in Maine, to Key WVest, in Florida, is about 1600 miles. Its northern frontier line ,leasures 3303 miles, and its southern line 1456 miles. Following the indentations of the shore, its coast line on the Atlantic is 6861 miiles, on the Pacific 2281 miles, and on the Gulf of Mexico 3467 nailes, making a total coast line of 12,609 miles. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, and are marked by comparatively few indentations. The principal are San Francisco Bay and the Straits of San Juan de Fiuca. On the Atlantic and (‘ulf coasts, the shore is generally low, and deeply indented by numerous inlets, the principal of which are Passamaquoddy, Fenchman’s, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Buzzard’s, New York, Raritan, Delawa!e, and Chesapeake Bays, and Long Island, Pamlico, and Albema,rle Sounds on the Atlantic; and Tampa, Appalachee, Appa 34 ~ Ak

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THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Is the name given to the great and powerful Republic, occupying thf central portion of North America, and lying between Mexico and British America. The Republic lies between latitude 24~

30’ and 49~ N., and between longitude 66~ 50’ and 124~ 30’ W. It is bounded on the north by British America, and is partly separated from that country by the River Saint Lawrence, and lakes Superior, Huron, Saint Clair, Erie, and Ontario; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south 1)y Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

It has recently added to its territory that country formerly known as Russian America, now called Alaska, lying along the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, and between the fiftyeighth and seventy-second parallels of North latitude, and the one lunIdred and fortieth, and one hundred and seventieth degrees of West longitude. DIMENSIONS. This vast region covers an area of 3,306,865 square miles, and comprises nearly onehalf of North America. Its extreme length, from Cape Cod, on the Atlantic, to the Pacific Ocean, is about 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Madawaska, in Maine, to Key WVest, in Florida, is about 1600 miles. Its northern frontier line ,measures 3303 miles, and its southern line 1456
miles. Following the indentations of the shore, its coast line on the Atlantic is 6861 tmiles, on the Pacific 2281 miles, and on the Gulf of Mexico 3467 n,iles, making a total coast line of 12,609 miles. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, and are marked by comparatively few indentations. The principal are San Francisco Bay and the Straits of San Juan de Fuca. On the Atlantic and C’ulf coasts, the shore is generally low, and deeply indented by numerous inlets, the principal of which are Passamaquoddy, Fenchman’s, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Buzzard’s, New York, Raritan, Delaware, and Chesapeake Bays, and Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle Sounds on the Atlantic; and Tampa, Appalachee, Appa 34 ~

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THE UNITED STATES. lachicola, Pensacola, Mobile, Black, Barataria, Atchafalaya, Vermilion, Galveston, Matagorda, Aransas, and Corpus Christi Bays, on the Gulf of Mexico. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. The Republic consists of thirty-eight States and eight Territories. These are the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massacliusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, California, Oregon, and Colorado; and the Territories of Arizona, Dacotah, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and Washington. Besides these are the Indian Territory and Alaska. For convenience, the States are usually subdivided as follows: THE NEW ENGLAND

STATES:-Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut. 6. THE MIDDLE STATES:-New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. 4. THE SOUTHERN STATES:-Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas.

10. THE WESTERN STATES:-Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Nebraska, West Virginia, and Colorado. 18.

POPULATION. The following table will show the relative size and importance of the States and Territories, together with their population, and the date of their admission into the Union: 35 I

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36 OUR COUNTRY AND’ITS RESOURCES. ………….. ~- ––— ~~~~……..

Abii 900, 0 0 0- - V5 1 .1. . 0)………. .. ~~’..- 00)50L:.: I-I I I. .0~ )0. 0I0I .0) .o: 00)0)t00)0)0): ___ 0)0) 0)0) 0)0) .O: 0)0)0)0) : 000)00)0)00)0 -9 ~~~~~~~0)~~~~~~~~~~ - - - - - - – 36 I I I I 04
tdk.. i 5. r. - 7.1 T 1 4 1 A .4 z.11 I i,. i il :4 q (3 la - zz -cb,:::: …… ::::, W: :::: Z; -: h, I ,P r;s a 2t ‘k I 5; i T I .1I 1 4 :1

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TIIE UINITED STATES. RIVERS. The topographical features of the United States are varied and interestin,g, consisting of immense chains of mountains, numerous rivers, bays, and lakes, and vast plains inhabited only by savages and wild beasts. The majority of the bays along its coasts are the outlets of the great rivers of the Republic. These rivers may be divided into four distinct classes, viz: I. The Mississippi and its tributaries. II. The rivers which rise ill the Alleghany chain and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. III. The rivers rising in the Southern States, and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. IV. The rivers which flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers of the first class are the Mississippi, Missouri, WVisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Yazoo, Minnesota, Des Moines, Arkansas, and Red. Those of the second class are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Connecticut, IlIudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico or Tar, Neuse, Cape lcar, Great Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha. Tlhose of the third class are the Appalachicola, Mobile,.

Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, and Rio Grande. Those of the fourth class are the Columbia, San Joaquin, and the great Colorado of the West, the last of which flows into the Gulf of California. THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER

Is the most important stream in the United States, and, together with its main branch, the Missouri, is the longest in the world. Its name is derived from an Indian word, signifying “The Great Father of Waters.” The Mississippi proper is the smaller branch (the Missouri reaching farther back into the interior), and it is somewhat singular that it should have given its name to the whole stream. It rises in Itasca Lake, in the State of Minnesota, in a region known as the I-auteurs de Terre, 1680 feet above tide level, in latitude 470 10’ N., and longitude 94~ 55t W. From this point it flows in a generally southward direction, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 29~ N. Its total length, from its source to its mouth, is estimated at 2986 miles. 37

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38 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The main branch is called the Missouri River above the point of its junction with the smaller branch. The two rivers unite a short distance above the city of St. Louis. Under the present heading it is our purpose to treat of the Mississippi proper, reserving the Missouri for discussion farther on. The Mississippi constitutes the great centre of a gigantic system of rivers, all of which unite in one grand channel and empty their waters into the Gulf. The area drained by them comprises a very large portion of the interior of North America. The tributaries of the great river find their way to it through rich and populous States, and between its source and its mouth it collects all the waters (with the single exception of those rivers flowing directly into the Gulf) of the immense region lying between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. This region is usually known as the Mississippi Valley.

Its southern boundary is the Gulf, and its northern limit the high hills in which rise the streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the lakes of British America. According to Charles Ellet, this region covers an area of 1,226,600 square miles, above the mouth of the Red River. The river, with its tributaries reaching far back into the neighboring States and Territories, furnishes a system of inland navigation unequalled by any in the world. Steamers ascend the Mississippi itself from its mouth to the Falls of St. Anthony, in Minnesota, about 2200 miles, and above the falls the river is navigable for a considerable distance. In 1858 a steamboat succeeded in ascending the stream to near the forty-ninth degree of north latitude. The Missouri is navigable to the foot of the Rocky Mountains; the Ohio, to its head, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and the Arkansas and the Red, each for more than 1000 miles. By means of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, the mountains of East Tennessee have water transportation to the Gulf; and the Illinois River steamers penetrate to the country just back of Lake Michigan. These rivers are all more or less crowded with steamers and other craft, plying a trade in comparison with which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. Numerous other branches of less extent empty into the main river, all of which are navigable to a greater or less degree. Below the mouth of the Red River, the main stream is divided into numerous branches, which are called bayous. Some of these, after pursuing an erratic course, find their way back to the Mississippi, while others

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THE UNITED STATES. follow an independent course to the Gulf. The most important of these bayous is the Atchafalaya. The country lying between this stream (after its departure from the great river), the Mississippi, and the Gulf, is known as the Delta of the Mississippi. The Delta is about 200 miles in length, with an average width of 75 miles. It comprises an area of 15,000 square miles, and is composed entirely of alluvion, the depth of which is estimated at 1000 feet. “The debris carried along with the flood is principally deposited near the borders of the stream, the necessary result being that these portions have been raised to a much higher level than the adjoining lands. In some places the slope is as much as eighteen feet in a distance of a few miles. The interior consists of vast swamps covered with trees, of which the tops only are visible during the floods. The river, for almost fifty miles from its mouth, runs nearly parallel with the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is separated at particular places by an embankment only half a mile across.” The alluvion plain extends above the Delta to a formation called the Chains, 30 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, a distance estimated at a little over 500 miles.

The average breadth of this plain, which has been formed by the river itself, is about fifty miles, and its total area, including the Delta, about 31,200 square miles. Its height, at its northern extremity, according to Prof. Charles Ellet, jr., is 275 feet above the level of the sea. It descends this plain to the Gulf at the rate of about eight inches per mile. Its average descent along its entire course is about six inches to the mile. The river is very tortuous, especially after passing the mouth of the Ohio. Its curves are immense, often traversing a distance of twentyfive or thirty miles, in a half circle, around a point of land only a mile, or half a mile in width. Sometimes, during the heavy freshets, the stream breaks thlrough the narrow tongue of land, forming a “‘cutoff,”

which frequently becomes a new and permanent channel, leaving the old bed a “lake,” as it is called by the boatmen. But for the height of the banks, and the great depth of the river, the formation of these “cutoffs” would be quite frequent, and the stream would be constantly changing its course.

Attempts to form “cutoffs” by artificial means have generally failed. The river is remarkable for the constancy with which it maintains its average breadth of about 3000 feet. It rarely exceeds or falls short of this breadth except in the curves, which frequently broaden to near a mile and a quarter. The current is sluggish, except at high water, its depth at ordinary stages 39

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40 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. being 75 feet at the head of the plain we have described, and 120 feet at its foot. Were the stream straighter, its current, which is now checked by the bends, would no doubt be too swift for navigation, and commerce would suffer. “One of the most important facts in regard to the Mississippi is, that it flows from north to south. A river that runs east or west has no variety of climate or productions from its source to its mouth. The trapper and husbandman descending the’Fathler of Waters,’ constantly meet with a change of climate; they take with thlem their furs and cereal grains, the products of the Nortll, to exchange for the sugar and tropical fruits that are gathered on the banks below. Again, the floods produced by winter snows and spring rains cannot be simultaneously discharged. The course of the stream being from north to south, spring advances in a reverse direction, and releases in succession the waters of the lower valley, then of the middle section, and finally the remote sources of the Mississippi and its tributaries. It is a remarkable fact that the waters from this last-named region do not reach the Delta until upwards of a month after the inundation there has been abating. The swell usually commences toward the end of February, and continues to rise by unequal diurnal accretions till the 1st of June, when it again begins to subside. No experience will enable a person to anticipate, with any approach to certainty, the elevation of the flood in any given year. In some seasons the waters do not rise above their channels; in others, the entire lower valley of the Mississippi is submerged. Embankments, called levees, have been raised from five to ten feet high on both sides of the stream, extending many miles above and below New Orleans. By this means the river is restrained within its proper limits, except at the greatest freshets, when the waters sometimes break over,.cat.using great destruction of property, and even loss of life. The average height of the flood, from the Delta to the junction of the Missouri, is about 15 feet; at the mouth of the latter river it is 25 feet; below the entrance of the Ohio, the rise is often 50
feet; at Natchez, it seldom exceeds 30 feet; and at New Orleans is about 12 feet. This diminution is supposed to result from the drainage through the Atchafalaya, Bayou La Fourelhe, and other channels breaking from the lower part of the river to the Gulf of Mexico. The flood often carries away large masses of earth with trees, which frequently become embedded in the mud at one end, while the other floats near the surface, forming snags and sawyers.” * Tlhese snags are very dangerous to steamers navigating *

Lippincott’s Gazetteer.

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THE UNITED STATES. the river, and formerly caused many terrible accidents.

RPecently they have been removed to a great extent by snag-boats and improved machinery. The Mississippi empties itself into the Gulf through several imouths, which are ternled Passes. The navigation is here very seriously obstructed I)y numerous bars, formed by the gradual deposit of tlhc sediment with which the water is heavily charged. These red(.er it impossible for vessels of the largest class to reach New Orl’eans. Over these bars there is a depth of water, varying greatly at different times, and often measuring only fifteen feet. Steam tugs can force vessels drawing two or three feet more than the actual depth, thro,ugh the soft mud of the river bed(l. Repeated efforts have been rmade to deepen the passes by dredging, but the channel has filled ul) again so rapidly as to make all such efforts futile. It was once attemLpted to deepen the South West Pass (the principal mouth) by driving piles along each side. It was thought that by thus confining tlhe stream within a limited width, it would of itself excavate a deep channel. The effect, however, was to force the bulk of the flow through another mouth called Pass a l’Outre, which for the time became a better channel than the South West Pass. The navigation of the Upper Mississippi is broken in several places by falls and rapids, of which the principal are the Falls of St. Anthony, above St.

Paul, Minnesota.* . The Mississippi River was discovered by Hernando de Soto, in June 1541. He reached it, it is supposed, at a point not far below the present town of Helena in Arkansas. In 1673, Marquette and Jolliet descended the stream to within three days’ journey of its mouth; and in 1682, La Salle passed through one of its mrouths to the Gulf, and took possession of the country along its shores, in the name of the King of France. In 1699, Iberville built a fort on the river; in 1703, a settlement was made on the Yazoo, a tributary, and called St. Peter’s; and in 1718, the city of New Orleans was laid out. The levees of the lower Mississippi were begun in that year, and finished in front of New Orleans about 1728. The subject of the free navigation of the river occupied the earliest attention of the United States, and was the principal cause of the acquisition of LIouisiana, by purchase from France. The battle of New Orleans (as it is called) was fought on its banks on the 8th of January 1815. During * The prominent points along the river will be described in the chapters relating to the States. 41

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42 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the late war, the Confederates undertook to close the navigation of the river, and succeeded in doing so for more than two years, when the control of it was wrested from them by the Union forces. A number of severe engagements were fought on its banks, the principal of which were the battle of Belmont, in Missouri, and the conflicts at Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, New Madrid, Memphis, Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Grand Gulf, Baton Rouge, and Forts Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi are, on the east, the Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Yazoo; on the west, the Minnesota, Des Moines, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. The total value of the steamboats engaged in trade on the Mississippi and its tributaries, is estimated at over $6,000,000. THE MISSOURI RIVER. Though commonly regarded as the principal tributary of the Mississippi, the Missouri is in reality the main stream, since it is longer and of greater volume than the other river. It derives its name from an Indian word signifying “Mud River.” It rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of Montana, in latitude 45~ N., longitude 110~ 30’ W. The springs in which it has its source are not more than a mile distant from the headwaters of the great Columbia River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean. The Missouri proper begins at the confluence of three small streams of about equal length-the Jefferson’s, Madison’s, and Gallatin’s-. which run nearly parallel to each other. For the first 500 miles of its course, the Missouri flows nearly north, then turning slightly to the E. N. E., it continues in that direction until it is joined by the White Earth River, in latitude 480 20’

N. It then bends to the southeast, and continues in that general direction until it joins the Mississippi, near St. Louis. Four hundred and eleven miles from its source, the river passes through what is called “The Gates of the Rocky Mountains.” This pass is one of the most remarkable on the Continent. For nearly six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly from the water’s edge to a height of 1200 feet. The river is confined to a width of only one hundred and fift.yyards, and for the first three miles there is only one point on which a man could obtain a foothold between the rocks and the water. One hundredsand ten miles below the “Gates” are the “Great Falls of the Missouri,” which, after those of the Niagara, are the most magnifi,

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THE UNITED STATES. cent in America. These falls consist of four cataracts, respectively of 26, 47, 19, and 87 feet perpendicular descent, separated by rapids. They extend for a length of sixteen and a half miles, and the total descent in that distance is 357 feet. The falls are 2575 miles above the mouth of the river, which is navigable to them, though steamers do not usually ascend higher than the mouth of the Yellow Stone River. The Missouri is said to be 3096 miles long from its mouth to its source, though it is believed that this estimate is a little too large. Add to this the length of the lower Mississippi, 1253 miles, and the total distance from the Gulf to the source of the Missouri, is 4349 miles-making it the longest stream in the world. It is generally turbid and swift, and upon entering the Mississippi, pours a dense volume of muid into that until then clear stream, and forever changes its hue. At the confluence of the two rivers, the water of the Mississippi refuses to mingle with that of its muddy rival, and the current of the Missouri may be easily distinguished for some distance below. There is no important obstacle to navigation below the Great Falls, except that during the long hot summers the water is apt to be too low for any but the smallest steamers, owing to the fact that in its upper course the river passes through an open, dry country, where it is subject to excessive evaporation. Below the Falls it is bordered by a narrow alluvial valley, very fertile, and capable of being highly cultivated. Back of this valley lie extensive prairies. The river is half a mile wide at its mouth, and is in some places much wider.

It receives all the great rivers rising on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, with the single exception of the Arkansas River, and the majority of the streams between its own bed and the Mississippi. For the most part it flows through a savage or thinly settled region, and has but few important cities or towns on its banks. The principal of these are Omaha City, in Nebraska, Atchison and Leavenworth, in Kansas, and St.

Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, Jefferson City, and St.

Charles, in Missouri. Its principal tributaries are the Yellow Stone; Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, (greater) Vhite Earth, Ni-obrarah, Platte or Nebraska, Kansas and Osage, on the right; and the Milk, Dacotah, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and Grand, on the left. These streams, with the Missouri, drain -the entire country north of St. Louis, and between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains-an area of 519,400 square miles. 43

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44 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. TItE OHIO RIVER Is the first great tributary of the Mississippi, flowing into it below the mouth of the Missouri. It was called by the early French settlers La Belle R?ivi~re (the beautiful river), and its Indian name is said to have a similar meaning. It is noted for the uniform smoothness of its current, and the beauty of the valley through which it flows. It is formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and Moonongahela Rivers, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. It flows in a generally W. S. W. direction, separating the States of West Virginia and Kentucky from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and empties into the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois, 1216 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The total length of the Ohio is 950 miles. The length of the valley throtugh which it flows is only 614 miles. the windings of the river making up the difference. Its average breadth is a little over 600
yards. Its elevation at Pittsburg is 680 feet above the level of the sea, at Cincinnati, 414 feet, and at Cairo, 324 feet, giving an average descent of about 5 inches to the mile. The current is placid and uniform, hlaving a mnedium force of about 3 miles an hour. Like all the western rivers, it is subject to great variations of depth. In the winter and spring it is very high, the spring rise.being sometimes as great as 60 feet; and in the summer it is so low that it may be forded in many places above Cincinnati.

The writer, when a lad, has frequiently waded from the Virginia to the Ohio shore. At high water, steamers of the first class ascend to Pittsburg, but at low water only the lightest draft vessels can navigate it, and even these do so at a constant risk of running on a sand bar, and being compelled to remain there until the late summer and fall rains swell the stream again to an extent sufficient to float them. At Louisville, Kentucky, the only falls of the river occur. The descent is here about 221
feet in two miles. The current is very swift, but in high water firstclass steamers pass over the rapids. A canal has been cut around them to the river below, by means of which the obstruction they present to navigation has been partly overcorne. Formerly the river trade was most important and extensive. Of late years, however, it has been very much reduced by the competition of the railroads, but is still immense. The Ohio, for the greater part of its course, flows through a narrow, but beautifiil valley. The hills, from two lhundred to three hundred feet high, are covered with an almost continuous forest of a dark rich green, hue, and come down so close to the water that at

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THE UNITED STATES. times they seem to shut it in entirely. Though beautiful, tile scenery is monotonous, and is rather tame. The river contains fully one hundred islands, some of which are exceedingly valuable and beautiful. There are also a number of” Tow Heads,” as they are called small sandy islands, covered with willows, and utterly barren. Below Louisville the country becomes flatter, and by the time the Mississippi is reached, the hills have entirely disappeared. Tile valley of the Ohio is exceediig,ly fertile, and is rich in various kinds of minerals. Its principal tributaries are the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, and Wabash, on the righlit, and the Great Kanawha, Big Sandy, Green, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee, on the left. The most importa;it are the Wabash, Cumberland, and Tennessee, the last of which is the largest. The Tennessee and its tributaries reach far back illto the mountains of that State and Virginia, and the headwaters of the Alleghany rise in the southern part of the State of New York and in Potter County, Pennsylvania. Between them and the waters which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Chesapeake Bay, there is only a slight elevation, and a distance of but a few acres.

The area drained by the Ohio and its tributaries is about 200,000 square miles. The country through which the Ohio flows is a prosperous agricultural region, and a number of large and thriving cities and towns are located on its banks. Its various prominent features will be noticed in other portions of this work. THE ARKANSAS RIVER Is the next important tributary of the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohlio. Next to the Missouri, it is the longest affluent of the great river. It rises in the Rocky Mountains near the centre of Colorado, and flows easterly for several hundred miles, after which it turns to the southeast and continues in that general direction until it reaches the Mississippi, in latitude 30~ 54’ N., longitude 91~ 10’ W. It enters Arkansas at Fort Smith, on the western frontier, and divides the State into two nearly equal portions. In the upper part of its course it flows through vast sterile plains, but after entering the State which bears its name, continues its way through a region of considerable fertility. It is 2000 miles long from its source to its mouth, and is not obstructed by rapids or falls. It varies in widtlrfrom three furlongs to half a mile. Its current is turbid and sluggish. The difference in the height of the water in the 45

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46 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. floods and the dry seasons is about 25
feet. For the greater part of the year it is navigable by steamers for a distance of 800 miles from its mouth. The most important town on the river is Little Rock, the the capital of the State. The last important tributary of the Mississippi is THE RED RIVER. This stream is formed by the confluence of two principal branches, of which the southern and larger rises in New Mexico, a little beyond the western boundary of Texas, in latitude 34~ 42’ N., longitude 103~ 7’ 10” W.; the northern in Texas, in latitude 35~ 35’ 3” N., longitude 101~ 55’ W. These two branches unite in latitude 34~ 30’ N., longitude 100~ W., in the State of Texas, and constitute the main river, which then flows nearly due east, forming the boundary between the Indian Territory and Texas. Upon reaching the Arkansas line, it passes into that State to Fulton, near the border, when it bends to the south and enters Louisiana. Then turning to the southeast, it flows across the last named State and empties into the Mississippi, 341
miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Its length, including the South Fork, is estimated by Colonel Marcy, U.S. A., by whom the river was explored, at 2100 miles-the main stream being 1200 miles long. According to this authority, the South, or main, Fork, rises in the fissures of an elevated and sterile plain, called the Llano Estacado, at an altitude of 2450 feet above the sea. For the first sixty miles the sides of the river rise from 500 to 800 feet so directly from the water that the exploring party were obliged to pass up through the channel of the stream. “After leaving the Llano Estacado,” says Colonel Marcy, “the river flows through an arid prairie country, almost entirely destitute of trees, over a broad bed of light shifting sands, for a distance of some 500 miles, following its sinuosities. It then enters a countrv covered with gigantic forest trees, growing upon a soil of the most preeminent fertility; here the borders contract, and the water for a great portion of the year washes both banks, carrying the loose alluvium from one side, and depositing it on the other, in such a manner as to produce constant changes in the channel, and to render navigation difficult. This character continues throughout the remainder of its course to the Delta of the Mississippi; and in this section it is subject to heavy inundations, which often flood the bottoms to such

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THE UNITED STATES. a degree as to destroy the crops, and occasionally, on subsiding, leaving a deposit of white sand, rendering the soil barren and , orthless.” Shortly after leaving its sources, the South Fork passes through a vast bed of gypsum for a distance of 100 miles, which gives fo its waters an intensely bitter and unpleasant taste, causing them rather to augment than diminish thirst. The river is navigable during the greater part of the year to Shreveport, 500 miles fromn its mouth. Smiall steamers can ascend about 300 miles farther in high water. About 30 miles above Shreveport is an immense collection of rubbish known as the “Great Raft,”

which forms the principal obstacle to the navigation of the upper river.

It consists of driftwood and trees, which have been brought down for hundreds of niles by the current, and lodged here. This raft obstructs the,channel for a distance of seventy miles, and for a considerable portion of the year causes the river to overflow the country along its banks. In 1834-35 it was removed by the Government of the United States at a cost of $300,000, but a new raft has formed since then. In very high water small steamers pass around it. The principal tributaries of the Red River are the Little Washita and Big Washita. The other rivers, which are national in character-by which we mean not lying entirely or for the greater part in one particular State or Territory of the Union-are the Rio Grande, the Great Colorado of the West, the Columbia, and the St.

Lawrence, the first and last of which form a portion of the boundaries of the Republic. THE RIO GRANDE Rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of New Mexico, near latitude 38~ N., and longitude 106~ 30’ W.

Its course is at first southeast, then E. S. E., and finally nearly east.

It forms the boundary between the State of Texas and the Republic of Mexico, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, near latitude 25~ N., and(]

longitude 97~ W. It is 1800 miles long, and is for the most part very shallow. Sand bars are numerous and render the stream almost unfit for navigation. Small steamers have succeeded in reaching Kingsbury’s Rapids, about 450 miles from the Gulf. About 900 miles from its mouth-the river is only three or four feet deep. This point is called the “Grand Indian Crossing,” because the Comanche and 47

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48 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Apachec Indians ford the stream here in their incursions from Tcxas into Mepxico. The principal town on the river is Brownsville, 40 miles fromii its mouth, and opposite the Mexican city of Mattamoras. THE COLORADO RIVER, Or, as it is sometimes called, the Great Colorado of the West, to dis tinguisll it from the Colorado River, of Texas, rises in latitude 44~ N., in I(llho Territory, and, flowing through Utah Territory, and along ilc b)or(lders of Nevada, California, and Arizona, empties into the Gulf’ of Ca.lifornia, near latitude 32~ 30’

N. From its source to the 36thi parallel of North latitude, where it is joined by the Grand and Little Colorado Rivers, it is known as the Greep River. It has several small tributaries between its source and the Great South I-Pass. At this pass, it receives the Big Sandy Creek, at an elevation of 7489 feet above the sea. Just on the other side of the mountains are the Wind and Sweetwater Rivers, two of the principal tributaries of the Upper Missouri. From the South Pass, the Colorado flows in a generally southwest direction to its mouth. It is about 1200 miles long, and, with the exception of the Columbia, is the most important stream west of the Rocky Mountains, but, in spite of its great length, the volume of water which it discharges is comparatively small. “About 490
miles above its mouth commences the great defile in the mountains called the Black Caflon, 25 miles long, through which the river has forced its way. The banks in many places are very precipitous, from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and for a long distance the river is unapproachable. A steamboat utinder the command of Lieut. Ives, U.S. Topographical Engineers, ascended the stream early in 1858, and passing a portion of the great cation reached the head of navigation at the head of Virgen River. Few obstacles except shifting sand bars were met on the voyage. The explorations of Lieut. Ives, who traversed the valley of the river from its mouth to latitude 36~ N., and the greater part of the regions along latitude 35~
and 36~ as far east as the Rio Grande, and the previous reconnoissancesconnected with the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, have made known interesting facts connected with the region watered by the Colorado. In its valley is found a large extent of fertile bottom land, easily cultivated by artificial irrigation. This valley varies in width from three to eight miles. The greater part of it is covered with timber, chiefly cottonwood and mezquit. Other portions are cultivated by the nu

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THE UNITED, STATES. merous tribes of Indians who live along its banks, affording them an abundance of wheat, maize, melons, beans, squashes, etc.

Cotton is also cultivated by such of the Pueblo Indians as are acquainted with the art of weaving. Some portions of the country are uninhabitable;; others are rich in silver, copper, and lead, besides containing gold and, mercury in small quantities. According to an estimate made by the U. S.

qfficers who have explored the Colorado, there are about 70(0} square miles of arable land between the mouth of the Gila and the 35th parallel of North latitude. After receiving the Gila, the Colorado takes a sudden turn westward, forcing its way through a chain of rocky hills, 70 feet high, and about 350 yards in length. In this passage it is about 600 feet wide, but soon expands to 1200 feet, which it retains. After sweeping around 7 or 8 miles, it assumes a south direction, and with a very tortuous course of nearly 160 miles reaches the Gulf of California. The bottom lands are here from 4 to 5 miles wide, and covered with a thick forest. On a rocky eminence at the junction with the Gila stands Fort Yuma. Near the fort are the remains of the buildings of the old Spanish Mission established here in the early part of the last century, and in the valley are traces of irrigating canals, which show that it has once been cultivated.” * The average depth of water between Fort Yuma and the Gulf of California is 8 feet. Spring tides rise 25 or 30 feet, and neap tides 10 feet. There is regular communication by means of small steamers between Fort Yuma and the mouth of the river. At low water there is a draught of 4
feet at the Fort, and in high water 13 feet.. The channel at the mouth of the river is continually changing, and. has been known to shift from one bank to another in the course of a single night. There is also a heavy tidal wave at its mouth, which, renders it difficult and dangerous for any but the lightest draught steamers to enter the stream. When the freshets occur, the river overflows its banks, submerges a part of the California Deserts and fills up several basins, and what is known as New River. This water is left in the basins and New River when the main stream returns to its proper channel, and continues in them for about two years,, when it is a~sorbed by the soil, or dried up by the sun. The mouth of the Colorado was discovered in the year 1540, by Fernando Alarchon, who undertook a voyage to the Gulf of California, by order of the Viceroy of Spain. He described it as “ia very mighty river, which ran with so great a fury of stream that we could * Appleton’s Cyclopsedia, vol. v. p. 502. 4 49

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50 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. hardly sail against it.” He sent an expedition, consisting of tw(o boats, some distance up the river. In 1700, a Mission was established by Father Kino near the site of the present Fort Yuma, at the mouth of the Gila. The name of the Colorado signifies “the Red River,” its waters being stained by the red earth along its course.

Its principal tributaries are the Grand, San Juan, White, Little Colorado, Virgen, Williams, and Gila Rivers. The Mohav6 was formerly supposed to be a tributary, but is now known to empty into Soda Lake, in California. THE

COLUMBIA RIVER Is the principal body of water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from the Continent of America. It rises in a small lake on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, about latitude 50~ N., longitude 116~ W. Its first course is towards the northwest, along the base of the Rocky Mountains, until it is joined by its most northern tributary, in about 53~ 30’ N. latitude, after which it flows in a southerly direction to the 46th parallel. From this point to the Pacific it runs due west, forming the boundary between the State of Oregon and Washington Territory.

It is extremely tortuous between the 46th and 48th parallels of North latitude. This is the case until Fort Wallawalla is reached. It is very rapid, and frequently passes through mountain gorges and over falls. The tide ascends to the foot of the Cascades, 140 miles from the sea. The Cascades are a series of rapids caused by the passage of the river through the Cascade range of mountains. Between each of the rapids there is an unbroken stretch of the river for about 25 or 30 miles. Steamers ply on the lower river, on the clear waters between the Cascades, and for some distance above the last fall. Passengers and freights are carried around the falls by railroad. Vessels of 200 or 300 tons burthen navigate the stream to the foot of the Cascades. For 30 miles from its mouth, the Columbia forms a splendid bay from 3 to 7 miles in breadth, through which it discharges its waters into the Pacific. There is about 20 feet water on the bar at its mouth, but the depth of the channel is 24 feet. The principal tributaries of the Columbia are the Lewis and Clark Forks, which, uniting, form the main river, the McGillivray’s, or Flat Bow River, Okonagan, Fall River, Wallawalla, and Willaminette. The Lewis Fork is sometimes called the Snake River, and the Clark Fork, the Flathead River.

The total length of the Columbia, from its source lo the sea, is about 1200 miles.

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THE UNITED STATES. RAPIDS OF TIIE ST. LAWRENCE. RAPIDS OF TIlE ST.

LAWRENcE. THiE SAINT LAWRENCE RIVER Forms a portion of the boundary between the United States and the Canadas, and though washing the shores of the Union for but a part of its course, cannot be passed over in this chapter. Some geographers, in consequence of its forming the outlet of the chain of lakes upon the northern frontier of the Union, regard it as commencing at the source of the St. Louis, which rises in Minnesota and flows into Lake Superior. Viewed in this light, it flows through the great lakes, and its total length from the head of the St. Louis to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, would be 2200 miles. Its course to the head of Lake Erie would be in a generally southeast direction; and from the head of Lake Erie to the sea, in a generally northeast direction. Viewing it in this light, we must regard the Ste. Marie, between Lakes Huron and Superior; the St. Clair and Detroit, between Lakes Huron and Erie; and the Tiagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, as forming parts of the St. Lawrence. By the St. Lawrence River, however, is most commonly meant that portion of it lying between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of St Lawrence. This constitutes a large river 750 miles long, having an average breadth of half a mile, and 5!

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52 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. navigable for steamers to the Gulf.

Ships of the line ascend to Quebec, and vessels of 600 tons to Montreal, in Canada. Above Montreal the navigation is interrupted by numerous rapids, around which a canal has been cut. The river forms the boundary of the United States from the foot of Lake Ontario to the extreme northwestern corner of the State of New York. Ogdensburg and Cape Vincent are the principal American towns on its banks. LAKES. The principal lakes of the United States, are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, lying along the northern frontier, And the Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory, LAKE SUPERIOR Is the largest body of fresh water in the world, and the principal of the chain of great lakes extending along the northern boundary of the United States. It lies between latitude 46~ 30’

and 49~ N. and longitude 840 50’ and 92~ 10’ W. It forms a species of crescent, with its convexity on the north, and its concavity on the south.

Its greatest length, from east to west, measured through the curve, is 420
miles, and its greatest breadth, from north to south, 160 miles. The total length of its coast line is about 1750 miiles. It covers an area estimated at 32,000 square miles. It is 630 feet above the level of the sea, and has an average depth of one thousand feet. Its shape is very irregular. It is very wide at its centre, but narrows slightly towards its eastern end, and very much towards its western end. The shore on the north side is bold and rocky, and consists of almost continuous ranges of cliffs, which rise to a height varying from 300 to 1500 feet. The south shore is flat and sandy, as a general rule, but near the eastern side is broken by limestone ridges, which rise to a height of near 300 feet, in strange and fantastic forms, worn into numerous caverns. These have been cut by the action of the great waves, especially during the season of the floating ice, and have been colored by the continual drippings of mineral substances. From the earliest times they have been known as the” Pictured Rocks.” They lie to the east of Point Keweenaw, and form one Qf the most wonderful of the natural curiosities of the New World. Islands are very numerous towards the south and north shores, b’t the centre of the lake is free f’rom them.

The islands towards theisouth

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THE UNITED SSTATE!S are generally small, but those along the north.sloreareoften of considerable size. The largest is Isle Royal, which is about 40 miles long, and 7 or 8 miles wide. Its hills rise to a height of 400 feet, with fine bold shores on the north, and several excellent bays on the south. Near the western end of the lake is a rocky, forest-covered group, called the Apostles’ Islands. They are exceedingly picturesque in appearance, and form a prominent and interesting portion of the scenery of the lake. On the extreme southwestern end of the largest, is La Pointe, a famous fur trading post, and well known as the principal rendezvous for the hardy adventurers of the lake region. Lake Superior receives its waters from more than 200 streams, about 30 of which are of considerable size. These drain an area of 100,000 square miles, and furnish the lake with water remarkable for its clearness, and abounding in fish of various kinds, but especially i trout, white fish, and salmon. The rivers are almost all unfit for navigation, by reason of their tremendous currents, rapids, and rocks. The outlet of the lake is at the southeastern end, by means of St. Mary’s Strait, or as it is sometimes called, St.

Mary’s River, which connects it with Lake Huron and the other great lakes.

This strait is about 63 miles long, and enters Lake Huron by three channels. It is very beautiful and romantic in its scenery, at some places sprea(iilig out into small lakes, and at others rushing in foaming torrents over the rocks that seek to bar its way, or winding around beautiful islands. It is navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water, front Lake Huron to within one mile of Lake Superior, at which point falls obstruct the navigation. This part of the strait is called the Sault Ste. Marie. A canal has been constructed by the General Government around the rapids. It is 100 feet wide and 12 feet deep, and affords unbroken communication between Lakes Superior and Huron. The falls have a descent of 22 feet in threefourths of a mile, and are exceedingly beautiful. The strait also separates the State of Michigan from Canada West. The greatest obstacles to the navigation of the lake are the violent storms that sweep over it. Until very recently it was an almost unknown region, but now there is constant steamboat communication along its entire length, and it is frequently visited by persons il search of pleasure or health. The principal export of the lake is copper, which is found in large quantities, and of a superior quality, along its shores. The total shipments of this metal, from the period of its discovery on the lake down to the close of the year 1871, amounted to over $30,000,000. 53;.

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54 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Fond du Lac, and Duluth, at the western end of the lake, are the principal settlements on its shores. For many years the savage settlements along the lake were mere fishing villages, and even at the period of its discovery, the Indians had made but few lodgments here. Attention was first drawn to it by its valuable fur trade, and the early Jesuit missionaries reached it about the year 1641. They established their first mission at the head of the Bay of Pentanguishene (in Georgian Bay), and passed up in a canoe to the Sault Ste. Marie, where they found a village of 2000 Chippewa Indians, and heard from them of the great lake beyond, which was explored by the missionaries about 20 years later. In 1668, a permanent mission was established at the Sault Ste.

Marie, and in 1671, tlhe region was formally taken possession of in the name of the King of France. The mines were first worked in 1771 and 1772, by an Englishman named Alexander Henry, whose enterprise proved unprofitable. General Lewis Cass, by order of the Government of the United States, explored the region in 1820, and since then it has been growing in importance, and has yearly become better known to the people of the country at large. LAKE HURON Is the third in size of the great inland seas we are describing. It lies between latitude 43~ and 46~ 15’ N., and longitude 80~ and 84~ W. It receives the waters of Lake Superior by the St. Mary’s River, and of Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinaw, and empties into Lake Erie by the St. Clair River. It is bounded on the S.S.

W. by the State of Michigan, and on all other sides by Canada West. A long peninsula called Cabot’s Head, and the Manitouline chain of islands divide it into two unequal portions. Those portions lying to the north and east are generally called Manitou (the Great Spirit) Lake, or the North Channel, and Manitouline Lake, or Georgian Bay. The general outline of the rest of the lake is in the form of a crescent, pursuing a S. S. E. and N.

N. W. course. Its extreme length, following the curve, is about 280 miles.

Its greatest breadth, exclusive of Georgian Bay, is 105 miles. Its average breadth is about 70 miles, and it covers an area of 20,400 square miles.

The surface of the water is elevated 19 feet above Lake Erie, 352 feet above Ontario, and 600 feet above the level of the sea. Its average depth is over 1000 feet. Off Saginaw Bay, which indents the coast of Michi. gan, leads have been sunk 1800 feet without finding the bottom.

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THE UNITED STATES. The waters of the lake are remarkably pure an(l sweet, and so exceedingly transparent that objects can be distinctly seen 50 or 60 feet below the surface. The lake is said to contain upwards of 3000
islands. It is subject to frequent fearful storms, but its navigation is not considered dangerous. Steamers ply between its various ports, and pass through the Straits of Mackinaw into Lake Michigan. There are many fine harbors on the coast, and the local trade is important. The scenery is romantic and beautiful, and is much admired by travellers. The outlet of Lake Huron is by the St. Clair River, which leaves the lake on its southern extremity. It has an average breadthl of half a mile. It pursues a southerly course for forty miles, forming a part of the boundary between the United States and Canada, and empties into Lake St. Clair. It is navigable for large vessels. LAKE ST. CLAIR lies between Canada and the State of Michigan, in latitude 42~ 30’ N., longitude 82~ 3’ W. It is 30
miles long, has a mean breadth of 12 miles, and is 20 feet deep. It is thickly interspersed with islands, and receives the waters of the Thames, Clinton, and Great Bear Creeks, and other streams. At its southwestern extremity it flows into the Detroit River, which connects it with Lake Erie. This river is in reality a mere strait 25 miles long, and from half a mile to a mile wide. The entire passage between Lakes Huron and Erie is navigable for large vessels. LAKE MICHIGAN Lies wholly within the limits of the United States, and is the largest lake included within the territory of the Republic. The greater portion of the lake lies between the State of Michigan, on the east, and Illinois and Wisconsin, on the west; but the tipper portion is entirely within the State of Michigan. The lake is situated between 41~ 30’ and 46~ N. latitude, and between 850~ 50’

and 88~ W. longitude. It bends slightly to the N. E. in the upper part, and its extreme length, following the curve, is about 350 miles; its extreme width 90 miles. It has an average depth of about 900 feet, and covers an area of 20,000 square miles. As a general rule, the shores of the lake are low, and are formed of limestone rock, clay, and sand. The sand thrown on the east shore by the heavy seas which prevail during storms, soon becomes dry, and is carried inland by the winds, where it is piled up ix hills to a height of fromn 10 to 150 feet. The form of these hills is constantly changing. The lake is said to be gradually 55

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56 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. moving westward, or, in other words, to be leaving the shore of Michigan, and encroaching upon that of Wisconsin.

There are very few islands in Lake Michigan, and these lie tow wards its northeastern extremity. It has but few bays on its shores, and still fewer good harbors. Little Traverse Bay, Grand Haven, and Green Bay are the principal. As the lake is subject to terrible storms throughout the year, it is not considered very safe for navigation. Previous to the completion of the railroads, however, its commerce was very great, and several lines of fine steamers ran between Chicago, Illinois, and Buffalo, New York, on Lake Erie. There are many steamers and other craft still on the lake, but the railroads have taken away nearly the entire passenger, and much of the freight business. Lake Michigan is connected with Huron and the other lakes by the Straits of Mackinaw, or Mackinac. The lake is usually free from ice by the last of March, but the Straits of Mackinaw are frozen over until late in April. Fish abound in the lake, are caught in great quantities near Mackinaw, and are sent to the various parts of the Union, packed in ice. The principal cities and towns on Lake Michigan, are Chicago, Racine, Milwaukee, and Sheboygan, on the west side, and Michigan City and Grand Haven, on the east side. There are 23 lighthouses and 4
beacons on the lake. LAKE ERIE Lies between Canada West, on the north, a part of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, on the south, Michigan on the west, and New York on the east. It is situated between 41~

25’ and 42~ 55’ N. latitude, and between 78~ 55’ and 830 34’ W. longitude.

It is elliptical in form, is 240 miles long, has an average width of 38

;lIiles, its greatest width being 57 miles, and has a total circumference or coast line of 658 miles. Its depth is less than that of any of the other great lakes, being only 270 feet in its deepest portion. Its average depth is estimated at 120 feet. It is 322 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, which distance is overcome at a single effort by the falls of the Niagara. The shallowness of Lake Erie offers a great obstacle to navigation, inasmuch as the shoal portions freeze over regularly every winter. There are scarcely any naturally good harbors on the lake. Those now in use require to be deepened and protected by artificial means. Not l

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THE UNITED STATES. withstanding the fact that the railroads have drawn off an immense amount of trade, and in spite of the obstacles presented by the lake itself, its commerce is still very great. The trade of the port of Buffalo alone is estimated at over $85,000,000 annually. The total trade of the lake is over $220,000,000 annually. A large number of steamers and other vessels are engaged during the season of navigation, which lasts from about the 1st of April to about the 1st of December. The principal harbors on the American side, are those of Cleveland, Sandusky City, Toledo, Buffalo, Erie, and Dunkirk. Those on the Canadian side are Ports Dover, Burwell, and Stanley. The shores of the lake are in many places of a very unstable nature, and yield easily to the action of the water, causing frequent dangerous “slides,” as they are called. Buffalo has suffered considerably from this cause. The waters abound in fish, the principal of which are the trout and white fish. Several species of pike, the sturgeon, sisquit, muskelonge, black bass, white bass, and Oswego bass are found. There are 26 lighthouses and beacons on the American, and 10 on the Canada shore. Communication is maintained between Lakes Erie and Ontario by means of the Welland Canal, which is cut through the Canadian peninsula. The Maumee, Sandusky, Grand, Huron, Raisin, and several other rivers flow into the lake. The most violent storms sweep over it, particularly in the months of November and December, causing many shipwrecks and considerable destruction to life and property. The outlet is by the Niagara River, which commences at Black Rock, about 4 miles north of Buffalo. It is 34 miles long, and has a general northward course.

About 7 miles from Buffalo, the river divides and encloses a large island, called Grand Island, 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 miles wide. Two or three miles below Grand Island are the famous Falls of Niagara, which will be described in the chapter relating to the State of New York. The river is navigable above the falls from a short distance above the rapids to Lake Erie-nearly 20 miles; and from its mouth to Lewiston, 7 miles. It is spanned by two fine suspension bridges. On the 10th of September 1813, Commodore Oliver N. Perry, in command of a small American squadron, defeated a British fleet of superior force near Put-in-bay, a harbor among thlxe Bass Islands, near the western end of the lake. This victory completely destroyed the British power along the shores of Michigan. 567

.:

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. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. LAKE ONTARIO Is the smallest and most easterly of the five great lakes of America, and is situated between latitude 43~ 10’ and 44~ 10’ N., and between longitude 76~ and 80~ W. It runs nearly due east and west, and divides the State of New York on the s(uth from Canada on the north. It is 190 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 55 miles. It covers an area of 5400 square miles, is about 230
feet above the tide water in the St. Lawrence, and has a depth of about 600 feet. It is navigable throughlout its entire extent for ships of the line, and has several fine harbors, the principal of which are Oswego and Sackett’s Harbor, on the New York shore, and Kingston, Toronto, and Ilamilton, in Canada. The lake is rarely closed witlh ice to any extent, except in the shioal water along the shore, and never freezes over. It receives the waters of the tipper lakes through the Niagara, and those of the Genesee, Oswego, and Black Rivers, in the United States. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal. It contains a number of islands, the largest of which, Amherst Island, is 10 miles long, and 6
miles broad. The waters of the lake are very clear and abound in a variety of fine salmon, trout, bass, and other fish. A number of steamers and other vessels are engaged in the lake trade, which is important, amounting to between $35,000,000 and $40,000,000 per annum. During the war of 1812-15, the United States and Great Britain maintained powerful fleets on Lake Ontario, and in the course of the war several severe engagements occurred on the lake between the opposing forces. Besides the five great lakes already described, there are a number of others which will be referred to in connection with the States in which they are situated.

MOUNTAINS. The principal mountain ranges of the United States are the great Alleghany range on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west.

THE ALLEGHANY OR APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. This is the general term applied to the vast system of mountains in the southeastern part of North America, extending from Maine to the northern part of Alabama, pursuing in their course a general southwestward direction. As the range passes through different

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THE UNITED STATES. States, it is called by different names. The distance of this chain fr(om the sea varies along its course. In New Hampshire, near its northern termination, it is less than 100 miles from the ocean, and at its southern end the distance from. the sea is 300 miles. In New Enlgland and New York the chain is broken and irregular, some of its ranges running almost north and south, but in the States south of New York, the ranges are very continuous, and run for the most part parallel to the main ridge. In common usage, the term Alleghany Mountains applies almost exclusively to that portion of the range lying in and south of the State of Pennsylvania. The White Mountains of New IHampshire, and the Adirondacks of New York, are considered outliers of this great chain, as are also the Catskills, of the latter State. The entire leng,th of the main range, not counting its lateral groups, is 1300 miles. Its extreme width, which occurs in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about half way in its length, is 100 miles. The highest summits of the Appalachian chain are Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, 6470 feet, Mount’ AVashlington, in New Hampshire, 6226 feet, and MIount Marcy, iln New York, 5467 feet, above the level of the sea. The entire range is rich in the most interesting geological forma ALLEGIHANY MOUNTAINS.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tions. Nearly all the minerals known to the Continent are found in these mountains. The scenery is grand, and the atmosphere pure and invigorating.* Numerous railroads cross the range, or pierce it with their tunnels. The great western range is known as THE

ROCKY MOUNTAINS. These are a continuation northward of the Cordilleras of Central America and Mexico. They enter the United States at the southern extremity of New Mexico and Arizona Territories, near latitude 31~ 30’ N., and pass up the entire western side of the Republic, into British America.

They are divided into several ranges, and cover an area 1000 miles wide from east to west. The most easterly range extends through New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana Territories, and forms the boundary between Wyoming and Idaho, and Idaho and Montana. It includes the Spanish Peaks, Pike’s Peak, and the Wind River Mountains, the last of which contain Fremont’s Peak, 13,570 feet high. West of this great range is a smaller one, called the WVahsatch Mountains, lying south of the Great Salt Lake.

These mountains, under other names, pass northward, to the east of Salt Lake. In Utah they cover a wide district, and their ridges spread out in various directions. The ridge known as the Uintah Mountains extends east and west. The western division of the Rocky Mountains enters the State of California from the Peninsula of Old California, and soon breaks into two ranges, the lowest of which, known as the Coast Range, runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of from 10 to 50 miles from the sea until the northern part of California is reached, when it rejoins the higher range, which is called the Sierra Nevada, which runs parallel to the Coast Range, at a distance of 160 miles from the sea. From the point of the reunion of its branches the range pursues its way northward into British America, the two ridges being again divided in Oregon and Washington Territory, the lesser retaining its own name, and the Sierra Nevada being styled the Cascade Range. The summits of the Sierra Nevada are generally above the line of perpetual snow, while the Coast Range has an average height of from 2000 to 3000 feet. Several of its peaks, however, rise to more than double that altitude. Mount Ripley is 7500 feet, and -Mount St.

John 8000 feet high. Mount Linn is still higher, but its exact altitude has not yet been ascertained. Mount-Shasta, at the point of the union of the two ranges’in Northern California, is 14,440 feet high.

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THIE UNITED STATES. ROCKY MOUNTAINS. “Between the highest ridge of the Rocky Mountains on the eas, arid the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the west, is a vast regioni of table land, which in its widest part extends through fourteen degrees of longitude; that is about 700 miles from east to west. Humboldtr in his’Aspects of Nature,’ observes that the Rocky Mountains, between 37~ and 43~, present lofty plains of an extent hardly met withl in any other part of the globe; having a breadth from east to west twice as great as the plateaus of Mexico. In the western part of the great central plateaus above described, lies the Great Basin, otherwise called Fremont’s Basin, from its having been first explored by Colonel Fremonit. It is situated between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatclh Mountains, and is bounded on every side with high hills or mountains. It is about 500 miles in extent, from east to west, and 350 from north to south. It is known to contain a number of lakes and rivers, none of whose waters ever reach the ocean, being probably taken up by evaporation, or lost in the sand of the more arid districts. As far as known, the lakes of this basin are salt, except Utah Lake. The largest of these, the Great Salt Lake, is filled with a saturated solution of common salt; it has an elevation of 4200 feet, above the sea. sea. Lippincott’s Gazetteer.

691

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62 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Owing to the broad base and gentle rise of the Rocky Mountain Range, it is crossed with comparatively little difficulty. Its passes are among the finest on the globe, and will vie in grandeur of scenery with any of those of the ol( world. We have already spoken of the rivers which rise upon the slopes of this great range, and shall pass them by for the present, to return to them again in other portions of this work. SOIL. The soil of the United States “presents almost every variety, from the dry sterile plains in the region of the Great Salt Lake, to the rich alluviums of the Mississippi Valley. It can most conveniently be described by following the seven great divisions indicated by the river system of the country, viz., the St. Lawrence basin, the Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, the Texas slope, the Pacific slope, the inland basin of Utah, sometimes called the Great or Fremont Basin, and the basin of the Red River of the north. 1. The St.

Lawrence basin embraces parts of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ildiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Michigan; it is an elevated and fertile plain, generally well wooded. 2. The Atlantic slope includes all New England except a part of Vermont; all of New Jersey, Delaware, the District of Columbia, South Carolina, and Florida; and portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It may be subdivided into two regions, a N. E. section and a S. W. section, separated by the Hudson River. The former is hilly, and generally better adapted to grazing than tillage, though some parts of it are naturally fertile, and a large proportion is carefully cultivated. The S. W. section may be again divided into a coast belt from 30 to 150 miles in width, running from Long Island Sound to the mouth of the Mississippi, and including the whole peninsula of Florida; and an inland slope from the mountains towards this coast belt. The former, as far south as the Roanoke River, is sandy and not naturally fertile, though capable of being made highly productive; from the Roanoke to the Mississippi it is generally swampy, with sandy tracts here and there, and a considerable portion of rich alluvial soil. The inland slope is one of the finest districts in the United States, the soil consisting for the most part of alluvium from the mountains and the decomposed primitive rocks which underlie the surface. 3. The Mississippi Valley occupies more than two-fifths of tho area of the

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i8.’,,@, \\ ___ lj; I I II ~ LIFE IN NEW ENGLAND, 1776. i I nI I

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mm ~)) ffi;~~ PLOWING A WESTERN PRAIRIE. f

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THE UNITED STATES. Republic, and extends from the Alleghany to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to British North America, thus including parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virg,inia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the Territories north of Nebraska and east of the mountains. It is for the most part a prairie country, of fertility unsurpassed by any region on the globe, except perhaps tile.Valley of the Amazon. The ground in many places is covered with mould to the depth of several feet, in some instances to the depth of 25 feet. The northwest part of the valley, however, offers a strong contrast to the remainder. There is a desert plateau 200 to 400
miles wide, lying at the base of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation 2000
to 5000 feet above the sea, part of it incapable of cultivation on account of the deficiency of rain and lack of means of irrigation, and part naturally sterile. 4. The Texas slope includes the southwestern country of the Mississippi Valley, drained by rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and embracing nearly all of Texas, and portions of Louisiana and New Mexico. It may be divided into three regions: a coast belt from 30 to 60 miles wide, low, level, and very fertile, especially ill the river bottoms; a rich, rolling prairie, extending from the coast belt about 150
or 200 miles inland, and admirably suited for grazing; and a lofty tableland in the northwest, utterly destitute of trees, scantily supplied with grass, and during a part of the year parched with complete drought.

Almost the only arable land in this section is found in the valleys of the Rio Grande and a few other streams. 5. The Pacific slope, embracing the greater part of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, and parts of New Mexico and Utah,* is generally sterile. That part, however, between the Coast Range and the ocean, and the valleys between the Coast Range, and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, are very fertile, and the same may be said of a few valleys and slopes among the Wahsatch and Rocky Mountains, though these are better adapted to pasturage than to anything else. 6. The great inland basin of Utah, which includes besides Utah parts of New Mexico, California, Oregon, and Washington, is probably the most desolate portion of the United States. It abounds * To this add a part of Colorado, and all of Nevada and Idaho, formerly included in Oregon, and in Utah and Washington Territories. 65

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668 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in salt lakes, and there are only a few valleys where the soil acquires by irrigation enough fertility to afford a support for man. 7. That portion of the basin of the Red River of thle north which belongs to the United States is confined to the small tract in the northern part of Dacotah and Minnesota; it contains some very productive lands, especially in the river bottoms.” * CLIMATE. The climate of the United States is varied. It could not possibly be uniform in a country presenting such a wide diversity of physical features in its various parts. In Florida, the thermometer does not vary over twelve degrees during the year, but in the remainder of the country the climate is exceedingly variable, and the changes are sudden and severe, often ranging over thirty degrees in the course of a few hours. Alternations from rain to drought are also as common and severe as those from heat to cold and from cold to hleat. The summers are always hot. The thermometer frequently ranges as high as 110~ F. In the North, however, the hot weather does not continue in full vigor for more than a few days at a time, and in the South, the heat is seldom so extreme, though it continues for a longer time. California has a climate as mild as that of Italy, but the NorthEastern States are swept by the chill winds from the Atlantic and the ice fields of British America. The great lakes mitigate to a considerable extent the temperature of the country around them. A similar effect is produced upon the temperature of their surrounding regions by the elevated plains of New Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. The following table shows the average temperature of each of the seasons of the year on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the interior: PL-‘0 OmaAla aiue pi.

Sumr uun itr es Fortress Monroe (near Norfolk, Va.)……………… Fort Columbus (New York Harbor)………………. Fort Sullivan (Eastport, Maine)…………………… St. Louis,

Missouri……………………………………. Ohicago, Illinois………………………………………. Fort Ripley, Minnesota……………………………… Monterey, Calif’rnia………………………………… Ban Francisco, California…………………………….. t

Astoria,‘Oregon…………………………………….. t Astoria,‘Oregon………………………450 11’ 51.160 61.580 53.750

42‘430 52230 * Appleton’s Cyclopiedia, vol. xv. p. 716., f Id. p. 717.

P”A”.., L.tit.d. 370 400 421 44‘0 151 380 401 410 521 460 191 360 36’ 370

48’ 460 11’ Sp,,!.g. 56-870 48-740 .40,-IbO 54-lbl 44-900’ 30-330 ,,3-991

54-410 51-161 S..M,. . 76-570 72-100 60-50, 76-190 67-330 64-94() 58-640

57-3.30 61,580 A.t…. 61-681 54-550 47-520 55-440 48-8515 42-910 67-290

56-83c’ 53-760 Wi.ter. 40-456 31-380 23-900 32-27c’ ‘25-900’ .iololo 51-220 60-860 ‘rest. 58-99cl 6i.clip .43-02q ‘, 54-510 46-759 89-30d 55.v9

64-52-230

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THE UNITED STATES. Rain is abundant in nearly all parts of the Union, and is distributed over the country in a very nearly equal degree throughout the year. In the Atlantic States south of Washington City, the fall is less regu lar than in the States north of the Capital, but is more plentiful than in the latter, and occurs more frequently in summer than in winter. On the Pacific coast, the fall of rain is periodical, occurring chiefly in the winter and spring, and south of the fortieth parallel of North latitude, in the autumn also. Very little rain falls between the Cascade Range and the one-hundredth meridian of West longitude. When rain does visit this region, it comes in violent showers, which are especially severe in the mountains. The annual fall in the desert region through which the Colorado flows, is estimated at 3 inches; in the great plain south of the Columbia River, 10 inches; in the desert east of the Rocky Mountains, from 15 to 20 inches. Scarcely any of this falls in the sumnler.* Snow falls in the Northern States to a considerable depth. In the Lake Superior country, more or less snow falls every day during the winter, and remains on the ground until the spring. It is comparatively rare south of the James River, in Virginia, and does not remain on the ground very long. In the Gulf States, it is scarcely ever seen except in the extreme northern portion. The most dangerous local diseases, of the New England and Middle States, are pulmonary complaints; of the Southern States, bilious fevers, and yellow fever along the Gulf coast; of the Western States, intermittent and bilious fevers, and dysentery. The “fever and ague” prevails chiefly in new regions, and disappears as they become thickly settled. The following table, taken from the eighth census of the United States, will show the ratio of mortality in each State, for the year ending June 1st, 1860: * Appleton’s Cyclopedia. 5 67

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68 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. : ~~SAE AN ERTRE.Ana ouain Dah Population to one death. 74 48 101 74 89 78 81 87 87 92 73 69 67 81 92 67

100 153 64 66 72 88 82 84 93 218 95 69 71 72 63 92 70 107 ………

……… 75 ……… 71 1(06 298 58 7 9

Alabama………………………………………………………………………

Arkansas……………………………………………………………………..

California……………………………………………………………………..

Connecticut………………………………………………………………….

Delaware……………………………………………………………………..

Florida…………………………………………………………………………

Georgia………………………………………………………………………

111inois…………………………………………………………………………

Indiana………………………………………………………………………..

Iowa………………………………………………………………………….

Kansas…………………………………………………………………………

Kentucky…………………………………………………………………….

Louisiana……………………………………………………………………..

Maine………………………………………………………………………..

Maryland……………………………………………………………………..

Massachusetts………………………………………………………………..

Michigan……………………………………………………………………

Minnesota……………………………………………………………………

Mississippi……………………………………………………………………

Missouri………………………………………………………………………

New

Hanipshire…………………………………………………………….

New

Jersey………………………………………………………………….

New

York……………………………………………………………………

North

Carolina………………………………………………………………

Qhio…………………………………………………………………………..

Oregon…………………………………………………………………………

Pennsylvania………………………………………………………………..

Rhode

Island………………………………………………………………..

South

Carolina………………………………………………………………

Tennessee……………………………………………………………………..

Txs……………: ‘rexas………………………………………

Vermont………………………………………………………………………

Virginia………………………………………………………………………

Wisconsin…………………………………………………………………….

Colorado………………………………………………………………….

Dacotah………………………………………………………………….

Nebraska…………………………………………………………………

Nevada………………………………………………………………….

New

Mexico…………………………………………………………….

Utah……………………………………………………………………

Washington……………………………………………………………..

District of

Columbia…………………………………………………. Total, United States………………………….392,821 79 1q27 From this table, it will be seen that Washington Territory is the first in point of healthfulness, Oregon second, Minnesota third, Wis consin fourth, Utah fifth, California sixth, Massachusetts twenty-ninth, and Arkansas thirtieth. MINERAL WEALTH. The mineral productions of the United States are varied and ex tensive. Coal exists in all the States except Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Mississippi, and WVisconsinii. Three distinct qualities are found-anthracite, bitumi niious and semi-bituminous. In 1870, the production amounted to Of anthracite……………. 15,664,275 tons. Of
bituminous………………. 17,199,415 at Total………… 32,863,690 “

There are valuable and extensive beds of marl in Maine, New Jer sey, Maryland,.Virginia and several other States. Salt springs, some t A….l D..th,. 12,759 8,885 3,704 6,138 1,246 1,764 12,816 19,299 15,325 7,259

1,443 16,466 121 234 7,614 7,370 21,303 7,390 1,108 12,213 17,652 4,469

7,525 46,881 11,602 24,724 237 30,214 2,479 9,745 15,153 9,377 3,355

22,4-i 2 7,141 …….i 381 374 50 1,285 392,821 D,-.thL p, C..t. 1-34

2-06 0.99 1-35 1-13 1-28 1-23 1-14 1.15 1-09 1-37 1-45 1-76 1-23 1.09 1.76

1.00 0-65 1-57 1-62, 1-39 1-14 1-22 1.19 1-07 0-46 1-06 1-44 1-41 1-39

1.58 1-08 1-43 0-93 0-94 0-44 1:72 1-27 STATES AND TERItITORIF.9. Total, U,,ited States….:……………………………………..

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THE UNITED STATES. of them of very great strength and value, are found in New York, Michigan, Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas. Nitrates of soda and potassa are found in the caves of Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas, wvhile the plains of the great American desert and the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains furnish considerable quantities of nitrate and carbonate of soda. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is found in Maine, Maryland, and Texas, and in portions of New Mexico and Arizona. Marble, of every variety required for building, exists in nearly all the States. In those bordering on the Mississippi, a fine, compact carbonate of lime supplies its place.

Iron exists in every State and Territory, and in every form known, from the bog ore, which contains about 20 per cent. of iron, to the pure metal.

In the year 1870, the total product of iron ore taken from the mines was estimated at 3,395,718 tons. Of this amount, Pennsylvania produced 1,095,486 tons. There are small quantities of lead in a large number of the States; but Missouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois alone contain the great lead deposits of the country. An incomplete return for 1870 places the value of the lead production of the Union at $736,004. The great copper region of the Union lies along the shores of Lake Superior, but the metal has been found in considerable quantities in Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee.’ The ore found in the Lake Superior region yields from 71 to 90 per cent. of pure copper. The total product for 1870 was 20,000 tons, valued at $5,201,312.

Zinc is found in Pennsylvania and New Jersey-the yield in the whole Union in 1870 being valued at $790,000. Tin is found in Maine to some extent, and also in California. Silver is found in connection with almost all the deposits of lead and copper; and in Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico, extensive veins of a fine quality exist. These are being well worked, but at present there is no accurate return of the total products of the mines.

Silver also exists in California, North Carolina and Colorado. Small quantities of gold exist in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Alabama, and Tennessee. The gold veins are more important in Virginia and Georgia, which formerly furnished the greater part of the gold found in the United States. The mines of the Atlantic States, however, are comparatively neglected at present for those of the Pacific States. Immense deposits of gold exist in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Dacotah. Platinum and mercury are also found in California the former in small quantities, but the yield of the latter is so great ae te 69

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TO OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. almost supply the demand for it for mining purposes. Osmium and iridium have been discovered in Oregon. They are used in manufacturing gold pens. Cobalt is found in North Carolina and Missouri. Pennsylvania, in 1860, yielded 2348 tons of nickel. Chromium exists in Vermont, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland; and Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina supply considerable quantities of manganese. PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. The native vegetation of the United States is too vast and varied to admit of a description here. We can only say that it covers a wide range of plants and trees, from the giant trees of California to the tiniest flower that blooms on the hill side. Nearly all the principal productions of the frigid, temperate and torrid zones are found within the limits of the Republic. None of the great staples of food are natives of the country, but have been brought from other lands. It must be admitted, however, that they have been greatly benefited by the change, and many of them are produced here in finer qualities than in their old homes. Cucumbers, melons, squashes, and all the edible Cucurbitacece are importations. So are the most of the fruits, especially the apple, pear, plum, quince, and apricot. The edible berries, such as the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, whiortleberry, bilberry, cloudberry, etc., are natives of the soil. Cotton, flax, and hemp are naturalized plants. ANIMALS. The zoology of the United States includes all the animals found on the North American Continent. Of bats, there are three genera and eleven species. The largest of the Sarcophaya or Carnivora, is the cougar or catamount, which ranks next to the lion and Bengal tiger in ferocity and strength. This animal is sometimes called the American panther, an erroneous appellation, as the panther is not a native of this country. The wild cat or bay lynx, and the Canadian lynx are found. The entire monkey tribe is lacking. There are seven species of the fox-the common red, the cross fox, the black or silver, the prairie, swift, gray, and short-tailed fox. The wolves are divided into two distinct species, the gray wolf of the woods, (divided into the reddish, black, and giant wolf,) a cowardly animal, and the ferociousis prairie wolf, which resembles the jackal of the East. The

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THE UNITED STATES. Digitigrada consist of the pine marten or American sable, the American fisher, the American ermine, the weasel, and two species of mink. The black, and the grisly bear, the badger, wolverene, skunk, and raccoon are found in various parts of the country. Several varieties of the seal family exist. The deer, the antelope, the Rocky Mountain or big horn sheep, also abound. The bison, which is usually but incorrectly called the buffalo, is found in the far West. Nearly all the birds, fish, reptiles, and insects of America are found in the various parts of the Union. “The domestic animals of the United States have been, with one or two exceptions, introduced from Europe. The horse, though not native to this continent, became wild at an early period, and now roams in large herds in the plains of Texas, but is domesticated without great difficulty. There have been at different times stocks introduced from England, France, Spain, and some from Morocco and Arabia; much attention has been paid to the breeding of these animnals, and some of them have not been surpassed in speed or other good points. The asses are mainly from Spain and Malta; the cattle from Great Britain; the goats from the south of Europe, though some efforts have been made to introduce Asiatic species; and the sheep from the Southdown, Saxon, and Spanish Merino breeds. The swine are of various stocks; one breed, common in Central ai(i Western Virginia and other hlountainous districts, is tall, long, an(l gaunt, and of ferocious nature and uncertain origin; but the most common breeds are the Berkshire (English) and Chinese, and crosses upon these.

Our domestic dogs and cats are, with few exceptions, of European origin.

The brown or Norway rat was an importation from the country whose name it bears, but has now been nearly destroyed by a more powerful and ferocious black rat, said to be from the south of Europe. Efforts have been made, but with no very satisfactory result, to introduce the llama of South America into our mountainous districts. The attempt to acclimate the Bactrian camel in Texas and California, gives promise of greater success.”

* CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION. The people of the United States consist of representatives of every nation in Europe, and of many in Asia and Africa. For a long time after the Revolution the characteristics impressed upon certain parts * Appleton’s Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 726. 71

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72 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the country by the original settlers remained in their full force with their descendants, but at present the rush of emigration has been so great fromn all parts of Europe, that these have been either very much weakened or entirely destroyed. The New England States were originally settled by the Puritans, and to the present day still retain many of the strongest of the peculiarities of their forefathers. The gradual but steady increase of their Irish population is working great changes, however, in these States. The city of Boston is being especially affected in this manner. New York was settled by emigrants from Holland, and though the eastern portion of the State has scarcely any traces of its origin left, the inlterior possesses still many communities, which not only retain very many of the customs and characteristics of the old settlers, but in which, until a very recent period, the Dutch language was spoken to a considerable extent by those born on the soil. Maryland was settled by Catholics, who have not yet lost their controlling influence in the State. Delaware and New Jersey were settled by the Swedes. Pennsylvania was colonized by English Quakers, who were followed by many German families. The descendants of these classes still control the State-the Quakers, as of old, living in the eastern, and the Germans in the southwestern, western, and central portions. Virginia was settled by the English, who were followed by many French Huguenots and Germans. These settled in three distinct parts of the State-the first settlers along the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, the French along the Upper James, above the falls, and the Germans in the rich valley of the Shenandoah. These distinctions were strongly preserved as late as the period of the rebellion. North Carolina was settled by nonconformists from Virginia. South Carolina, by English Churchmen and French Huguenots, who had not lost the control of the State at the time of the rebellion.

Georgia by English prisoners for debt, followed by other classes from the mother country. Louisiana was settled by the French, and was inhabited chiefly by them when purchased from the French crown. Texas and California were originally Spanish, and, to a great extent, are still so. The latter State has a strong Chinese element in it. Florida was originally Spanish, and still retains its original characteristics along the Gulf Coast. The other States and the Territories were settled by adventurers from the older portions of the country, and by emigrants from Europe, who still continue to flock to our shores in great numbers. The following tables will show the number

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72 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the country by the original settlers remained in their full force with their descendants, but at present the rush of emigration has been so great from all parts of Europe, that these have been either very much weakened or entirely destroyed. The New England States were originally settled by the Puritans, and to the present day still retain many of the strongest of the peculiarities of their forefathers. The gradual but steady increase of their Irish population is working great changes, however, in these States. The city of Boston is being especially affected in this manner. New York was settled by emigrants fromn Holland, and though the eastern portion of the State has scarcely any traces of its origin left, the interior possesses still many communities, which not only retain very many of the customs and characteristics of the old settlers, but in which, until a very recent period, the Dutch language was spoken to a considerable extent by those born on the soil. Maryland was settled by Catholics, who have not yet lost their controlling influence in the State. Delaware and New Jersey were settled by the Swedes. Pennsylvania was colonized by English Quakers, who were followed by many German families. The descendants of these classes still control the State-the Quakers, as of old, living in the eastern, and the Germans in the southwestern, western, and central portions. Virginia was settled by the English, who were followed by many French Huguenots and Germans. These settled in three distinct parts of the State-the first settlers along the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, the French along the Upper James, above the falls, and the Germans in the rich valley of the Shenandoah. These distinctions were strongly preserved as late as the period of the rebellion. North Carolina was settled by nonconformists from Virginia. South Carolina, by English Churchmen and French Huguenots, who had not lost the control of the State at the time of the rebellion.

Georgia by English prisoners for debt, followed by other classes from the mother country. Louisiana was settled by the French, and was inhabited chiefly by them when purchased from the French crown. Texas and California were originally Spanish, and, to a great extent, are still so. The latter State has a strong Chinese element in it. Florida was originally Spanish, and still retains its original characteristics along the Gulf Coast. The other States and the Territories were settled by adventurers from the older portions of the country, and by emigrants from Europe, who still continue to flock to our shores in great numbers. The following tables will show the number

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THE UNITED STATES. of arrivals of emigrants in this country for a period of fifty-one years, or from January lst, 1820, to September 30th, 1870, their national ities and destinations: Wholly or Wholly or mainly of Slavic Races. Russia…………………………………… 2,930

Poland……………………… 3,955 Hungary………………….. 488

Total Slavic…………… 7,373 Miquelon………………….. 3

Corsica…………………….. 11 Sicily………………………..

675 Total French, etc………. 377,889 Wholly or mainly of English Speeh.

England…………………… 501,316 Ireland……………………

1,406,030 Scotlan d…………………… 82,403

Wales………………………. 12,213 Other Great Britain……..1,824,078 British America…………. 271,185

Australia………………….. 246 Azores……………………..

6,636 Bermudas………………… 61 St. Helena………………… 33

Cape of Good Hope…………… 88 New Zealand……………..2 17

Sandwich Islands………… 35 Malta……………………… 127

Jamaica……………………. 85 Total English speech…4,104,553

W7Tolly or mainly French, Spanish, Portuguese an d Itat ian.

France……………………………. 245,147

Spain………………………. 23,096d Portugal……………………

4,416 Italy………………………. 23,387

Sardinia…………………… 2,103 Mexico……………………

20,039 Central America………… 1,067 Guiana……………………..

53 Venezuela………………. 40 Peru……………………….. 36

Chili……………………….. 28 Brazil……………………… 45

Buenos Ayres…………….. 7 Bolivia…………………….. 3 New Granada…………….. 2 Paraguay……………….. 1 Other South America…. 7,407 Cuba……………………….. 3,960

Hayti……………………… 81 Porto Rico………………… 50

Other West Indies……… 45,458 Cape de Verdes………….. 71

Madeira………………….. 313 Canaries…………………… 290

Wholly or mainly ofAsiatic Race.. China……………………… 10‘4610

Japan……………………… 21;; India……………………….

173 Arabia……………………… 3 Syria…………………… 4

Persia………………………. 11 Asia (general)……………. East Inidia Isladsl……….. 9 Society Islands…………… 7 Pacific Islands……………. 5 Total Asiatic…………… 109,1(‘19 Wholly or mainly of African ANz tiongs, with Turkey and Greece.

Liberia…………………….. 6 Egypt……………………… 20

Abyssinia………………….. 5 Africa (general)………….. 471

Barbary States…………… 11 Turkey……………………. 29J

Greece……………………… 195 Total, Africa, etc……….. I,t’>, Fronm countries not speci fied………………………. 205,807

Aggregate since 1820…… 7,448,9;‘5 Wholly or mainly of Germanic and Scandinavian Speech. Germany…………………… 2,250,822

Prussia…………………….. 100,983

Austria…………………….. 7,904 Sweden and -Norway…… 151,104

Denlmark………………….. 23,221 IHolland…………………….

30,905 Belgium…………………… 16,850

Switzerland………………. 61,269 Iceland……………………. 11

Total Germanic……….. 2,643,069 Total Germanic……2,643,069

Canaries……………..290 Aggregate since 1820…7,448,9w NUMBER OF

EMIGRANTS IN EACH FEAR. 1859……………….1 1 21,282

1860…………9…. 153,640 1861……………….91,920

1862……………. 91,987 1863………………. 176,282

1864…………….. 193,418 1865………………. 248,120

1866……………. 318,.554 1867………………. 298,358

1868……………… 297,215 1869………………. 38-.287 1870 (9
mos.)…. 285,422, Total………… 7,448,925 1832………..60,482

1845………114,371 1858………123 126 tal 7 448 923 AVOWED DESTINATION

OF EMIGRANTS LANDED AT CASTLE GARDEN, FROM A UGUST7 1, 1855, TO JANUARY 1, 1870, BEING 2,340,928 PASSENGERS. Colorado…………………… 170 New Mexico………………. 50 Idaho……………………… 32

Dacotah…………………… 49 Montana…………………… 33

Utah……………………….. 23,735 Wyoming…………………. 5

Total Pacific States. 47,172 Ohio………………………… 120,428

Michigan…………………. 52,20.5 Indiana……………………

29,576 Illinois……………………. 213,315

Wisconsin………………… 121,660 Minnesota…………………

29,360 Iowa………………………. 44,286

Missouri…………………… 44,309 Ka n sas……………………..

5,052 Nebraska……………… 4,198 Total Northwest. States. 664,389

Eastern State s. Maine……………………… 4,013 New Hampshire…………. 2,859 Vermont…………………… 4,405

Massachusetts……………. 111,129 Rbode Island…………….. 21,430

Connecticut………………. 39,169 Total Eastern States…. 183,005

Central States. New Jersey……………………..63,109

Pennsylvania…………….. 224,880 Maryland…………..18,033

Delaware………………2,l011 District ef Columbia……‘r. 9,129 Total Central States..- 317,162 Virginia……………… 8,235 West Virginia…………….. 172 North Carolina…………… 784 Sotul th Carolina…………….. 1,854 Ge orgia……………………. 1,623

Florida……………………… 199 Alabama…………………… 577

Total Southeast. States. 13,444 73 1820…………….

1821……………. 1822……………. 1823…………….

1824……………. 1825……………. 1826…………….

1827……………. 1828……………. 1829…………….

1830……………. 1831……………. 1832…………… 8,385 9,130

6,911 6,354 7,912 10,199 10,837 18,875 27,382 22,520 23,322 22,633 60,482

1833…………… 1834…………… 1835……………

1836…………… 1837…………… 1838……………

1839…………… 1840…………… 1841……………

1842…………… 1843…………… 1844……………

1845…………… 58,640 65,365 45,374 76,242 79,340 38,914 68,072

84,006 80,289 104,56.5 52,496 78,615 114,371 1846……………

1847…………… 1848…………… 1849 1850 1851…………..

………….. 1852…………… 1853…………… 18,55 18,5r.

1857……….. 1858 154,416 234,968 226,527 297,041 369,963 379,466

371,603 368,645 427,833 200,877 200,436 251,306 123,126 New York and undecided.. 972,267 Northwe,stem States. Southeastern States. Pacift,c States and Tffritories. Nevada……………… 80

California…………..::::::: 22,823 Oregon…….. - 189 W-shingt,)n 6

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THE UNITED STATES. product of the other States ranged from 9000 to 60,000,000 bushels. The first was the yield of Nevada, the smallest of all. Wheat. This grain ranks next to Indian Corn in importance, and when the climate and soil are adapted to its growth, is preferred by the American farmer to all others. Considerable care is exercised in its culture, and the greatest ingenuity has been displayed in the effort to improve the means of cultivation, and with best results. The wheat region of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, is situated between the 30th and 50thl parallels of North latitude. On the Pacific coast, however, it extends several degrees farthler north. As a general rule the wheat of America, especially that of the great wheat producing States of the Atlantic coast, is superior to any other in the world. At the London Exhibition, wheat from Genesee County, New Yorkl, woi the prize medal from the Royal Commissioners. The total yield of wheat for 1870 amounted to 287,745,626 bushels. The product of the principal wheat producing States was as follows: Illinois, 30,128,405 bushels; Wisconsin, 25,616,344
bushels; Iowa, 29,435,692 bushels; Indiana, 27,747,222 bushels; Ohio, 27,882,159 bushels; California, 16,676,702 bushels; and Pennsylvania, 19,672,967 bushels. Rye is raised in all the States, but principally in the Eastern and Middle States. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey produce more than half the quantity raised in the whole country. There is a decided increase in the Western States, and in Maryland and Delaware. In the New England States it has decreased. Tile total product for 1870 was 16,918,795 bushels. Pennsylvania raised‘3,577,641 bushels; New York, 2,478,125 bushels; New Jersey, 566,775 bushels; and Wisconsin, 1,325,294
bushels. Barley is grown in the Atlantic States, between the 30thl and 50th degrees of North latitude, and on the Pacific coast between the 20th and 62nd degrees of North latitude. The two-rowed barley is principally cultivated because of the fulness of its grain, and its exemption from smut. It yields from 30 to 50 bushels to the acre, and will average about 50 pounds to the bushel. Very little of it is exported, as nearly the whole crop is used at home for the manufacture of beer, ale, etc. The demand for it is increasing. The crop of 1870 amounted to 29,761,305
bushels, or more than five times the amount produced in 1850. The States yielded as follows: California, 8,783,490 bushels; New York, 7,434,621
bushels; Ohio, 1,715,221 bushels; and Wisconsin, 1,645,019 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Florida, 12 bushels. 75

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76 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Buckwheat is raised principally in the New England and Middle States. The average yield is from 30 to 45 bushels to the acre, though in some good soils it has yielded as much as 60
bushels. The crop of 1870 amounted to 9,821,721 bushels. Pennsylvania produced 2,532,173 bushels; New York, 3,904,030 bushels; and Ohio, 180,341
bushels. Oats. This grain constitutes one of the most important crops of the country, and flourishes in sections where the heat or cold is too great for wheat or rye. It is grown principally in the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 282,107,157 bushels. New York produced 35,293,625 bushels; Pennsylvania, 34,702,006 bushels; Ohio, 25,347,549 bushels; Illinois, 42,780,851 bushels; Wisconsin 20,180,016
bushels; and Iowa, 21,005,142 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Louisiana, 17,782 bushels. Peas and Beans were largely cultivated by the Indians before the settlement of the country by the whites. At present they are grown as a field crop, principally in the Eastern, Middle, and Southern States. The yield averages from 25 to 40 bushels per acre, weighing about 64 pounds per bushel. The crop of 1870 amounted to 5,746,027 bushels. Mississippi produced 176,417 bushels; Georgia, 410,020
bushels; North Carolina, 532,749 bushels; South Carolina, 460,378 bushels; and New York, 1,152,541 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Nevada, 414 bushels. Rice was. first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, in 1647 into the Carolinas in 1694; and into Louisiana in 1718.

It is confined chiefly to a few of the extreme Southern States, where the climate is favorable to it, and the supply of water plentiful. The yield is usually from 20 to 60 bushels to the acre, weighing from 45 to 48
pounds to the bushel, when cleaned. The yield for 1870 was 73,635,021
pounds. South Carolina produced 32,304,825 pounds; Georgia, 22,277,380
pounds; Louisiana, 15,854,012 pounds; North Carolina, 2,059,281 pounds; Mississippi, 374,627 pounds; and Alabama, 222,945 pounds. It has been grown in Illinois, California, Missouri, Kentucky, New York, and Virginia, though of an inferior quality. Potatoes. The Irish or White Potato ranks next to wheat and corn in the industry of the Republic. The yield depends upon the soil and climate, and the manner of cultivation, and varies from 50 to 400 bushels, the average being less than 200 bushels to the acre. It

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THE UNITED STATES. suffers frequently from the “rot.” The crop of 1870
amounted to 143,337,473 bushels. New York produced 28,547,593 bushels; Pennsylvania, 12,889,367 bushels; Ohio, 11,192,814 bushels; and Illinois, 10,994,790 bushels; Indiana, 5,399,044 bushels; Massachusetts, 3,025,446
bushels; Michigan, 10,318,799 bushels; New Hampshire, 4,515,419 bushels; New Jersey, 4,705,439 bushels; Vermont, 5,157,428 bushels; and Wisconsin, 6,646,129 bushels. Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato is a native of the East Indies, and was introduced into th& Colonits soon after the settlement of Virginia. It is now extensively cultivated in the Southern and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 21,709,824 bushels.

Georgia produced 2,621,562 bushels; North Carolina, 3,071,840 bushels; Alabama, 1,871,360 bushels; Mississippi, 1,743,432 bushels; and South Carolina, 1,205,683 bushels. Louisiana, New Jersey, Tennessee, and Texas each produced over a million of bushels. Hay. The production of hay is confined principally to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, comparatively little being raised in the Southern States. The product of 1870 amounted to 27,316,048 tons. New York produced 5,614,205 tons; Pennsylvania, 2,848,219 tons; Illinois, 2,747,339 tons; and Ohio, 2,289,565 tons. Hops. The hop crop for 1870 amounted to 25,456,669 pounds, and of this the State of New York produced 17,558,681 pounds, or more than onehalf of the entire amount produced in the United States. Tobacco is indigenous to Central America, and was cultivated in various parts of the Continent before the discovery by Europeans. Columbus, in 1492, was offered a cigar by an Indian Chief on the Island of Cuba. In 1585, Sir Richard Greenville found it and saw it smoked in Virginia; and in 1616, it was extensively cultivated by the Colonists in that province. It is cultivated to a greater or less extent in nearly all the States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 262,735,341 pounds. Virginia produced 37,086,364
pounds; Kentucky, 105,305,869 pounds; Tennessee, 21,465,452 pounds; Maryland, 15,785,339 pounds; North Carolina, 11,150,087 pounds; Ohio, 18,741,973 pounds; Missouri, 12,320,483 pounds; and Connecticut, Indiana, and Massachusetts each produced more than 7,000,000 pounds. The rebellion almost destroyed the cultivation of tobacco in the Southern States, and it has not yet been fully resumed. Sugar and Molasses. The sugarcane is said to have been introduced into Florida, Louisiana, and Texas at the period of their first 77

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78 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. WESTERN HOMESTEAD. settlement by the French and Spaniards. It does not thrive beyond the 33d degree of North latitude, or the 35th of South latitude. A very small quantity (283 hhds.

in 1860) was raised in the warnmest section of Wisconsin. The crop of 1870
amounted to 87,043 hogsheads of one thousand pounds each, of which Louisiana produced 80,706 hhds. In the same year the amount of cane molasses manufactured was 6,593,323 gallons. Louisiana produced 4,585,150
gallons. About the year 1858, a hardier species called the Sorghum, or Chinese sugarcane, adapted to the climate of nearly all the States, was introduced. It has since been extensively cultivated, and is used exclusively for the manufacture of molasses, as it will not produce sugar.

In 1870, while it was yet new to our people, the yield of Sorghum molasses was 16,050,089 gallons. In the same year, 28,443,645 pounds of maple sugar were produced in the United States, and 921,057 gallons of maple molasses.

Of maple sugar, New York produced 6,692,040 pounds; Vermont, 8,894,302
pounds; Ohio, 3,469,128 pounds; and Indiana, New Hampshire, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, each over a million. Of

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THE UNITED STATES. maple molasses, Ohio produced 352,612 gallons; and Indiana, 227,880 gallons. Butter and Cheese. The total product of butter for 1870 was 514,092,683 pounds. Of this amount, New York produced 107,147,526 pounds; Pennsylvania, 60,834,644 pounds; Ohio, 50,266,372
pounds; Illinois, 36,083,405 pounds; Illdiana, 22,915,385 pounds; and Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Vermont and Wisconsin, each produced more than 20,000,000 pounds. The amount of cheese produced in the same year was 53,492,153 pounds. New York produced 22,769,964 pounds, and Ohio, 8,169,486 pounds. Wine. The culture of the vine has not yet attained the importance which the future holds out to it, and the returns of 1870
afford but all indifferent test of the wine producing capacity of the United States. The yield in 1870 was 3,092,330 gallons, a gain of 1,132,322 gallons over the vintage of 1860. Of this, the State of Ohio produced 212,912 gallons; California, 1,814,656 gallons; New York, 82,607
gallons; North Carolina, 62,348 gallons; Illinois, 111,882 gallons; Connecticut, 27,414 gallons; and Virginia, 26,283 gallons. The vine is cultivated in nearly all the States, but the great grape regions of the country are the Lower Ohio Valley, and the Valleys of the Pacific coast.

Cotton. At the outbreak of the Rebellion, American Cotton controlled the markets of the world, as regards both the quantity and the quality furnished; but the war, by stopping the production of cotton, by disorganizing the system of labor, and by injuring the plantations in various ways, struck a blow at this branch of our industry, which will damage it for many years to come. In some States where free labor has been organized under control of the old planters, happy results have been attained, with the brightest prospects for the future. Cotton is grown principally in the extreme Southern States. In Virginia and North Carolina it is becoming less important every year. The yield for 1860 amounted to 5,198,077 bales, of 400 pounds each. This amount was distributed as follows: Bales. Mississippi,………………….1,195,699

Alabama,…………………………….997,978 Lou isiana,………………. 722,218

Georgia,…………………………….. 701,840 Texas,…………….

405,100 Arkansas,…………….367,485 79

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80 OUR COUNTRY Bale& ~. 353,413 .. 227,450 .. 145,X154 .. 63,322 *. 12,727

.. 4,092 .. 1,133 .. 100 .. 6 .. 5,198,077 South Carolina, Tennessee,..

North Carolina, Florida,… Virginia,.. Kentucky,. - New Mexico,.

Missouri,.. Illinois,… ………* ………. ……….

Tennesee………………………27,45 North~~~~~~

Carlia………………..4515 . ……. The yield for the year ending September 1st, 1870, was 3,011,996 bales, including 90,000 bales manufactured in the South, but counted in the following statement of the production of each State. Bales. ……………….564,938

……………….350,832 ……………….429,482

…………………39,789 ……………. 473,934 ………………

350,628 ……………….224,500 ………………. 144,935

…………………..183 ……………….432,958 Mississippi……..

Louisiana,……… Alabama,…….. Florida………. Georgia……….

Texas,………. South Carolina,……. North Carolina,……..

Virginia,……… Tennessee, Arkansas, etc..,. Wool is grown in all the States to a greater or less extent. The yield for 1870 was 100,102,387
pounds, of which Ohio produced 20,539,643 pounds; New York, 10,599,225
pounds; Michigan, 8,726,145 pounds; California, 11,391,743 pounds; and Illinois, and Indiana, each over 5,000,000 pounds; and Maine, New Hampshire, Tennessee and Texas, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Flax and Hemp.

Flax is a native of Great Britain, and hemp of India. The second was formerly cultivated in this country to a greater extent than at present, having been to some degree superseded by the Southern cotton. In 1870 the yield of flax was 7,133,034 poundsmore than twice the amount grown in 1850. New York produced the largest amount, 3,670,818 pounds. In the same year 1,730,444 bushels of flaxseed were produced, of which Ohio grew 631,894 bushels. Of hemp, 92,746 tons were grown in 1870. Kentucky produced 7,777 tonls; and Missouri 12,816 tons. S&lk. Silk.is said to be a native of Asia. Its production was introduced into the colony of Virginia in 1622, into Louisiana in AND ITS RESOURCES. Total,..

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THE UNITED STATES. 1718, into Georgia in 1732, and into Connecticut in 1760. The total product of silk cocoons in 1870 was 3937 pounds, or 2625
pounds less than the yield of 1860. California produced 3587 pounds.

Orchard Products. The value of the orchard crop of 1870 amounted to $47,335,189. It was distributed amongst the leading States as follows: New York, $8,347,417; Ohio, $5,843,679; Pennsylvania, $4,208,094; Indiana, $2,858,086; Illinois, $3,571,789. Market Garden Productions. These, in 1870, amounted to $20,719,229, distributed among the principal States as follows: New York, $3,432,354; New Jersey, $2,978,250; Pennsylvania, $1,810,016: Massachusetts, $1,980,231; California, $1,059,779. Clover and Grass Seed. The yield of clover seed for 1870 was 639,657 bushels.

Pennsylvaniia produced 200,679 bushels; Ohio, 102,355 bushels;and New York, 98,837 bushels. The yield of grass-seed for the same year was 583,188 bushels, of which Illinois produced 153,464 bushels; and New Jersey, 72,401 bushels. Beeswax and Honey. In 1870, 631,129 pounds of beeswax were produced in the United States. North Carolina produced 109,054 pounds; and New York 86,333 pounds. In the same year, 14,702,815
pounds of honey were produced. Illinois yielded 1,547,878 pounds; North Carolina, 1,404,040 pounds; and Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Value of HomeMade MIanufactures. The total value of homemade manufactures in the United States, in 1870, amounted to $23,433,332. Tennessee produced $2,773,820 of this, and Missouri, 1,737,606. The Value of Slaughtered Animals, in 1870, was $398,956,376.

Illinois returned $56,786,944 of this amount, and Ohio, $40,498,375. Cash Value of Farms. In 1870, the cash value of farming lands in the United States amounted to $9,262,803,861. Of this amount, New York possessed $1,272,857,766; and Ohio, $1,054,465,226. In the same year the farming implements and machinery in the Union were valued at $336,878,429. Those of New York were valued at $45,997,712, and those of Pennsylvania at $35,658,196. 81

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82 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MANUFACTURES. The three great staple manufactures of the United States are cottons, woollens, and iron. These are manufactured ill twentyfive of the States, but principally in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and New York. The cotton manufactures of the United States rank next to those of Great Britain. The woollen manufactures are of a more recent date than either of the others, but are growing in importance. In 1870, there were 252,148 establishments in the Union engaged in manufactures and the mechanic arts. The capital invested in them amounted to $2,118,208,769.

They consumed $2,488,427,242 worth of raw material, and employed 2,053,996
hands, of which 1,615,598 were males, and 323,770 females above sixteen years. The annual cost of the labor employed by them was $775,584,343, and the annual value of their products amounted to $4,232,325,442. The cotton manufactures of the United States, in 1870, employed a capital of $140,706,291, in operating 956 establishments. They consumed $117,737,686
worth of raw material. They paid annually $39,044,132 for labor, employed 118,920 hands, of whom 45,315 were males, and 75,605 females. They received annually for their products the sum of $115,237,926. The woollen manufactures in the same year employed a capital of $35,520,527, in operating 1909 establishments. They employed 48,900 hands, of whom 28,780
were males, and 20,120 were females. They consumed $40,461,300 worth of raw material; paid $10,937,877 for labor; and received $68,865,963 for their products. The iron manufactures, including pig, cast, and wrought iron, employed, in 1870, a capital of $207,448,028, and 140,841 hands.

They consumed $212,010,601 worth of raw material in the manufacture of pig iron, castings, bar iron, forged iron, etc., and received for their products the sum of $346,952,694. The other more important manufactures amounted in value, during the year 1870, to the following sums: Leather…………………………… $157,480,697 Sawed and Planed Lumber……..252,032,229 Flour……………………………..

444,985,143 Salt……………………………… 4,890,629 Malt Liquors………… 55,706,643 Spirituous and Vinous Liquors……

38,416,371 In the year 1870 the product of fisheries was valued at $11,096,522. Leather…… Sawed and Planed Lumer……

Flour…………… Salt Malt Liquors……. Spirituous and Vinous Liquors…..

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THE UNITED STATES. COMMERCE. From the report of the Secretary of the Treasury for 1875 we find the tonnage of vessels of the United States to be 4,853,732 tons, an increase of 53,080 tons over that of the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874, exclusive of the canalboat tonnage, amounting to about 48,000 tons, exempt from enrolment and license by the act of April 18, 1874. The actual increase is believed to be about 141,878 tons, this amount being the excess of gains over losses during the year; but this aggregate has been reduced to 53,080 tons (the increase first above mentioned) by omitting the tonnage of the exempted canalboats, and by corrections of tonnage returns, about 40,000 tons. The following table exhibits the total tonnage for the last two years: 1874. 1875. Vessels..

Tons. V’essels. Tons. Registered…. 2,728 1,428,923 2,981 1,553,828

Enrolled and licensed 29,758 3,371,729 29,304 3,299,904 Total… 32,486

4,800,652 32,285 4,853,732 The tonnage of vessels built, as given by the Register, is 297,639, being a decrease from that of the preceding year of 135,086 tons, or over 31 per centumn. The number of vessels built was 1301. The comparative value of the exports and imports of the United States for the last fiscal year, in coin, appears from official returns to the Bureau of Statistics to be as follows: Exports of domestic goods……

$499,284,100 00 Exports of foreign goods……. 14,158,611 00 Total exports………. 513,442.711 00 Imports of goods………. 533,005,436 00

Excess of imports over exports…. 19,562,725 00 For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874, the excess of exports over imports was $18,876,698. Exports of specie and bullion………$92,132,142 00 Imports of specie and bullion….. 20,900,717 00 Excess of exports over imports…. 71,231,425

00 Total excess of exports of goods, specie and bullion, over imports of same.. $51,668.,700 00 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. For many years after the States were settled by the whites, the thoroughfares were in such a wretched condition that they could scarcely be called roads at all. It was not until some years after the war for independence that a prbper degree of attention was paid to them. Then 6 83

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84 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 0 YIEW ON HUDSON RIVER-StIOWING THE

STEAMIBOAT, TELEGRIAPH, AND RAILROAD. it was held to be the duty of the General Government to provide the great routes of travel leading to the remote parts of the country, while the States themselves ought to look after their local highways. The first great public work -constructed in America was the turnpike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, which was coinpleted near the close of the last century, and was for a long time the great highway across the Alleghany Mountains. This was followed by the National Road, from Washington city to St. Louis, constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps, at the expense of the General Government, and by the road from Bangor to Hamilton, Maine, also built )by the Government. The National Road, one of the best of its kind in the world, was carried successfully over the mountains, across the Ohio, via Wheeling and Cincinnati, and completed as far as the State of Illinois; but the rapid growth of railroads has rendered it so comparatively useless that it will hardly be completed to St. Louis. Several other fine roads were constructed by the General Government i vl arious parts of the country.

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THE UNITED STATES. At the same time that these turnpikes were engaging the attention of the country, the States were urgently entreated to inaugurate a system of canals, which should provide cheaper and more abundant transportation between the distant parts of the Union. Washington exerted his influence to secure the speedy completion of canals from the head of tide water on the James and Potomac Rivers, to the Ohio. He appreciated the great advantages which would have been derived fiom the prompt completion of these works, and was eager to secure them for the State of Virginia. His plans are remarkable for their wisdom and their deep insight into the future, and had they been carried out would, beyond all doubt, have made Norfolk, Virginia, the largest and most important city in America. Pennsylvania and Maryland also began at an early day to lay out extensive canal systems, but, thanks to the genius and energy of De Witt Clinton, the State of New York was the first to reach the West with her Erie and Hudson Canal, and thus sectured for her great metropolis the immense advantages which have never forsaken it. This canal was opened in 1824. In the West, Ohio and Indiana were the first to construct such works. Since 1850, however, the railroads of the country have rendered the further coInstruction of canals unnecessary. In 1870 there were about 5000
miles of canal navigation in tile United States. The last, in point of date of construction, but the first in importance, of the public works of the United States, were the railroads. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the transportation of granite, from the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett River, in Massachusetts, constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk Railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh River, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were mere local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of more importance were now obtained in Mav sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina, whose example was rapidly followed by the other States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and in 1829 on the South Carolina Railroad-at present two of the finest works in the country. It was not until about the year 1850, however, that our railroad system began to attain anything like its present importance.

The fol. lowing table will show the increase in this branch of our industry bince 1838: 85

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86 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Number of miles in 1838 - ” ” ” 1842 ” “

” i’ 1844 “..i’. “‘i1846 ” “.”.i’.1848 ” ” i;“1850 ” ” ” “18l52 id ” ” “

1854 ” ‘ ”1856 ” “ “ “185S “ ” ” “1860 ”’ ” ” ”’ 1865 ” “….’ 1869

1……….21,843 ….. 2,167 ………… 4,863 14…………4,285

14…………6,491 ……… 8,827 5…………12,841 ……….. 19,195

186…..23,724 5………… 27,158 6……….. 31,185

6…………35,935 6…………42,245 1875, was about 63,000. There is a continuous railway connection firom Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, on the Gulf coast, and San Francisco on the Pacific coast. All the prominent cities and towns of the Union are connected by ii,eans of railways, and the most distant parts of the country are )brought within a few days’

travel of each other. The electro-magnetic telegraph was invented by Professor Morse, about the year 1840, and in 1844 he erected between Washington andi Baltimore, a distance of forty miles, the first line ever established i the United States or in the world. This line was extended nortlhward, ill 1845, through Philadelphia and New York, as far as Boston.

The telegraph wires of the United States nowv form a network over the Republic, and would make a continuous line of more than 60,000 miles. This includes the overland line between the Missouri River and San Francisco, California, and Portland, Oregon. The Americain wires are also connected with those of Europe by means of the Atlantic cables, between New Found]and and Ireland, and France. It is proposed to construct another line from Portland, Oregon, along the west coast of North America to the northern part of Alaska, from which a cable is to be laid, via Kamtchatka, to the mouth of the Amoor River, in Asia, to connect with a line through Asia to St. Petersburg, in Russia. EDUCATION. The first settlers of the States, with a wise foresight, were prompt to provide for the education of their descendants. Almost their first act was to found a system of common schools, upon which the estab, lishments of the present day are modelled.

They also made provision for securing the means of instruction in the higher and nobler branches of learning. William and Mary College, in Virginia, Harvard Col The number of miles in operation in

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___ mm ifi ______ ~\ (((( Y ___ I M fl~ S VIEWING THE PACIFIC

RAILROAD.

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SIOUX INDIANS BURNING A PRISONER. / 1 2,7’X

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THE UNITED STATES. lege, in Massachusetts, Yale College, in Connecticut, and Columbia College, in New York, (or King’s College, as it was formerly called,) were founded within a very short period after the settlement of the Colonies. “The general system of education in the United States may be arranged under three heads, as follows: 1. Elementary or Primary Education, taught in the public schools; 2. Academic or Secondary Education, pursued in academies, high schools, private seminaries, etc.; and 3. Collegiate or Superior Education, acquired in such institutions as embrace a course of study usually made the condition of granting the degree of Bachelor of Arts. In addition to the above, the Hon. HIenry Barnard extends the classification as follows: ” 4. Professional or Special Education. a. Theology. b. Law. c. Miedicinlle. d. Engineering. e.

Agricul ture, f. Mechanics. g. Conmmerce. hi. Teaching. i. Fine Arts. j.

Deaf-mnutes. k. Blind. 1. Idiots. “‘5. Supplementary Education. a. Evening Schools. b. Lyceums. c. Courses of Lectures. d. Li braries of Circulation.

e. Libraries of Reference. f. Adult Schlools. g. Mechanic Societies. ” 6.

Reformatory Schools. ” 7. Orphan Houses. “8. Societies for the encouragement and advancement of science, the arts, and education. “The general system of public instruction In the United States originated with the pilgrim fathers of New England; where, as early as 1628, provision was made for the education of’every child’ in the settlements. In 1637, a school was ordered to be provided for every neighborhood of 50 families, and another for a higher grade of instruction for every 100 families. A sum sufficient to maintain these schools was annually raised by a town tax, voluntarily imposed, and each school district drew its proportion of the whole sum for its own school or schools. Thu. the) roperty of the town was made liable for the education of the children. “The same system, with various modifications, has gradually extended itself to most of the States in the Union, and in part has I)eell acted upon by the General Government.

Chancellor Kent says:‘It has been uniformly a part of the land system of the United States to provide for public schools. The Articles of Confederation, 1787, the Acts admitting into the Union, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Louisiana, Florida, Arkansas etc., all provide for the appropriation of 89

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90 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lands in each township for the use of public schools.’ The amount of lands thus appropriated by the Federal Government, up to January 1st, 1854, is exhibited in the subjoined table: - States. Acres. States anid Territories. Acres.

Florida……………908,530 Missouri…. 1,199,139 Alabama…….. 902, 774 I owa………905,144 M1 ississippi…. 837,584 Wisconsin… 958,648
ilopisiana…. 786,044 California. 6,719,324 Arkansas……… 886,460

Minnesota… 5,089,224 (Ohio……………704,488

Oregon……………12,140,907 Mlic!.igan…… 1,067,397 New Mexico….

7,493,120 Indiana……. )50,317 Utahl…… 6,681,707 Illinois……..

978,755 Total….. 48,909,535 “The table given on the following page shows the number of public .schools, academies, and colleges, with their incomes and the number of pupils in attendance, and also the number of libraries and volumes, o f:the several States, as derived from the Census of 1860.

“Maine has one pupil at school to every 3‘2 of the whole population; being a greater proportion than in any other State or country. In the whole United States the proportion at school is 1 to 4.9, not including slaves, or 1 to 5.7, including slaves, either of which is greater than in any other country in the world except Denmark, where the proportion is 1 to 4‘6. “A greatly increased interest in the subject of popular education has been manifested within the last few years; especially in the Northern and Western States Public sentiment has demanded a higher standard of qualification in the teachers; and, as a consequence, normal schools, expressly designed for their instruction and training, have been established in several States; besides which, teachers meet regularly in convention, to interchange views upon the best methods of teaching; thus opening a larger field of comparison) and stimulating through emulation to far greater efforts for improvement. These conventions, we believe, are now held in every free State in the Union, and in some States they assemble twice annually in each county; the sessions generally continuing a week. The classification of schools is also undergoing a thorough revision. Union schools, or what is termed the’graded system,’ which comprises high, gramnmar, * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1994.

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THE UNITED STATES. intermediate, and primary schools, are being established in all-the principal cities, towns, and villages. By placing the classes in the intermediate and primary schools, in charge of competent female in structors, school committees are enabled to secure the services of male teachers of the highest qualifications for the more advanced pupils, without increasing the aggregate cost of tuition.

TABLE-Exhibiting the Schiools and Libraries of the United States, for 1870. JUNO 1, 1870. LIBRARIES’ VOLUM-S. SCHOOLS. TEACHERS. PUPILS. STATES

& TERRITORIES. Alabama…………………………

Arizona………………………….

Arkansas…………………………

California………………………..

Coloradlo…………………………. Connec
ticut…………………….. Dakota……………………………

lDelaware………………………… D)istrict of Columbia………….

Florida………………………….

Georgia…………………………..

Ilaho……………………………..

Illinois………………………. Indial2a………………………..

Iow……………………………….

Kansas…………………………..

Kentucky…………………………

Louisiana……………………….. Maine………………………..

49.24 Mar yland…………………………

Massachusetts……………………

‘lichigan……………………….

Miiinesota………………………..

Mississippi………………………

Missouri…………………………..

Montana……………………….7

Nebraska…………………………

Nevada…………………………… New Hampshire………………..

New Jersey……………………… New exico……………………..

New York……………………….. North Carolina…………………

Ohio………………………………

Oregon………………………….. Pennsylvania…………………..

9 9 Rhlode Island……………………. South C
olina………………….. Tennessee…………………………

Texas…………………………….

Utah………………………………

Aerlmniot………………………..

Virginia………………………….,

Washington……………………… West Virginia…………………..

Wisconsin………………………..

Wyoming………………………..3 INCOM,E. $ 976,,151 6,000 681.962

2,946 308 87,915 1,856,279 9,284 212,712 811,2i2 154,569 1.253,299 19.938

9.970,009 2,499,511 3,570,093 787.:v26 2,5,38,429 1,199,684 1,106,203

1,998 215 4 817,939 2 550,018 1,011,769 780 339 4,340 805 41,170 207.560

110,493 574,898 2,98’,250 29.886 15,936,783 635,892 10,244,641 248,022

9,628,119 565.012 577,953 1,650 692 414,880 150.447 707.292 1,155,585

48,302 698 06[ 2,600.310 8,376 $95,402,726 TorAL……………….141,629

221,042 7,209,938 $95,402,726 164,815 45,528,938 Of late years efforts have been made, with success, to introduce into this country the system of education known as the Kindergarten. The system is becoming more and more popular every year, as its good results become more apparent. In 1873
there were about fifty Kindergarten in successful operation in the United States, and at present the number is believed to be much larger. The great obstacle in the way of the growth of the system is the difficulty of obtaining properly trained teachers. A Normal Kindergarten is in operation in Boston, and E meeting with sucee. I el 2,969 1 1,978 1,548 142 1,917 35

375 313 377 1,880 25 11,835 9,073 7.496 1 689 51149 592 4,723 1,779 5,72C, 5,595 2,479 1,564 6,750 54 796 53 2,542 1,893 44 13,02(,) 2,161 11-952 637

14,872 561 750 2,794 548 267 3,084 2 024 170 2,445 4,943 9 3,364 7 2 297

2,444 188 2,926 52 510 573 482 2,432 33 24,056 11.652 91319 1,955 6,346

1,902 6,986 3;287 7 561 9,559 2,886 1,728 9,028 65 &G 84 3.3.55 3.889 72

28,918 2 692 243,589 876 19,522 951 1,103 3,587 706 408 5.160 2,697 197 2

838 ,:955 15 75,866 132 81,526 85,507 5,033 98,62t 1,2m 19,575 19,5w 14,670 66.150 1,208 767,775 464,477 217,654 59,882 245,139 (iO,171 162,636

107,384 269 337 266,67 107,266 43,451 370,337 1.745 17,614 2,373 64 667

129,800 1,798 862 022 64,958 790,795 32,59.3 811,863 32,596 38,249 125,831

2’.3, 0 i,6 21,067 62,913 60,019 5,499 104,949 344,014 305 1,430 6 1,181

1,617 175 63 19 473 696 253 1,735 43 13 570 5,301 3,540 574 5,546 2,332

3,334 3,.‘3’,3 3,169 26,763 1,412 2,788 5,645 141 390 314 1.526 2,413 116

20,9-;9 1,746 17,790 2,361 14,849 759 1,663 3,505 455 133 1,792 4,171 102

1,728, 2,883 31 57t3,882 2,000 13,5,564 474,299 39,344 9.726 183,423

793,702 112 928 4(;7,232 10,625 3,323,914. 1,125,554 673,600 1.909,230

847,406, 984,510 1,713, 3,017,813 2,174 744 36f),810 488,482 1,065,63&

19,790 147,040 1518,040 704,269 895,291 39,4‘15 61310,362 541,916

3,687,363 334,959 6,377,845 693U7 546,244 802,111 87,111 39,177 727,28,’

1,107.313 3*62 372,745 905,811 2,603 45,528,938

TOTAL………………………. 141,629 221,042 7,209,938 164,815

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92 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “The effect of the system upon the physical and mental development,” says Professor Hailman, of Louisville, “is more than satisfactory. The children grow strong, vigorous, and energetic; they attain full and conscious control of their muscles; become nimble and skilful; the glow of health upon their cheeks, the fire of energy in their eyes, elasticity and decision in their movements.

Mentally, they become so far the superiors of children who have not enjoyed Kindergarten culture that, for the first four years, at least, in the elementary school, they accomplish fully twice as much…. This is due not only to their greater physical vigor and to the knowledge and skill imparted by the Kindergarten, but more particularly to the habits of attention, concentration, industry and free obedience which they owe to Frobel’s system.” “All the reports received from teachers who have taken pupils from the Kindergarten,” says the United States Commissioner of Education, “mention the superiority of these children over others in their capacity for learning, owing to the careful cultivation of all their capabilities, particularly their observing faculties. They show great quickness of mental perception, and advance rapidly in the studies they undertake. The foundations of mathematical science are so well laid in the occupations and lessons of the Kiiidergarten, that geometry will not be to them the dry, unmeaning study it is to most, but beomes an old, familiar friend when met with in the text book.” Hon. William T. Harris, Superintendent of Public Schools in St. Louis, says of the public Kindergarten in that city: “The results during the short time this Kindergarten has been in operation have been so satisfactory, that the public school teachers desire nothing more heartily than to see the Kindergarten idea prevail in all the primary schools. The testimony of all who have a practical knowledge of the Kindergarteu method is unanimous, that as a means to an end, nothing can be better, and that it will be found a matter of economy to make it a part of the public school system.”

THE PRESS. The press of the United States has kept pace with the wonderful growth of the country. In 1870, the number of newspapers and periodicals published in the States and Territories of the Union was as follows: eDai-is..574 Weelies………. 4295 Quarterlies…………49
semiWeeklies….U115 Monthlies…………. 6~2 Tri- \Veeklies…….107

Bi-Monthlies……… 13 Total…….5775 These were divided as follows: Political…….4333 Rleligious……. 407 Literary and Miscellaneous…503

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THE UNITED STATES. Their circulation was as follows: Dailies,………..

SemiWeeklies……. TriWeeklies,……. Weeklies,……….

Monthlies,……….. Bi-IMolthlies,…… Quarterlies,…….. Taking the aggregate annual circulation (the above statements representing the aggregate number of copies printed at each stated issue of the journals), we find that the whole number of copies of newspapers and periodicals printed annually in this country, in 1870, was 1,508,548,250. POST

OFFICES. According, to the statistics of the Post Office Department of the United States for the year ending June 30th, 1863, there were 29,047 post offices in the States and Territories of the Union. The aggregate length of mail routes was 139,598 miles. The annual expenditures of the Department were $11,314,206, and the receipts $11,163,789, leaving a deficit of $150,417. The receipts for the year ending June 30th, 1865, were $14,556,158, and the expenditures $13,694,728, leaving a surplus of $861,430. The number of postage stamps issued during the latter year was 387,419,455, which yielded the sum of $12,099,787. The number of stamped envelopes sold, 25,040,425, which yielded $724,135. The foreign postage for the same year reached the sum of $1,819,928. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

The Constitution of the United States forbids the establishment of any State religion, and places all religious sects upon a footing of equality by leaving every citizen of the Republic “free to worslli) God after the dictates of his own conscience.” All churches altl( ministers, therefore, derive their incomes from the voluntary contributions of their own congregations. I The principal religious sects, and their respective strength, in the year 1870, are shown by the following table: U.S.

Census, 1870. 93 2,601,547 247,197 155,105 19,594,643 .5,650,843 31,650

211,670 ……. ……. ……. ……. ……. I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCE& RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS, ACC.ORDING -TO0

T’HE cENSUS OF 1870. DENOMI NAT.I ONS Property. $ 30,229,221 2,3:78,977

6,425,137 25,1)69;6f98 36,514,549 2.301,650 3,939,560) 5,155;234

14,917,747 69,854,121 135,650 71)9,100 656,750 869.700 47,,828,732

5,436,524 10,3’i59,235 5,775,215 60,985,566 306,240 86,900 100,150

6,282,675 ],819,810 . 5,692,325 687,800 965,295 $354,483,581 Sittings.

3,997,11 6 363.019 865,602 1,117,212 991,051 193,7-96 224,66f4 7:..,26;5

977,332 6,528,209 6,935 25,700 87,838 18,755 2,198,900 499,344 227,228

431,700 1,990,514 34,555 8,850 6,970) 155,471 265,02.5 210,884 11,925

153,202 BI,itist (Regilair)…………………………………..

1B:tltist (other)……………………………………….

Chiiistian………………………………………… (Co,,, regationa l…………………………………….. Episcopal (Protestant)……………………………… Ev.,, i,, elical Assi,ciation…………………………….. In zids~~~~~~~~~~……………………….6 2 62 2464,995 TFri, ds…………………………………………………1 ~i’

wish……………………………………………….. i t hl er.

rn……………………………………………… M., ihodist……………………………………………..

MiscellLneous………………………………… 65 15 M.,i’avias (

(/uiitsss F”tint)……………………..77

M’,inon………………………………………………. N w Jerusalema (-Swedenhorgi.-n)………………….. I’ sbytei-i’n (Regular)……………………………… Presbyteritin (,,ther)……………………………….. R,t ormed Church in Anerica(lsate DutchReform’d) Reformed Church in the U. S. (late Germni.

Reform’d) Romnan Catholic……………………………………..

Second Advent………………………………………

SitiLker…………………………………1 18 85…

Sp)iritualist……………………………………………

Unitari.in……………………………………………… Uniited Brethren in Christ…………………………..

tUniversalist………………………………………..9 Uliknown (Local Missions)………………………… IUiknown (Union)…………………………………… ALL

DENOMINATIONS…………………..72,459 63,082 21,665,062 $354,483,581

CITIES. The largest city in the United States is the city of New York, which, in 1860, had a population of 813,669, and in 1870 a population of 942,337, according to the census of that year; though there can be but little doubt that the actual population exceeds 1,000,000. The following table shows the population of the principal cities of the Union according to the last three censuses: CITIES3. 1870. I80 15. CTES 8 80 80

CITIES..1870.J Philadelphia, Penn… 674,022 Brooklyn, N.

Y……..:396,300 St. Louis, Mo……… 310,864 Chicago, Ill…….2…98,977 Baltimore, Ma……267,354 Boston, Mass………1250,526 Cincinnat’.,,dio,…..216,239 New 9reaans, Ls…..191.322 &Sn Jt.ciscc,‘ai…1 149,482 I I I I O”g..i..I tih.., 14,474 1,355 3,578 2,887 21835 815 692 189 3,032 25,278 27 72 189 90 6,262

1,562 - 4l 1,256 4,127 225 18 95 . 331 1,445 719 26 409 Edifi… 12,857 .

1,105 2.822, 2,715 21601 641 1662 152 2,776 21,337 17 67 171 61 5,683

1,388 468 1,145 3,806 140 1 8 22 310 937 602 27 552 ALL

DENOMINATIONS…………………………..I. 72,459 63,082 1,665,062

1870. 117,115 1.09,204 105,059 100,754 92,846 86,235 82’ 547 79,580 71,499

1860. 81,129 6 l, 1 2,2 71,941 68,033 43,41.7 49,217 29,226 45,619 45,246

.1860. 565,529 266,661212,418’ 109,260 212,418 177,841 161,044 168,675

56,802 1850. 08,762 96,838 77,860 29,963 169,054 136,881 115,436 116,375

34.870 CITIES. Buffalo, N. Y……….. Washington, D. C Newark, N.

J………. Louisville, Ky……… Cleveland, Ohio……. Pittsbilrg, Pa……….. Jersey City, N. i Detroit, Mich………. Milwaukee, Wis……. 1850. 42,261 .40 001 38,894 43,194 117.,034 46,601 6,856 21,019

20,061

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THE UNITED STATES. CITIES. 1870. 1860. 1850. CITIES. 1870. 160.. 1850.

Albany, N. Y……. 69,422 62,367 50,763 Bangor, Me…………. 20,500

Providence, R. I 68,906 50,666 41,513 Lancaster, Pa………. 20.233

17,603 12,369 Rochester, N.Y……. 62,315 48,204 36,403 Savannah, Ga……… 28,235………… Alleghany City, Pa… 53,181 28,702……

Poughkeepsie, N.Y.. 20,080………… Richmond, Va……… 51,038 37,910

27,570 Camden, N. J………. 20,045………… New Haven, Conn….

50,840 39,267 20,345 Davenport, Iowa…..20,042 11,267 Charleston, S.

C……. 48,956 40,522 42,985 St. Paul, Minn……… 20.,031 10,401……

Troy, N. Y………….. 46,465 39,235 28,785 Erie, Pa……………..

19,646…………. Syracuse, N.Y……… 43,058 28,1‘19 22,271 Wheeling, W. Va…… 19,282 Worcester, Mass…… 41,105 24,960 17,049 Norfolk, Va………. 19,256 14,620 1ii,32‘6 Lowell, Miss……….. 40,928 36,827

33,: 83 Taunton, Mass……… 18,629 15,376…… Memphis, Tenn……

40,226 22,623 8,839 Chelsea, Ma.s…….. 18,547 13,395…… Cambridge, Mass…… 39,634 26,060 15,215 Dubuque, Iowa…….. 18,404……

H.artford, Conn…… 37,180 29,12 13,555 Leavenworth, an.. 17,849

7,429…… Indianapolis; Ind….. 48,244 18,611 8,.034 Fort Wayne, Ind…… 17,‘18……1 I., Scranton, Pa……….. 35,093 9,223

Springfield, Ill……… 17,365………. Reading, Pa………… 33,932

23,162 Auburn, N.Y…….17,225 Columbus, Ohio……. 31,274 18.554 17,882

Newburgh, N. Y…… 17,014………… Patterson, N.J…….. 33,‘582

19,586 11,334 Atlanta, Ga…………. 16,986…… Kansis City, Mo……

32,260…… Norwich, Conn…….. 16,653 14,048….. Dayton, Ohio……….. 30,473 20, 081 10,977 Sacramento, Cal……. 16,484 13,785

Mobile, Ala……..32,184 29,258 20,515 Oznnha, Neb…………

16.083…… Portl:ind, Me……….. 31.414 26,341 20,815 Elmira, N.

Y…….15,863 Wilmington, Del….. 30,841 21,258 13,979 Lockport, N.Y

15,458…… Lawrence, Mass……. 28,921 17,639 8,282 Gloucester, Mass……. 15,387 10,904…… Utica, N. Y………….

28,804………… Cohoes, N. Y……… 15,357……. Toledo, Ohio…….. 31,584 13,768 3,829 New Brunswick, N. J. 15,059……

Charlestown, Mass.. 28,323 25,065 17,216 New Albany, Ind….. 15,396

12,647 9,895 Lynn, Mas…………. 28,233 19,083 14,257 Galveston, Tex, s…… 13.818 7,307 Fall River, Mass…… 26,786 14,026 11,524

Newburyport, Mass.., 12,595 13,401 9,572 Springfield, Mass….. 26,703

15,1.99 11,766 Alexandria, Va…….. 13,570………..I Nashville, Tenn……. 25,865 16,988 10,165 Wilmington, N. C….. 13,446 Covington, Ky……. 24,505. Newport, R. I…… 1.2,521 10,50‘8 Salem, Mass………… 24,117 22,252…… Little Rock, Ark…… 12,380……

Quincy, Ills…………. 24,053…… 20,264 Concord, N.H………

12,241………… Manchester, N. H….. 23,536 20,1071…… Des Moines, Iowa….. 12,035…… Harrisburg, Pa…….. 23,109 13,405. Waterbury, Conn….. 10,826 10,004…… Trenton, N. J………. 22,874. 7,83‘4

Nashua, N. H.. 10,543 10,065…… Peoria, Ill…………… 22.849

14,045 Raleigh, N. C………. 10,149…… Evansville, Ind……22,830

11,484 3,2.35 New London, Conn… 9,.576 10,115…… New Bedford, Mass…

21,320 22,300 16,443 Portland, Oreg……… 8,293 2,874…… Oswego, N.

Y………. 20,910 16,816 12,205 Virginia City, Nev… 7,008…………

Elizabeth, N. J…….. 20,838………….. Topeka, Kan………..

5,790………… GOVERNMENT. The Government of the United States is a Confederation of the various States, each and all of which have delegated a certain share of their powers to a General Government for their mutual benefit and protection. Tlhis General Government is controlled by a written Constitution, which has been ratified by each State, and has thus been made the supreme law of the land. By the terms of this Constitution, all powers not granted by it to the General Government are reserved to the several States and to the people thereof, but in the exercise of the powers delegated by the Constitution, the General Government is independent of and supreme over all the States. The Government of the Republic is divided into three coordinate branches-the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. 6 95

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96 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Executive branch consists of a President and VicePresident, elected for four years by electors chosen by the popular vote in each State. The number of electors chosen in each State is equal to the number of Senators and Representatives from that State at the time of the election. Thus a State having four Representatives in the lower House of Congress, and two Senators in the upper House, is entitled to six electors in an election for President. It is usual for the electors to cast their votes in accordance with the will of the majority of the l)()ople of the State, as expressed by the popular vote, but it seems certain thait it was the original design of the Constitut’oil that the electors upon being chosen by the people shoald be free to elect a President of their own choice. A majority of the whole number of electoral votes is necessary to a choice. If no person be chosen, then the names of the three persons receiving the highest number of votes shall be presented to the House of Representatives, which shall proceed to vote by States (each State having but one vote, and a majority of States being necessary to a choice) for President, or VicePresident, as the case may be. In the event of a failure, by both the electors and the House of Representatives, to elect a President before the 4th of March, next following, then the VicePresident shall act as President. In case the electors fail to choose a VicePresident, the Senate of the United States shall proceed to choose a VicePresident from the two highest numbers on the list, a majority of the whole number being necessary to an election. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Coinmander-inichIiief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment; he makes treaties, with the concurrence of twothirds of the Senate, nominates the members of his cabinet, foreign ministers, and other officers of the Unite(l States, which nomination must be confirmed by the Senate before the official can enter upon his office, and, by the terms of the Constitution, may, at his pleasure, remove any officer of the Government subject to his nomination.

He may be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors, and be removed, if convicted. The articlesof impeach ment must be presented by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, sitting as a high court and presided over by the Chief Justice of the United States. In the event of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, the VicePresident succeeds to his office, and the President pro tempore of the Senate becomes the acting Vice

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THE UNITED STATES. President of the United States. It is the duty of the President to execute, or cause to be executed, the laws of the United States as prescribed by Congress. The VicePresident is ex-oficio President of the Senate, and in case of the death or disability of the President, as explained above, becomes President of the United States.

Should he die, resign, or be removed from his office, the President pro tempore of the Senate becomes the President of the United States. In the event of the disability of all three of the officials named above, the Speaker of the House of Representatives becomes the President of the United States. The President pro tempore of the Senate is usually chosen near the close of each session with a view to the contingency we have mentioned. The Speaker of the House of Representatives is elected at the beginning of each Congress-that is, every two years. The Legislative branch consists of a Senate and House of Representatives, which constitute the Congress of the United States. The Senate is composed of two members from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, so that one-third of the whole number of Senators shall retire at the end of every second year. A Senator must be at least thirty years of age, and must have been nine years a citizen of the United States. The Senate has power to ratify or reject all treaties between the United States and Foreign Powers, and to confirm or reject nominations to office under the Government submitted to it by the President of the United States. The House of Representatives is composed of Representatives chosen by the people of the States once every two years. A Representative must be at least 25 years of age, have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the State from which he is chosen.

Representatives are apportioned among the States according to the number of inhabitants, excluding idiots and Indians not taxed. The ratio is changed with the increase of population. The number of Representatives is limited by law to 241, besides delegates from each Territory. Each State, whatever its population, must have at least one Representative. Delegates from the Territories are allowed seats on the floor of the House, and are permitted to participate in the debates, but have no votes. All bills for raising revenue and for taxation must originate in the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the States of the Union in their sovereign capacity (each State being made equal in that body by having two votes), and the House of Representatives the people. . 97

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98 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress has power to levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, an(l excises, to provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States, but is required to make all such impositions uniform throughout the United States. It has power to borrow money on the credit of the United States, to make laws for the regulation of the foreign and inter-State trade of the Union, and to regulate the traffic with the Indian tribes; to make all laws respecting the subjects of naturalization and bankruptcies; to regulate the coinage and value of money, to fix the value of foreign money, and to adjust the standard of weights and measures; to provide for the punishment of persons counterfeiting, the money or securities of the United States; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to regulate the granting of copyrights and patents; to regulate the courts of the United States, inferior to the Supreme Court; to define and punish piracies and offences committed on the high seas; to declare war, conclude peace, and regulate all -matters appertaining thereto; to raise an army and navy, and provide for their support; to call forth the militia when their services are needed, and provide laws for their government while in the service of the United States; and to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over all forts, arsenals, and other property of the United States, and over the District of Columbia, in which the seat of government is located. A bill must receive a majority of the votes necessary to form’ a quorum in each house, and receive the signature of the President of the United States before it can become a law. Should the President object to a bill, or a part of its provisions, he must send it, with his objections in writing, to the house in which it originated, when that house must proceed to reconsider it, and if twothirds of each house sustain the bill, in spite of his objections, it becomes a law without the approval of the President. If the President does not return a’ bill in ten days, Sabbaths excluded, it becomes a law without his approval, provided Congress is still in session at the expiration of the ten days; but if Congress shall adjourn before the ten days have ex-‘ pired, the President may defeat the bill by keeping it over until after the adjournment. This is usually termed a “pocket veto.” The Judiciary branch of the Government consists of one Supreme Court, 9

Circuit Courts, and 47 District Courts. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal in the Union, and consists of one Chief Justice and 8

Associate Justices, who are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and re-‘ tain their offices during good behavior. The Supreme Court holds 0

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THE UNITED STATES. one session annually, commencing the first Monday in December. A Circuit Court is held twice a year in each State by a judge of the Supreme Court and the District Judge of the State or district ii which the court is held. The District Courts are held by special judges, usually one for each district. The United States or Federal Courts have jurisdiction in all cases of law and equity arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made under their authority; in all cases concerning foreign ministers and agents; in all cases of marine jurisdiction; in all cases in which the United States is a party; in all cases between States, or between a State and a citizen of another State, or between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under the grants of another State, and between a State and citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

Each District Court of the United States is provided with a prosecuting attorney and a marshal. The States are sovereign in themselves, and as regards their own affairs. The Government of each one is similar to that of the United States, consisting of an Executive or Governor, a Legislature, composed of two houses, all elected by the people, and a judiciary. Each State is independent of all the others, and subject only to the Constitution of the United States. Each is required to accord full faith and credit to the transactions of the others, provided they are not contrary to the supreme law of the land. The States may not enter into any combinations with each other not provided for by the Constitution, nor keep troops in time of peace, nor make war nor conclude peace. A State may not impose any restrictions upon the trade between the States, or levy or collect imposts of any kind upon any but its own citizens. The Territories are the common property of the United States, and are governed by Legislatures elected by their own inhabitants, and by Governors appointed by the President of the United States. A Territory having a number of inhabitants sufficient to entitle it to one representative in Congress, may be admitted into the Union as a State. It must first adopt a State Constitution, which must be ratified by the people of the Territory at the polls, and stibmitted to Congress for its approval. If approved by Congress, the President shall issue his proclamation declaring the Territory duly admitted as a State, and the new State shall ratify the Constitution of the Unitel States. Titles of nobility, acts of attainder, and ex-post facto laws are for 99 :.1

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES bidden by the Constitution of the United States, and by the States. No criminal can be sheltered by the authorities of a State or Territory in which he may take refuge, from the authorities of the State or Territory in which his offence was committed. Citizenship of a State confers all such privileges in the several States. Trial by jury is secured for all offences. No preference shall be shown to any religion by the Government, but equal rights an(1 privileges are secured to all sects. The privacy of the house of a citizen is secured against unlawful violation by search, seizure, or by quartering a soldier upon him in time of peace. Excessive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual punishments are forbidden, and no one may be tried twice for a capital offence. THiE ARMY. The military establishment of the United States, as reorganized by the Act of July 28th, 1866, consists of 10 regiments, or 120 companies, of cavalry, 5 regiments, or 60 companies, of artillery, and 45 regiments, or 450 companies, of infantry, making an effective force (should the maximum strength of all the regiments be attained) of 76,000
men, divided as follows: artillery 7000, cavalry 14,000, infantry 55,000.

At present the effective strength of companies has been fixed as follows: for infantry, cavalry, and artillery (heavy), 64 privates, and for light artillery 122 privates; making an aggregate strength of 54,302 men.

Besides this force, the militia of the States, which in many of them is well organized and effective, may be called into service by the General Government in case of emergency. The promptness with which such appeals have always been responded to by the States, shows that the real available force of the Republic is more than 1,000,000 men, the majority of whom are at present veteran soldiers. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Commander-in-Chief of the army, but it is usual for him to relinquish the active management of its affairs to the War Department and to the General of the Army, who is its immiediate Commander-in-Chief, an(l has his headquarters in WVashlington City. The other officers of the regular establishment are: One lieutenant-general; 5 major-generals; 10
brigadier-generals; 1 chief of staff to the general, brigadier-general; 1
adjutant-general, brigadier-general; 1 judge-advocate-general, brigadier-gene ral; 1 quartermaster-general, brigadier-general; 1
commissarygeneral, brigadier-general; 1 surgeon-general, brigadier-general; 100 * I

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THE UNITED STATES. I paymaster-general, brigadier-general; 1 chief of engineers, brigadier-general; 1 chief of ordnance, brigadier-general; 87
colonels; 99 lieutenlant-colonels; 327 majors; 835 captains; 857 1st lieuten. ants; 583 2d lieutenants; 6 chaplains. A considerable force is required at all times on the western frontier to protect the settlers against the attacks of the Indians. The remainder of the army is employed in garrisoning and protecting the forts arsenals, and other public property of the Republic. THE NAVY. The naval establishment of the United States consists of 206 vessels, carrying 1743 guns. Of these, 35 are first-rates, carrying 662 guns. Each vessel is of at least 2400 tons; the second-rates, of from 1200 to 2400 tons, are 37 in number, and carry 483
guns; the thirdrates, of from 600 to 1200 tons, number 76 vessels, and carry 414 guns; the fourth-rates, under 600 tons, are 38 in number, and carry 184 guns. Of the above force, 52 are iron-clads, carrying 129 guns; 95 are screw steamers, carrying 938 guns; 28 are paddle-wheel steamers, carrying 199 guns; and 31 are sailing vessels, carrying 477 guns. The active list of the service is as follows: One admiral, I vice-admiral, 10
rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 49 captains, 89 commanders, 139
lieutenantcommanders, 45 lieutenants, 30 masters, 52 ensigns, 157
midshipmen, 67 surgeons, 37 passed assistant-surgeons, 36
assistant-surgeons, 79 paymasters, 56 passed assistant-paymasters, 52
chief-engineers, 90 first assistant-engineers, 137 second assistant-engineers, 24 third assistatit-engineers, 19 chaplains, 11
professors, 7 naval constructors, 5 assistant naval constructors, 52
boatswains, 57 gunners, 39 carpenters, 31 sailmakers. In the Naval Academy, there are 348 midshipmen undergoing instruction, 16 third assistant-engineers, and 1 cadet engineer. The retired list is as follows: Eighteen rear-admirals, 60 commodores, 31 captains, 17 commanders, 3
lieutenantcommanders, 6 masters, 1 midshipman, 24 surgeons, 3 passed assistant-surgeons, 3 assistant-surgeons, 14 paymasters, 14
assistant-engineers, 8 chaplains, 2 professors, 6 boatswains, 6 gunners 6
carpenters, 5 sailmakers. 101 7 I

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102 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FINANCES. The financial condition of the United States is thus stated by the Secretary of the Treasury in his report for 1875: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1875. Receipts. The moneys received and covered into the Treasury by warrants during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1875, were as follows: From
customs……………………………………………………$157,167,722

35 From internal revenue…………………………………………..

110,007,493 58 From sales of public
lands…………………………………….. 1,413,640 17 From tax on circulation and deposits of national banks…… 7,268,379 16 From repayment of interest by Pacific Railway companies.. 882,274 91 From customs’ fines, penalties, etc……………………………. 228,870

23 From labor, drayage, storage, etc……………………………..

1,112,500 53 From sales of Indian trust
lands…………………………….. 243,671 66 From fees-econsular, letters patent and land………………… 1,818,884 29 From proceeds of sales of Government property……………. 1,278,693 87 From marine hospital tax……………………………………… 338,893 78 From steamboat fees……………………………………………. 260,944

75 From profits on coinage, etc……………………………………

452,657 40 From tax on seal
skins…………………………………………. 317,494 75 From miscellaneous sources……………………………………. 1,228,649

98 Total ordinary receipts……………………………………

284,020,771 41 Premium on sales of
coin……………………………………… 3,979,279 69 Total net receipts, exclusive of loans……………………. 288,000,051 10

Balance in treasury, June 30, 1874, including deposits of coin and United States notes represented by certificates
outstanding……………………………………………………

150,731,694 63 Total available
cash………………………………………………. 438,731,745 73

Exxpenditures. The net expenditures by warrants during the same period were: For civil
expenses……………………………………………… $17,346,929

53 For foreign intercourse…………………………………………

1,265,418 23 For Indians………………………………………….

8,384,656 82 For
pensions……………………………………………………..

29,456,216 22 For military establishment, including fortifications, river and harbor improvements and arsenals……………………. 41,120,645

98 For naval establishment, including vessels, and machinery and improvements at navy yards………………………….. 21,497,626 28

For miscellaneous civil, including public buildings, light houses, and collecting the revenues……………………….. 50,528,536 22 For interest on the public debt, including interest on bonds issued to Pacific Railway companies……………………… 103,093,544 57 For payment of award to British claimants………………… 1,929,819 00 Total net expenditures……………………………………. 274,623,392 85

Redemption of public debt…………………………………….

19,405,936 48 Totalsnet
disbursements…………………………………… 294,029,329 33

Balance in treasury, June 30, 1875……………………………

144,702,416 41

Total…………………………………………………………..

438,731,745 74

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THE UNITED STATES. This statement shows that the net revenues for the fiscal year
were……………………………………………………..

$288,000,051 10 And the ordinary expenses (including the award to British claimants, $1,929,819)……………………………………..

274,623,392 84 Leaving a surplus revenue, exclusive of provision for the sinking fund………………………………………….. 13,376,658

26 REDUCTION OF THE PUBLIC DEBT. By the monthly statement of the public debt issued June 30, 1875, the re duction of the debt during the year was shown to be $14,399,514 84, viz.: Principal of the debt, July 1, 1874……………………….. $2,251,690,468 43 Interest due and unpaid, and accrued interest to date…… 38,939,087 47 Total debt……………………………………………….. 2,290,629,555

90 Cash in treasury…………………………………… 147,541,314

74 Debt, less cash in treasury………………………….

2,143,088,241 16 Principal of the debt July

1,1875………………………… 2,232,284,531 95 Interest due and unpaid, and accrued interest to date…. 38,647,556 19 Total debt……………………………………………….. 2,270,932,088

14 Cash in treasury……………………………………..

142,243,361 82 Debt, less cash in the treasury……………………..

2,128,688,726 32 Showing a reduction, as above stated, of………………… $14,399,514 84 The number of National Banks organized from the authorization of the system to November 1, 1875, is 2307, of which 2087 were doing business on the 1st of October last. From their reports of the date last named it appears that the aggregate capital of these banks was $504,829,769: surplus, $134,356,076; circulation outstanding, $318,350,379; individual deposits, $664,579,619 loans, $980,222,951; specie, including coin certificates, $8,050,329; legal tender notes, including United States certificates of deposit, $125,268,734; and on deposit with the United States Treasurer, $19,686,960. HISTORY. There is reason to believe that the savages who were found in America by the first European settlers were not the original inhabitants of the Continent, but that they were preceded at a very remote period by another and a more powerful race, unknown and long enx tinct, but which has left vague evidence of its existence in the curious mounds and earthworks which are to be seen in various parts of the Mississippi Valley. At the time of its discovery by the whites, however, the red men were the sole human occupants of the Continent, which was covered with vast woods and plains abounding with game of every description, the pursuit of which formed the principal occuoation of the natives, and furnished them with. food and clothing. 103

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Indians were really one people in physical appearance, manners, customs, religion, and in the observances of their social and political systems, but were divided into numerous tribes, each of which had a dialect distinct from that of the others. The tribes were for the most part bitterly hostile to, and constantly engaged in war with each other. They are generally divided into eight nations, speakling eight radically distinct languages. These were: I. The Algonquins, who inhabited the territory now comprised in the six New England States, the eastern part of New York and Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina as far south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and nearly all of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. This nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Knistenaux, Ottawas, Chippewas, Saces and Foxes, Menomonees, Miamis, Piankeshaws, Potawatomies, Kickapoos, Illinois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nanticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mohegans, Narragansets, Pequots, and Abenakis. II.‘The Iroquois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontarto, Erie, and Huron, the greater part of New York, and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania. This territory, it will be seen, was completely surrounded by the domains of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas,-, nd Mohawks. These five were afterwvards called by the English the Five Nations. In 1722, they admitted the Tuscaroras into ilheir confederation, and were afterwards called the Six Nations. The nation called itself collectively the Konoskioni, or “Cabin-builders.” The Algonquins termed them Mingoes, the French, Iroquois, and the English, Mohawks, or Mingoes. IrI. The Catawbas, who dwelt along the banks of the Yadkin and Catawba Rivers, near the line which at present separates the States of North and South Carolina. rv. The Cheriokees, whose lands were bhanded on the east by the Broad River of the Carolinas, including all of Northern Georgia. V, The Uchees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Savannah, the Oconee, and the headwaters of the Ogeechee and Chattahoochee. They spoke a harsh and singular language, and are believed to have beenthe remnant of a once powerful nation. VL The Mobilian Nation, who inhabited all of Georgia and South 104

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TNT)A.’\ VITLTAC,,E IN WINTFR.. 4

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and all of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Their territory was next in extent to that of the Algonquins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. The nation was divided into three great confederations-the Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws-and was subdivided into a number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confederation. VII. The Natchez, who dwelt in a small territory east of the Mississippi, and along the banks of the Pearl River. They were surrounded on all sides by the tribes of the Mobilian language, yet remained until their extinction a separate nation, speaking a distinct language peculiar to themselves, and worshipping the sun as their god.

They are believed to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America. VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose territory was bounded on the north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas River, on the east by the Mississippi, and on the west by the Rocky Mountains. The nation was divided into the following branches: the Winnebagoes, living between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi; the Assiniboins, living in the extreme north; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkansas and the Platte; and the Minatarees, Maildans, and Crows, who lived west of the Assiniboins. The great plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific coast were held by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apachees, Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flatheads, and California Indians.

These were the inhabitants and possessors of the country at the time of its first settlement. In the year 1492, Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in Italy, sailing uinder the orders of the King and Queen of Spain, discovered the West Indies; and thus proved beyond all doubt the existence of a new world. There is a Scandinavian tradition that a Norwegian named Leif, in the year 1002, on his voyage from Iceland to Greenland, was driven southward by storms, to a country which was unknown to Europeans, and which he called Vinland, because of the wild grapes with which he found it covered. It is also said that his discovery was followed by several Scandinavian settlements, tone of which. proved permanent. It is supposed by some writers 106

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THE UNITED STATES. that the country alluded to as Vinland, in this tradition, was the State of Rhode Island; but as the legend rests upon no solid foundation, the credit of having been the first to discover the New World must be accorded to Columbus. On the 24th of June, 1497, John Cabot, a Venitian, commanding a ship belonging to Henry VII. of England, discovered land, along which he sailed to the southward for over 1000
miles, making frequent landings, and taking possession of the country in the name of the English King. The next year his son, Sebastian Cabot, left Bristol, England, with two ships, to seek a northwest passage to China.

Hie was stopped by the ice, however, and turned about and sailed southward down the American coast as far as the capes of Virginia-the entrance to Chesapeake Bay. In 1513, Ponce de Leon, acting under the authority of the King of Spain, discovered Florida, and took possession of the country near the present site of the town of St. Augustine. A short while after, he returned and attempted to establish a colony. He was attacked and killed, and his followers driven away by the natives. In the latter part of the year 1523, John Verazzani, a native of Florence, was sent by Francis I., of France, to explore the New World. He was fifty days in crossing the ocean, being vexed by terrible storms all the way, and made land off the mouth of the Cape Fear River, near the present city of Wilmington, North Carolina. He sailed southward for 150 miles, in search of a convenient harbor, but, failing to find one, passed up the coast as far north as Nova Scotia. He visited New York and Newport harbors, as they are now called, both of which are accurately described in the account of his voyage. In 1539, Hernando de Soto landed with several hundred men, in Tampa Bay, Florida, and marched across the continent, defeating the natives on his way, and discovered the Mississippi River, near the site of the present city of Helena, Arkansas. He passed through the region now comprising the States of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and penetrated 200
miles west of the great river. Two years after his landing in Florida, he wandered back to the Mississippi, where he died, and was buried at midnight in the stream. His followers, disheartened by his death, descended the river in boats to its mouth, and, crossing the Gulf, sought refuge in the Spanish settlements in Mexico, where they told marvellous stories of the country they had seen. For several years there was no further effort made to colonize the New World. In 1562, a band of French Calvinists, or Huguenots, 107

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. acting upon the advice of Admiral Coligni, endeavored to found a colony here, for the purpose of establishing a refuge for French Pro testants, who should be driven out of their own country by the perse cutions of the Roman Catholics. A charter was granted by Charles IX. of France, and an expedition sent out., under Jean Ribault, vwhich made a settlement at Port Royal, in a country vwhlich was called Carolina, in honor of the French King. This settlement was soon abandoned, however, and another established on the banks of the St. John’s River, in Florida. In 1565, Spain renewed her efforts to colonize Florida. An expedition was sent out in that year, which destroyed the French settlement on the St. Johln’s River, and mas sacred the inhabitants.

Hlaving removed their rivals, the Spaniards then proceeded to found the town of St. Augustine, whichl is the oldest and first permanent European settlement in the present territory of the Union. The English paid little or no attention to the discoveries of the Cabots for nearly a century.

Then, alarmed by the efforts which France and Spain were making to secure a footing in the New WVorld, England began the task of colonizing her distant lands upon a larger scale than had been attempted by either of her rivals, and was not slow to assert the claimn which the discoveries of the Cabots had given her, and which, indeed, she had never relinquished. The first colony was sent out in 1585, in the reign of Elizabeth, under Sir Walter Raleigh, and was established onil Roanoke Island, in the present State of North Carolina, a site which Raleigh had discovered during the previous year, and where he had been hospitably entertained by the natives. The whole country was called Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen of England. The colony did not prosper, however, and in a fewv years it was utterly gone. In 1606, James I. divided the English possessions in America into two parts North Virginia, extending from the mouth of the Hudson River to Newfoundland, and South Virginia, extetnding from the Potomac to Cape Fear. Two companies were formed in England for colonizing these regions, the London Company, which received from the king the grant of South Virginia, and the Plymouth Company, to which the king gave North Virginia. These companies agreed to colonize their respective grants with due promptness, and to regard the territory lying between the Potomac and the Hlludson as neutral ground, upon which both companies were free to make settlements at pleasure The London Company went to work at once, and sent over an expel 108

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TIHE UNITED STATES. THE RUINS OF JAMESTOWN: THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISHI SETTLE ]IENT IN AMERICA. dition commanded by Captain Newport, which made a lodgement on the north shore of the James River, in the present State of Virginia, on the 13th of May, 1607. They called their settlement Jamestown, and the river on which it was located, the James, in honor of their sovereign. The command of this expedition was vested in Captain Newport, but the life and soul of the whole undertaking was the celebrated Captain John Smith, to whom alone is due the credit of carrying the colony firmly through the dangers and trials which surrounded its infancy, and planting it upon a permanent basis. He explored the Chesapeake and’I its tributaries, of which he made maps and sketches which are noted to-day for their accuracy. These voyages of discovery were made in an open boat, the crew of which he could not always depend upon. They were full of romantic adventure. In one of them he was captured and condemned to death by the Indians, but was rescued by Pocahontas, the daughter of king Powhatan.

Captain Smith made 10;9

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. several voyages between England and America, and in 1614 explored and made excellent drawings of the coast from Cape Cod to the Penobscot. To this part of the country he gave the name of New England, by which it has since been known. He won the friendship of the Indians for the whites in Virginia, and by his maps and descriptions did more in England than was done by any other man to arouse that enthusiasm which finally led to the successful planting of the whole Atlantic coast of America with English settlements. The government of the Colony of Virginia was at first vested in a council appointed by the king, but this arrangement was found to work so badly that a change was made, which was followed by several others, until at length a House of Burgesses, chosen by the people, was established. This Assembly, which was the first representative body that ever sat in America, met on the 19th of June, 1619. This event, so important in our history, was followed by two of equal moment, one in August, of the same year, when a Dutch man-of-war entered the James River and sold a cargo of 20 Africans to the planters of Virginia, thus introducing negro slavery into the Colonies; and another in 1621, when the cultivation of cotton was begun in Virginia. The Plymouth Company made extensive preparations on paper for the settlement of their immense territory. Their charter gave them absolute property in and authority over the vast region lying between the Atlantic and Pacific, and bounded by the 40th and 48th parallels of North latitude, and they prepared to make very hard bargains with those who wished to buy lands of them. The first settlement in their domain, however, was made without their consent or authority, by a band of Puritans, under the leadership of John Carver, WTilliam Brewster, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, and Miles Standish. This colony sailed from England on the 6th of September, 1620, in a vessel of 180 tons burthen, called the Mayflower, and landed on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, on the 21st of December of the same year.

They numbered 100 men, women, and children, and at once proceeded to found a settlement, which they named Plymouth, in honor of the last English port from which they had sailed, and where they had been kindly treated. They had no charter from the king, or sanction from the Plymouth Company, but conducted their enterprise upon their own responsibility, looking to God for assistance and protection. While still on their voyage, they arranged the form of their government They organized it upon a basis of religion as well as 110

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THiE UNITED STATES. PLYMOUTH ROCK. of civil justice. Their religious system is well described by Robert. son, who says: “They united together in a religious society, by a solemn covenant with God, and with one another, and ill strict conformity, as they imagined, to the rules of Scripture. They elected a Pastor, an Elder, and a Teacher, whom they set apart by the imposition of the hands of the brethren. All who were that day admitted members of the church, signified their assent to a confession of faith drawn up by their Teacher, and gave an account of their own hopes as Christians; and jt was declared that no person should hereafter be 111

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. received into comnmunion until he gave satisfaction to the church with respect to his faith and sanctity. The form of public worship which they instituted was wvithout a liturgy, disencumbered of every superfluous ceremony, and reduced to the lowest standard of Calvinistic simplicity.” Their civil system was thoroughly republican. The governor was chosen by the people, and his acts were sub)ject to the approval of a council consisting at first of 5 and afterwards of 7 assistants. In the beginning the legislative power was vested in the whole people, but as the colony expanded g legislature elected by the people was established. In 1629, the colony received a charter fromn Charles I. of England. It prospered from the first, and its success brought over other arrivals from England. In 1628, a settlement was made by a band of Puritans from England, under John Endicott, at Salem, on Massachusetts Bay, whichl general namne was given to the new colony. In 1630, a fleet with 840 new settlers, under John Winthrop, arrived from Englan(ld, and in September of that year founded the city of Boston, which they namled in honor of the village in Eng,land from which tile Rev. John Cotton, their pastor, came. *I New settlers now came over by scores, the number of inhabitants increased rapidly, and in 1690 the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were.united under one government. In 1623, Sir Fernando Gorges and John MIason took out a patent for a territory called Taconia, lying between the Atlantic and the St.

Lawrence, and the Merrimack and the Kennebec. In the same year they settled the cities of Portsmouth and Dover, in New Hampshire. A French colony had been planted in Maine in 1613, but had been broken up by an expedition from Virginia, and the first permanent settlements in Maine were made by the English at Saco and on Monliegan Island, in 1622 or 1623.

These settlements some years later became a part of the territory of Massachusetts, and were retained by her until the formation of the State of Maine in 1820. In 1635, a company of emigrants from Massachusetts, under the pious Hooker, settled the region now comprised in the State of Connecticut, by founding the towns of Hartford and Wethersfield. The Dutch had built a trading post and fort at Hartford in 1633, and a few huts at Wethersfield in 1634, and claimed the territory in consequence of this, but their claim was not regarded by the English. * It is not a little curious that the Puritan Fathers should have given their metropolis the name of a famous Roman Catholic Saint. 112

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THE UNITED STATES. THE FIRST SETTLEMENT OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. In 1636, Roger Williams, who had been exiled from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, founded the colony of Rhode Island, by settling the town of Providence, which is now the capital of the State. New York was settled by the Dutch, but the State was first entered by a French navigator named Samuel Champlain, who discovered the lake to which he has given his name, in July, 1609, and fought a battle on its shores with a band of Mohawks. HIe inflicted a severe defeat upon them, and from that time the Six Nations were the bitter 113

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and lasting enemies of the French. On the 6th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, sailing under the orders of the Dutch Eas.t India Company, entered the Bay of New York, discovered the great river which bears his name, and ascended it to within a few miles of the present city of Albany. He took possession of the country for the Government of Holland, by which it was named New Netherlands. A few years later trading posts and forts were established on Manhattan Island (New York City), at the mouth of the Hudson, and at Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, thirty families settled on Manhattan Island, and called their settlement New Amsterdam, and in the same year eighteen families came over to Fort Orange. From this time the Dutch settlements grew rapidly. They extended along the Hudson, as far eastward as Connecticut, and as far southward as the Delaware. The Swedes, who had settled the latter river, and had villages along both banks of the Delaware, almost as far up as the present city of Philadelphia, resisted the Dutch encroachments, but were finally driven awayin 1655 bya military expedition of the latter. The English, who claimed the whole country by right of Cabot’s discovery, finding that all diplomatic efforts to induce the Dutch to abandon their American settlements were vain, terminated the controversy by taking forcible possession of the province of New Netherlands in 1664. They changed the names of the province and the principal settlement, New Amsterdam, to New York, and that of Fort Orange to Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterwards James II., of England), to whom Charles II. had granted the territory. That portion of New Jersey lying along the Hudson was settled by the Dutch about the same time that the colony of New Amsterdam began to attract emigrants from Holland. The Swedes settled the southwest portion along the Delaware, in 1627. It fell into the hands of the English when New York was seized by them, and at the same time acquired the name which it bears at present.

Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley purchased the territory from the Duke of York, and made it a distinct colony, naming it New Jersey, after the island of Jersey, of which Sir George had been governor. Delaware was settled by the Dutch in 1630. They established their settlement near Lewes. In 1633, it was entirely destroyed by the Indians. In 1637, a company of Swedes and Finns made a settlement on the island of Tinicum, a few miles below Philadelphia. Several other settlements were formed, and the country was called New Sweden. The Dutch, after protesting against this occupation of 114

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THE UNITED STATES. THE FIRST SETTLERS OF AMERICA CLEARING THE LAND. the territory by the Swedes, made war upon them, and in 1655 re duced the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe all the colonists who refused to swear allegiance to Hiolland. The Delaware settlements were held by the Dutch until the final conquest of New Netherlands by the English. The title to the Delaware lands was disputed by Lord Baltimore, but was held by the Duke of York. who sold it to William Penn. Penn’s rights were sustained by the English authorities, and the three counties of Delaware remained a part of Pennsylvania until 1703, when they were allowed the liberty 115

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of forming a separate establishment. Until 1776, however, the same governor administered the affairs of Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1681, William Penn procured a grant of the lands west of the Delaware, and in 1682 he brought over a colony of Friends, or Quakers, and founded the city of Philadelphia. His colony flourished from the beginning, and by treating the Indians with kindness and justice in his dealings with them, he secured their warm friendship, and a consequent immunity from the savage warfare to which the other colonies were subjected. There was peace between the Indians and the whites for nearly one hundred years. About the year 1710, there was a large emigration of Germans to Pennsylvania. They settled in the southern counties of the colony, which are to this day strongly marked by German characteristics.

Maryland, so called in honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., was originally settled by a band of adventurers, under Captain William Clayborne, who went from Virginia, and established themselves on Kent Island, near the head of Chesapeake Bay. The province was granted by Charles I. to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore,, in 1632. The next year the first colony, consisting of 201 persons, mostly Roman Catholics, sailed for America in two vessels, called the Ark and the Dove. They landed on St. Clement’s Island, on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th began the settlement of St. Mary’s, in what is now St. Mary’s County in that State. Their first legislative assembly met in 1639, and in 1649 passed the first law ever enacted in America granting religious freedom to all persons. This memorable Act will be found in the historical sketch of the State of Maryland farther on. In 1670, the settlement of South Carolina was begun by English colonists, who first located themselves at Port Royal, but soon removed to Charleston. The country south of Virginia was given the general nar-e of Carolina, and was governed by the proprietors under an absurd constitution prepared by John Locke. In 1727, the King of England bought out the proprietors, and divided the territory into two provinces, called respectively North and South Carolina. Settlements in North Carolina were formed by emigrants from Virginia as early as 1653.

From that time this part of the province continued to increase in population as rapidly as the southern part. A very large number of French Calvinists, about the year 1690, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in South Carolina. Some years later they were followed by a number of Swiss, Irish, and Germans. 116

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THE UNITED STATES. Georgia, originally a part of Carolina, was settled in 1733, by a band of English emigrants, under General James Oglethorpe. The first settlement was made at Yamacraw Bluff, the site of the present city of Savannah. The province was named in honor of George II. of England.

Georgia was the last settled of all the English colonies, having been founded 127 years after the landing at Jamestown. During the in terval which elapsed between these two events, the French had firmly planted themselves in Canada, and had established settlements along some of the great lakes and the upper Ohio, and in portions of Indi ana, Illinois, and Louisiana, and the Spanish had settled Florida and New Mexico. The English, after the settlement of Georgia, pos sessed thirteen vigorous and flourishing colonies in America, which were rapidly growing in importance, wealth, and power. They had an aggregate population of about 2,000,000, and were actively en gaged in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. The majority of the inhabitants were from England, or of English parentage, but there was also a liberal admixture of Scotch, Irish, French, and Ger man elements. The prevailing religious sentiment of the New England colonies was Calvinistic. Quakerism predominated in Pennsylvania, and Roman Catholicism in Maryland; while the Church of England claimed as her children the majority of the people of New York and of the southern colonies. African slavery had become firmly established in the South, and the industry of that section had been based upon it. The institution of slavery, and the presence of considerable wealth in all the colonies of the South, had rendered it useless for the better classes of the people to labor for their own support, and had engendered habits of aristocratic luxury, while the climate had cast over all ranks that fatal spell of indolence and lack of energy which has always been the bane of that section. In the Northern colonies labor was a necessity with all classes.

They had been originally poorer in wealth than their Southern neighbors, and had also a less generous climate, and a soil which required to be worked with the utmost energy and fidelity. Nature did but little fr them, and they were forced to make up the deficiency by their own efforts, a necessity which, though hard at first, eventually proved their greatest blessing. They were thus trained in habits of patient and intelligent industry, which they have left to their children. By tie period of which we are writing (1732) they had made their bleak country to blossom as a rose, had established thriving cities and 8 117

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118 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. towns, and, besides laying the sure foundations of an enormous system of manufactures and trade, had already acquired considerable wealth. Learning and the refining arts were common amongst them. England, it is true, did much to hamper and destroy the industry of all the colonies, hoping by this short-sighted policy to ensure their dependence upon her, but American energy flourished in spite of the mother country. Nor were the material interests of the country the only ones con. sulted. One of the very first cares of the settlers was to establish a system of common school education. This system was simple enough at first, but it steadily improved, as the colonies continued to prosper. Schools were established in Virginia in 1621, in the Plymouth Colony soon after, and in New Amsterdam shortly after its settlement. In 1637, HIarvard College was founded in Massachusetts; in 1692, William and Mary College was established in Virginia; in 1701, Yale College was founded in Connecticut; in 1738, the College of New Jersey was established; and in 1754, King’s (now Columbia) College was founded in New York. With the exception of William and Mary College, which was destroyed by fire during the late civil war, all of these institutions are in operation to-day. It does not I)elong to this portion of our work to present a detailed statement of the difficulties which lay in the path of the colonies during the first century after the settlement of the country.

A more mihute account will be presented in the historical sketches of the States, and we must confine ourselves here to a mere general outline of the progress of events. The first settlers found the Indians very friendly, and for some time maintained kindly relations with them; but as the number of the whites increased, decided encroachments were made upon the hunting grounds of the savages, and this, with various other causes of quarrel, brought about a series of long and bloody wars with the Indians, which continued with but slight intermission from the death of King Powhatan, the great Virginian chief and the friend of the whites, in 1622, until the red men were driven west of the Mississippi, after the close of the second war with England. They were expelled from the greater number of the Atlantic States, or forced to submit to the authority of the whites, by the close of the Revolution. Their power was broken in Virginia by the death of Opecancanough, in 1644; in New England by the death of King Philip, in 1676; and in the Carolinas by the destruction of the Yemassees, in 1715. Wiest

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THE UNITED STATES. BURNING OF DEEFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS of the mountains and along the northern frontier they were troublesome for many years later. The French, as we have said, had been as energetic as the English in colonizing America. They had made Canada a thriving province, had settled Acadie, and had established a line of posts between Montreal and New Orleans. There were sixty of these posts in all, soine of which, as Fort Dtiquesne (Pittshbirg), Detroit, Kaskaskia, Villcennes, and New Orleans, have since become important cities. They were located with an almost intuitive perception of their importance in secutring the command of the country, and, as they completely hemmed in the settlements of the English, were not slow in exciting the alarm and jealousy of Great Britain, who claimed the entire 119

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. oountry from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Nor was the jealousy entirely upon the part of the English. The French, believing that they had securely established themselves in Canada and the northwest, were very anxious to dislodge their powerful neighbors from their growing possessions, and towards the close of the seventeenth century began to incite the Indians to commit depredations upon the English colonies, supplying them with arms and ammunition, and sometimes joining with them in such expeditions. New England and New York suffered severely from them, and several towns (Dover, N. H., Schenectady, N.Y., and Deerfield and Haverhill, Mass.,) were destroyed by bands of Indians, or French and Indians, and their inhabitants massacred or carried into captivity. Open hostilities between the French and English in America broke out in 1690. This war was really caused by the English Revolution of 1688, and is known in American history as King William’s War. It lasted seven years, and was’terminated by the Treaty of Ryswick, September 20th, 1697. During its continuance the English colonies suffered greatly from the incursions of the French and Indians, andf in retaliation, made several attempts to conquer Canada, but were unsuccessful. Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War of the Spanish Succession, or, as it is known in America, Queen Anne’s War, began in Europe (in 1702). It soon spread to America, and embroiled the English and French in this country.

The English settlements on the western frontier of New England were almost annihilated by the Indians, while the French were unusually active.

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island made a combined attempt in 1707 to conquer Acadie, but without success. In 1710, an expedition from Boston drove the French out of Acadie, and annexed the province to the British Crown, with the name of Nova Scotia, which it still bears. In 1711, two vigorous efforts were made to conquer Canada, but both proved unsuccessful. On the 11th of April, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht closed the war, “and the land had rest for thirty years.” King George’s War, or, as it is called in European history, the War of the Austrian Succession, began in Europe in March, 1744, and soon extended to America. It lasted a little over four years, and was brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle, October 18th, 1748. The principal event of this war was the capture of Louisburg, the strongest position of the French in America, by a vol 120

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THE’UNITED STATES. unteer force from New England, led by William Pepperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine. This event did much to encourage the martial spirit of the colonists, and was hailed with delight in the mother country. At the conclusion of peace, however, Louisburg was restored to the French. In 1749, the Governor of Virginia received orders from England to grant to the “Ohio Company” half a million acres of land lying on the Ohio River, and between the Monongahela and the Kanawhla.

This region was claimed by France, and as soon as the English company began to form settlements in it, they were resisted by the French commander at Fort Duquesne, to whom the authorities of the province of Virginia resolved to address a letter of remonstrance, before preparing to meet force with force. Their message was entrusted to George Washington, then a young man of less than twenty-two years of age, but with a reputation for bravery, prudence, and ability far beyond his years. He performed the long and dangerous journey between the Virginian frontier and Fort Duquesne, delivered the letter, and returned with the reply of the French commandant, who positively refused to comply with the demand of the English. Virginia then prepared to maintain her claim by force of arms, and an expedition, in which Washington was assigned the second place, and of which he finally became the commander, was dispatched towards the Ohio, to occupy the country. On the 28th of May, 1754, it was attacked and cut to pieces by a French force under Jumonville, who was slain in the fight. This affair began the determined struggle which is known in our history as the Old French, or the French and Indian WVar, and in Europe as the Seven Years’ War. Hostilities, however, were not immediately declared in Europe. France and England did not come to blows in the Old World until about the year 1756. Each country professed to be at peace with the other, but both were busily engaged in sending aid to their colonies. The principal events of the campaign of 1755 in America were as follows: I. The unfortunate expedition of General Braddock against the French at Fort Duquesne, in which Washington first displayed those great qualities which won for him the leadership of our armies in the struggle for liberty. Braddock’s army was ambushed by the Indian allies of the French, about ten miles from Fort Duquesne, and cut to pieces, the general himself being mortally wounded. II. The expedition against Niagara and Frontenac, led by Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts. This attempt proved abortive. Shirley was delayed 121

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. by storms and sickness among his troops, and’ his Indian allies, who belonged to the tribes of the Six Nations, deserted him to such an extent that their aid amounted to nothing.

Disheartened, he aban doned his attempt and retraced his steps eastward.

III. The expe dition against the French posts on the Bay of Fundy, led by General Winslow, of New England. This was successful. The posts were captured and held by the English. Subsequently General Winslow received positive orders from his Government to remove the neutral French from Acadie to the English colonies, which duty he performed. There was no actual necessity for the removal of these people, and this harsh and cruel measure of the English Government caused great suffering to them. IV. The expedition against Crown Point, led by Sir William Johnson. Johnson’s troops were principally from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. He met the French, under Dieskau, at the head of Lake George, on the 6th of September, 1755, and’ was at first repulsed by them, but, thanks to General Lyman, the second in command, and an American, he succeeded in rallying his army and utterly routing the Frelncl, whose commander was fatally wounded and made a prisoner. He lost the fruits of his success, however, by lingering on the field of his victory until it was too late in the season to advance upon Crown Point. Dieskau was succeeded by the Marquis de Montcalm, to whom was assigned the command of all the French forces in America. He was an officer of experience, energy, and skill, and opened the campaign of 1756 with a series of successes which continued for two years, and which taught the English that he was no insignificant foe. In 1756, hlie captured Oswego, with its immense military stores, which had been placed there by the English. In 1757, he compelled Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George, to surrender, a disaster which was made the more appalling by the massacre of a part of the garrison, after the capitulation, by the Indian allies of the French.

Thus far fortune had smiled upon the French, but their enemies were not disheartened. The English people were convinced that the d(lisasters which had befallen their arms were due to the incompetency of their Government, and demanded a change of the Ministry. The popular demand was unwillingly complied with, and William Pitt was placed by the king at the head of affairs. From the moment that his great mind began to direct the war, the prospects of the English improved. Pitt appreciated the efforts the Americans had made during the struggle, and called on them to volunteer for fresh 122

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THE UNITED STATES. service under able generals who were sent out from England. His calls were well responded to, and when thle campaign of 1758
opened, the English took the field with 50,000 men, commanded by officers of experience and skill. The principal events of this campaign were: the capture of Louisburg by Generals Anmherst and Wolfeb, after a siege of fifty days; the capture of Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, by a force of Colonial troops, under Colonel Bradstreet; the capture of Fort Duquesne, ill which the forces of the colony of Virginia were commanded by Washington; and the defeat of Abercrombie at Ticonderoga. The British in this engagement attacked Ticonderoga with a force four times as great as that with which Montcalm defended the position. Their army was commanded by General Abercrombie and Lord Howe, the latter of whom was an officer of great promise, and warmly loved by the army. Howe was killed at the head of his column, and Abercrombie proved himself so incompetent for the task before him, that Montcalm defeated him, and compelled him to retreat with the loss of 2000 men. This event closed the campaign, and more than counterbalanced the successes of the English at the outset. The English authorities at once removed Abercrombie, and put Amherst in his place, who opened the campaign of 1759 by advancing upon Ticonderoga and Crown Point, from which the French retreated without risking an engagement. About the same time Sir William Johnson took Niagara, and routed a large French force which was marching to its relief. On the 13th of September, 1759, the great event of the war occurred. Quebec was taken by the British army, under General Wolfe, after a battle on the heights of Abraham, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The capture of Quebec is justly regarded as one of the most remarkable events in modern history, not only because it decided the war in America, but because it broke the power of France and confirmed that of England in the New World. “It gave to the English tongue and the institutions of the Germanic race,” says Bancroft, “the unexplored and seemingly infinite west and north.” The war in America virtually ceased after the fall of Quebec, but continued on the ocean and in Europe for nearly four years longer. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763, by which Canada and its dependencies, including the posts along the lakes and the Ohio, were forever ceded to Great Britain.

This very treaty, however, was the cause of another war. The French, by their friendly and conciliatory policy, had generally won the friendship of the’Indians, but the English, by their arrogance and 123

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. harshness, had rarely failed to excite their hostility, and the transfer of Canada and the northwest made by the Treaty of Paris was bitterly resented by the Indians of that region. One of their chiefs, Pontiac, a leader of great courage and ability, persuaded his countrymen to join him in an attempt to drive out the English. Hie was successful, and the first blow was struck in June, 1763. In the two weeks which followed the outbreak, the savages captured all the forts west of Oswego, except Niagara, Detroit, and Pittsburg, and massacred the garrisons. No English settler of either sex or any age who fell into the hands of the savages was spared. Siege was laid to Detroit, which was invested for six weeks. It was finally relieved, and the Indians were in their turn pressed with so much vigor that they were compelled to sue for peace. Pontiac, however, refused to yield to his conquerors, and set off towards the Mississippi, inciting the western tribes against the English, until he was murdered in 1769. The old French war was the only one of the struggles between France and England in which the Colonies bore a part, which originated in America. These conflicts, though they at length resulted in removing the hostile French and Indians from the very doors of the Colonies, left them greatly exhausted in both men and money. They had shown the devotion of America to the mother country in a most conspicuous manner, and had certainly earned for the. colonists at least the considerate forbearance of the Home Government. As for the Americans themselves, they had learned valuable lessons in modern warfare, had seen for themselves that British generals were not infallible, nor British troops invincible, and had gained a very decided confidence in their own prowess as shown by their achievements. Great Britain, however, did not regard her Colonies with either motherly wisdom or kindness. Jealous of their growing commercial and manufacturing wealth, she sought in numerous ways to cripple their industry. Always a law-abiding people, the Americans bore all the harsh measures of the mother country in silence, so long as they were kept within the limits sanctioned by the constitution of the realm. In 1761, however, the Home Government threw off its constitutional restraints. A law was enacted by Parliament, empowering sheriffs and customs officers to enter stores and private dwellings, upon the authority of “writs of assistance,” or general search warrants, and search for goods which it was suspected had not paid duty. The first attempt to use these writs was made in Massachusetts, 124

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THE UNITED STATES. where obedience was refused to them by the indignant people, on the ground that they were issued in violation of the laws of England and of the Colony. The persons refusing obedience to them were brought to trial. James Otis, the eloquent attorney for the Crown, refused to sustain them, resigned his office, and in the trials which ensued pleaded the cause of the people with such force that, in the language of John Adams, “every man of an immense crowded audience appeared to go away ready to take arms against the writs of assistance.” The judges decided to avoid a decision, and the writs were never used, though they were granted in secret. It was now proposed by the British Government to levy a direct tax upon the Colonies, and at the same time to deny them anlly voice in the imposition of this tax. An Act for this purpose, generally called the Stamp Act, was passed by the Commons on the 22d of March, 1765, by a majority of nine-tenths of the memnbers, and on the 1st of April by the House of -Lords with scarcely a dissenting voice. The king at once signed the bill. This Act required that every written or printed paper used in trade, in order to be valid, should have affixed to it a stamp of a denomination to be determined by the character of the paper, and that no stamp should be for a less sum than one shilling. The Colonies had earnestly protested against the measure while it was being discussed in Parliament, but the only notice which the Government took of these protests was to send over a body of troops for the purpose of enforcing obedience to the Stamp Act, and the Ministers were authorized by Parliament to compel the Colonies to find “quarters, fuel, cider or rum, candles and other necessaries” for these troops. Such infamous measures produced great excitement in America. Patrick Henry introduced a series of resolutions into the General Assembly of Virginia, which were adopted by that body, declaring that the Colonists were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own legislatures. The Legislature of Massachusetts authorized the courts of that province to proceed to transact their business without the use of stamps. In the other Colonies the opposition was strong, but not so vehement, and associations called “Sons of Liberty” were formed all over the country, consisting of men who pledged themselves to oppose the Stamp Act and defend the rights of the Colonies when assailed. The determination not to use the stamps was general, and when the 1st of November, 1765, the day on which the hated law was to go into operation, arrived, it was found that all 125

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the officials appointed to distribute the stamps had resigned their places. The bells in all the Colonies were tolled, and the flags lowered in mourning for the death of liberty in America. The merchants pledged themselves to import no more English goods, and the people agreed to use no more articles of English manufacture until the law was repealed. Previous to this, in June, the Legislature of Massachusetts had issued a call for a general Congress of delegates fiom all the Colonies to meet in New York, on the first Tuesday in October, to consider the state of affairs. Nine of the Colonies were represented in this body, which met at the appointed time. The Congress drew up a declaration of rights for the Colonies, a memorial to Parliament, and a petition to the king, in which, after asserting their loyalty to the Crown and laws of England, they insisted upon their right to be taxed only by their own representatives. These documents were submitted to and approved by the provincial legislatures, and were laid before the British Government in the name of the United Colonies. These popular demonstrations brought up the subject in Parliainent, and the friends of America urgently demanded a repeal of the Act. Pitt and Burke advocated the repeal with powerful eloquence. The Commons examined a number of witnesses as to the temper and condition of the Colonies. One of these was Benjamin Franklin, Vho was sojourning in London. He told the House that his countrymen were not possessed of a sufficient amount of gold and silver to buy the stamps, that they were already greatly burdened by debts contracted by them in support of the recent war, in which they had borne more than their just share of the expenses, that they were loyal and attached to the mother country, but that the harsh acts of the Government could only result in destroying their loyal friendship, that unless the Acts complained of were repealed, the Colonies would cease to trade with England, and that they would never consent to pay any taxes except those imposed upon them by their own legislatures. Influenced by these representations, the Parliament resolved to retrace its steps, and on the 18th of March, 1766, the Stamp Act was repealed. The repeal was celebrated with great rejoicings in 1)oth America and England, the latter country having become alarmed by the decrease in its trade with the Colonies. The British Government, however, did not relinquish its determination to tax America, and on the 29th of June, 1767, the king signed an Act of Parliament imposing duties on glass, tea, paper, and 126

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THE UNITED STATES. some other articles imported into the Colonies. The Americans met this new aggression with a revival of their societies for discontinuing the importation of English goods. Massachusetts led this opposition, and in Boston the custom house officers were mobbed for demanding duties on the cargo of a schooner owned by John Hancock. The officers sought refuge from the mob in the fort in the harbor, and in September, 1768, the Government ordered General Gage to occupy ” the insolent town of Boston” with a strong military force. This measure but increased the disaffection of the Bostonians, and on the 5th of March, 1770, a collision occurred between the citizens and the troops, in which three of the former were killed and five wounded. This “massacre,” as it was called, produced great excitement in all the Colonies. The soldiers who had fired on the crowd were tried for murder in Boston, and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who were resolved that they should have impartial justice dealt out to them. The evidence showing that the troops did not fire until provoked to it by the people, the jury acquitted all the prisoners but two, who were convicted of manslaughter.

The feeling of the Colonies was so unmistakable that Parliament resolved to remove the obnoxious duties. The king, however, expressly ordered that at least one nominal duty should be retained, as he did not mean to surrender his right to tax the Colonies. In accordance with this command, a duty-of three per cent. on tea was retained, and all the others removed.

The Americans, however, objected to the principle of taxation without representation, and not to the amount of the tax, and resolved to discontinue the use of tea until the duty should be repealed. Meetings for this purpose were held in the principal seaports of the country. When it was ascertained that several ships loaded with tea were on their way to Boston, a large meeting of citizens was called, at which it was resolved to send the vessels back to England. Three ships loaded with tea reached Boston soon after, and their owners, in compliance with the public demand, consented to order them back to England, if the Governor would allow them to leave the port. Governor Hutchinson, however, refuised to allow the ships to go to sea, and on the night of the 18th of December, a band of citizens, disguised as Indians, seized the vessels, emptied the tea into the harbor, and then quietly dispersed without harming the vessels. This bold act greatly incensed the British Governmen.t, and Parliament adopted severe measures for the purpose of punishing the Colonies. The harbor of Boston was closed 127

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to all commerce, and the Government of the Colony ordered to be removed to Salem, soldiers were to be quartered on all the Colonies at the expense of the citizens, and it was required that all officers who should be prosecuted for enforcing these measures should be sent to England for trial. The excitement in the Colonies over these acts was tremendous. Boston was everywhere regarded as the victim of British tyranny, and was in constant receipt of assurances of sympathy, and of money and provisions for the poor of the town, sent to her from all parts of the country. Salem refused to accept the transfer of the seat of Government, and the authorities of Marblehead requested the merchants of Boston to use their port free of charge. Even in London ~30,000 were subscribed for the relief of Boston. The excitement continued to increase throughout the country, and the breach between the Colonies and the mother country grew wider every day. On the 5th of September, 1774, a Congress of 55 delegates, representing all the Colonies’ except Georgia, whose royalist governor prevented an election, met in Philadelphia. It was composed of the ablest men in America, among whom were Washington, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edward Rutledge, John Rutledge, Christopher Gadsden, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Philip Livingston, William Livingston, John Jay, Dr. Witherspoon, Peyton Randolph, and Charles-Thomson. This body, after considering the grievances of the Colonies, adopted a declaration setting forth their rights as subjects of the British crown to a just share in the making of their own laws, and in imposing their own taxes, to the right of a speedy trial by jury in the community in which the offence should be committed, and to the right to hold public meetings and petition for redress of grievances. A protest against the unconstitutional Acts of the British Parliament was adoped, as well as a petition to the king, an appeal to the British people, and a memorial to the people of the Colonies. The Congress proposed, as a means of redress, the formation of an “American Association,” whose members should pledge themselves not to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, or with any persons engaged in the slave trade, and to refrain from using British goods or tea. The papers drawn up by the Congress were transmitted to England. The Earl of Chatham (William Pitt) was deeply impressed by them, and declared in Parliament that “all attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation must be vain.” The English people, as a general rule, were 128

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THE UNITED STATES. sincerely anxious that the demands of the Americans should be complied with, and even Lord North, the Prime Minister, who carried the measures in question through Parliament, was in his heart opposed to them, and only continued in office to uphold them at the express command of the king, who was obstinately determined upon whipping his American subjects into submission. Few of the leaders of the Colonists now doubted that hostilities would soon begin, and with a view to prepare for the emergency, the Colonies began to take steps for raising and arming troops at a minute’s warning. These preparations were especially vigorous in Massachusetts, and alarmed General Gage, who fortified Boston neck, and commenced to seize all the arms and munitions of war he could find in the province. The Colonial authorities of Massachusetts had established small stores of arms and ammunition at Worcester and Concord, and General Gage resolved to secure them. On the night of the 18th of April, 1775, he sent’a large detachment of troops to destroy the stores at Concord. It was his design that the movement should be secret, but he was so closely watched by the patriots that the march of his troops was instantly discovered, and the alarm spread through the country by messengers. The people at once flew to arms, and when the troops reached Lexington, a village half way between Boston and Concord, on the morning of the 19th, Major Pitcairn, their commander, found his progress opposed by a considerable number of the country people. He ordered his men to fire upon them. The order was obeyed, and the citizens were driven off with a loss of eight killed and several wounded. The troops then proceeded to Concord, where they destroyed some stores, but upon reaching the north bridge over Concord River, they met with a determined resistance from the people, who had now assembled in considerable force, and were obliged to retreat to Boston. The Colonists followed them closely on their retreat, pouring in a galling fire from every convenient point. The total loss of the British on this occasion was 273 men killed and wounded. This battle, if a battle it can be called, put an end to the long dispute between America and Great Britain, and inaugurated the Revolution. Previous to this, no one ever heard, as Jefferson remarks, “a whisper of a disposition to separate from Great Britain,” but after the first surprise of the shock had worn off, the people of the Colonies commenced to take up arms for freedom. On the 22d of April, the authorities of Massachusetts ordered that a New England army of 129

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RUINS OF TICONDEROGA. 30,00()0 men should be put in the field, and that Massachusetts should furnish 13,000 of these. Troops were raised with rapidity under this authority, and by the 1st of May, an army of 20,000 men was encamped before Boston. In the other Colonies equally important measures were set on foot. The fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were seized by volunteers from Connecticut and Vermont, led by Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen. The cannon and stores taken with them were of incalculable service to the Americans, who were sadly in need of military supplies. In Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia, the people took up arms as soon as the news from the North was received, and in North Carolina a convention was held at Charlotte, in Mecklenburg colunty, which body, in May, 1775, proclaimed the independence of the people of North Carolina, and prepared to resist the authority of Great. Britain by force of arms. 130

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THE UNITED STATES. On the 10th of May, 1775, the second Colonial Congress met at Philadelphia. It was composed of the most eminent men of the country, among whom were Washington, Franklin, Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Jay, George Clinton, Jefferson, and others. The proceedings of this body were eminently moderate. The first step taken was to elect John Hancock President of the Congress. A petition to the king was drawn up, and forwarded to him, denying any intention to separate firom Great Britain, and asking only for redress of the wrongs of which the Colonies complained. A federal Union of the Colonies was formed, and the Congress assumed and exercised the general government of the country. Measures were taken to establish an army, to procure military supplies, and to fit out a navy. A loan of $2,000,000 was authorized, and the faith of the “United Colonies” pledged for its payment. The troops before Boston were organized as a Continental army, and placed under the control of the Congress, and Washington was elected Commander-in-Chief. As soon as he received his commission, he set out for Boston, but did not arrive there until after the occurrence of the events now to be related. Alarmed by the presence of the American forces before Boston, the British commander in that town formed the plan of seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill in Charlestown. His plan was betrayed to the Americans, who at once sent a force under Colonel William Prescott to fortify the hill. Prescott misunderstood his instructions, and proeeeded to fortify Breed’s Hill, which, though inferior in height to Bunker Hill, was nearer to Boston, and more perfectly commanded the harbor. Hie threw up a slight breastwork during the night of the 16th of June, which was discovered by the British on the morining of the 17th. A force of 3000
regulars was detailed to carry the hill, assisted by the fire of the royal ships in the harbor. The American force was scarcely more than half this number, and consisted of raw and undisciplined provincials. They repulsed two assaults, however, inflicting upon their enemies a loss of 1045 men killed and wounded; but were at length, after their ammunition had given out, driven from the hill. They retreated across Charlestown neck to Cambridge, which was held by the Continental army, having lost 449 men killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the killed was General Joseph Warren, of Boston, one of the most valuable of the American leaders. This battle, though an actual defeat for the Americans, was ~egarded by them as a victory, inasmuch as it demonstrated their 131

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ability to hold their ground against the regular troops of Great Britain, and inspired them with a confidence which attended them during the entire war. Washington reached the army before Boston several days after the battle of Bunker Hill, and immediately took command. He was received with enthusiasm by the troops and people. He was accompanied by General Charles Lee, an officer who had seen service before. Congress had appointed a full complement of general officers for the army, all of whom were with their commands. The Major-Generals were: Charles Lee, of Virginia, Philip Schuyler, of New York, Artemas Ward, of Massachusetts, and Israel Putnam, of Connecticut. The Brigadiers were: Horatio Gates, Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene.

Of all these, Gates was the only man who possessed sufficient experience to be of much assistance to Washington in the task of perfecting the organization of the army, which was in reality little better than a mere rabble in discipline, clothing, and equipment. By extraordinary exertions, Wash-, ington and Gates at length succeeded in bringing the force to a tolerably effective condition. Boston was at once regularly besieged, and closely invested until March 17th, 1776, when, Washington having secured a position from which his cannon could render the city untenable, the British forces evacuated the place, and sailed for Halifax. They were accompanied by a large body of loyalists, who feared to remain in the town after its occupation by the Americans. Meanwhile, during the progress of the siege of Boston, other operations had been going on elsewhere. General Montgomery had been sent into Canada with a small, weak force, to conquer that province, which was believed to be disaffected towards England. His second in command was Benedict Arnold, who rendered brilliant service during the campaign. The principal event of the invasion was a joint attack upon Quebec by Montgomery and Arnold, which was unsuccessful, and in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. The expedition accomplished nothing of importance, and was compelled to return to the Colonies, after suffering great losses and considerable hardships. A British fleet attacked and burned Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) on the.

New England coast, and committed many outrages on the coast of Virginia. A powerful force, under Sir Peter Parker, attacked Fort Sullivan, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, 132

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THItE UNITED STATES. INDEPENDENCE HALL IN 1776. and was repulsed with heavy loss. The Americans managed during the year to fit out several cruisers, which were fortunate enough to capture a number of prizes loaded with military stores for the British army, and which proved of infinite service to the Americans. Indeed, these captures seemed providential, for often when the stock of armis and munitions was running low, a cruiser would make its way into port with a prize ladenii with the supplies most needed, which it had taken from the enemy. Congress took measures for the active prosecution of the war. Supplies were drawn from the West Indies, and a regular system for that purpose inaugurated; powder mills and cannon founderies were provided for; thirteen frigates were ordered to be built (a few of which eventually got to sea); a committee of war, one of finance, and a secret committee, to wlhich was entrusted the negotiations of the Colonies with the individuals and authorities of foreign States, were appointed; and an energetic, if defective, system of government for 9

1I d,, J,?

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OUR (OUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the “Uniited( Colonies” was fairly established. Finally, on the 4ti of July, 1776, Congress adopted a declaration on behalf of the Colonies, declaring their independence of the English crown, and proclaiming that henceforth the Colonies were free and independent States. This declaration changed the entire nature of the struggle. “Tile war,” says Bancroft, “was no longer a civil war; Britain was become to the United States a foreign country. Every former subject of the British king in the thirteen Colonies now owed primary allegiance to the dynasty of the people, and became citizens of the new rept)li(c; except in this, everything remained as before; every man retaine(d his rights; the Colonies did not dissolve into a state of nature, nor did the new people undertake a social revolution. The affairs of internal police and government were carefutilly retained by each separate State, which could, each for itself, enter upon the career of domestic reforms. But the States which were henceforth independent of Britain, were not independent of one another; the United States of America assumed powers over war, peace, foreign alliances, and commerce.” As he supposed that New York would be the next object of attack by the British, Washington transferred his army to that place immediately after his occupation of Boston. He had not long to wait, for in June, Admniral Lord Howe entered New York bay with a formiidal)le fleet and 30,000O troops, consisting principally of German mer(cenaries hired by the King of England. The troops were landed on Staten Island, and preparations made for attacking the city of New York. Lord Howe issued a proclamation to the people of America, offering a free pardon to all who would lay-down their arms and accept the king’s clenmency; but the proclamation p)roduced no effect whatever upon thle patriots, who were convinced that they could expect but a poor regard for their rights and liberties at the hands of King George. Washington’s force was vastly inferior to that cl’ the enemy in every respect. He was compelled to divide it, and to’place a portion of it on Long Island, in order to cover the approaches to the city of New York. The force on Long Island was attacked and defeated by the British on the 27th of August, 1776, and compelled to abandon the island. The enemy followed up their successes, and finally obliged Washington to give up Manhattan Island and the lower Hu(lsoI. Disasters now fell thickly upon the Americans, and by the close of the year Washington had been driven across the Delaware, 134

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THE UNITED STATES. - and had with him less than 4000 half-starved and miserably equipped troops. The British had by this time taken possession of the island of Rhode Island, and had made a descent upon Baskingridge, New Jersey, and had captured General Charles Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the Colonies seemed so desperate that the people generally began to abandon the hope of liberty and apply themselves to the task of making their peace, individually, with the royal authorities. Infltienced by this state of affairs, Sir William Howe, the British Commander-in-Chief, refrained from making a vigorous effort to fol low up his antagonist and crush him. At this hour, when everything was so gloomy, Washington was calm and hopeftil. He had expected reverses, and they did not dis may him.

He did what lay in his power to cheer and encourage the little band of heroes who remained faithful to him, and watched the enemy with sleepless vigilance, and at length discovered an opportu nity for striking a powerful blow in behalf of his country. Perceiving that the advanced wing of the English army occupied an exposed position at Trenton, New Jersey, he crossed the Delaware with his army, in open boats, in the midst of snow and ice, on the night of the 25th of December, and falling suddenly upon the enemy at daybreak the next morning, completely routed them, capturing 1000 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms, 6 brass field pieces, and 4 standards.

On the night of the 26th, he recrossed the Delaware, and returned to his camnp in Pennsylvania. On the 3d of January, 1777, he again defeated a strong British detachment at Princeton, New Jersey, and in a short while had cleared that State almost entirely of the enemy. These victories, so brilliant and so audacious, completely startled the British, who had believed the war virtually over in the North, ‘ and aroused, as if by magic, the drooping spirits of the Americans. Congress, which had remained unmoved by the disasters of 1776, now inaugurated a series of more vigorous measures than had yet been determined upon. Washington was invested with almost dictatorial powers; troops were ordered to be enlisted for three years, instead of one year, which was the term of the first levies; a central government was established, and a constitution, known as the “Articles of Confederation,” was adopted by the States (MIaryland did not ratify these articles until the next year); and agents were sent to foreign countries to procure the recognition of the independence of the United States. When the campaign of 1777 opened, the prospects of the country 135

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. had so far improved that Washington found himself at the head of an army of 7000 men. Sir William Howe made repeated efforts to bring on a general engagement, but Washington skilfully avoided it, and the British General finally withdrew his army from New Jersey, and occupied Staten Island. Soon after this, he sailed with 16,000 men for the Chesapeake, and, landing at Elk River, in Maryland, advanced through Delaware towards Philadelphia, which was the seat of the Federal Government. Washington endeavored to check the progress of the enemy on the Brandywine, September 11th, but was defeated with a loss of 1000 men.

The British occupied Phila delphia a few days later, and Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On the 4th of October, Washington made a vigorous attack upon the British force at Germantown, 7
miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with severe loss. This event closed the campaign in the Middle States. In the North, the American forces had been more successful. General Burgoyne, with 7000 regular troops and a considerable force of Canadians and Indians, entered the United States from Canara during the summer of 1777, and advanced as far as Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. From this point a strong detachment was sent to Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the stores collected there by the Americans. This force was routed with a loss of 800 men, by the militia of New Hampshire and Vermont, under General Stark. The battle occurred at Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777. Burgoyne then advanced towards Saratoga, New York, making his way through the woods until he reached the vicinity of that place, when he was met by the American army, under General Gates, to whom the command of the Northern department had been recently assigned. An indecisive battle was fought between the two armies on the 19th of September, and a second and more decisive engagement occurred on the 7th of October, on nearly the same ground. Burgoyne was considerably worsted, and endeavored to return to Canada, but findinig his retreat cut off, surrendered his entire army to the American forces, upon favorable terms, on the 17th of October. This victory, the most important of the war, greatly elated the Americans and their friends in Europe, while it depressed the Tories or loyalists in America to an equal degree. It advanced the bills of the Continental Congress, and had the effect of inducing the French Government,-which had secretly encouraged and aided the Colonies from the first, to recognize the independence of the States, and in 136

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THE UNITED STATES. Fctr,lary, 1778, a treaty of friendship, commerce, and alliance was signed at Paris, by the French King and the American Commissioln ers. Great Britain seemed to realize now, for the first time, that she was about to lose her Colonies, and endeavored to repair her mistakes. On the 11th of March, 1778, Parliament repealed the Acts which had proved so obnoxious to the Colonies, and subsequently sent three commissioners to negotiate a reconciliation with the Americans. As these commnissioners had no10 authority to consent to the independence of the States, Congress refused to treat with them until the king should withdraw his forces from the country, and rejected the terims offered by the British Government. Washlington’s army went into winter quarters at the Valley Forge, 20 miles from Philadelphia, about the middle of December, 1777. The troops suffered terribly from exposure, hunger, and the dreadful privations to which they were subjected, but remained with their colors through it all. Their devotion was rewarded in the spring by the news of the alliance with France, which reached themi in May, 1778, and was greeted with demonstrations of the liveliest joy. The first result of the French alliance was the arrival in the Delaware of a fleet, under Count D’Estaing. I)‘Estaing had been ordered to blockade the British fleet in the Delaware, and arrived off the Capes in June, but before his arrival the enemy’s ships had taken reflige in Raritan Bay. The British army in Philadelphia was now commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded General Howe. On the 18th of June, Clinton withdrew his force from that city, and began his retreat through New Jersey to New York. Washington pursued him promptly, and came up with him, on the 28th of June, on the plains of Monmouth, near the town of Freehold, N. J., where a severe engagement took place. Although the result was indecisive, Clinton resumed his retreat to New York, and remained there for the rest of the summer, without making any effort to resume hostilities. In August, an attempt was made by the Americans, assisted by the French fleet, to drive the British from Rhode Island, but without success. D’Estaing withdrew from the coast soon after this, and returned to the West Indies, having rendered little practical aid during his presence in American waters. The finances of the country were now in the greatest confilusion, and nothing but the wisdom and unshrinking patriotism of Robert Morris saved the infant republic from utter bankruptcy and ruin. It is worthy of remark that a grateful country suffered this man to die in 137

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. a debtor’s prison. On the whole, however, the cause of the States was much improved. Besides the alliance with France, they had the secret encouragement and assistance of Spain. They had confined the British to the territory held by that army in 1776, and had a larger and better disciplined army than they had yet possessed. In 1779, the principal military operations were transferred to the South.

Savannah had been already captured on the 29th of December, 1778, bv an expedition sent from New York by Sir Henry Clinton, and by the summer of 1779, the whole State of Georgia was in the hands of the British. IJ

September, 1779, the French fleet and a land force of Americans under General Lincoln attempted to recover Savannah, but were repulsed with a loss of 1000 men. On the 16th of June, 1779, Spain declared war against England, and, in the summer of that year, the French King, influenced by the appeals of Lafayette, who had visited France for that purpose, agreed to send another fleet and a strong body of troops to the assistance of the Americans. The cruisers of the United States were doing considerable damage to the British commerce at sea and in Britisi waters, and Paul Jones, on the 23d of September, fought and won one of the most desperate battles known to naval warfare, in plain sight of the English coast. Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to instructions received from England, now withdrew his forces from Rhode Island, and concentrated his entire command at New York. Early in 1780, he proceeded with the main body of his troops to the South, leaving General Knyphausen in command at New York, and at once laid siege to Charleston, South Carolina, which was held by General Lincoln with a force of 2500 men. The city was surrendered with its garrison, on the 17th of May, 1780, after a nominal defence. By the 1st of June, the British were in possession of the whole State of South Carolina, and Clinton was so well convinced of the completeness of its subjugation that he went back to New York on the 5th of June, leaving the command in the South to Lord Cornwallis. Small bands of partisan troops, under Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other no less devoted though less famrous leaders, now sprang up in various parts of the State, and maintained a vigorous guerilla warfare, from which the enemy suffered greatly. Congress soon after sent an army under General Gates into South Carolina to drive the enemy from the State. Gates’ success at Saratoga had made him the idol of the hour, and there were persons who seriously desired that he 138

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THIE UNITED STATES. should even supersede Washington himself; but his northern laurels soon wilted in the Souith. Cornwallis met him at Camden, routed him with a loss of 1000 men, and drove him into North Carolina. By the dclose of the snummer, the only American force in South Caro lina was the little banid under General Marion. CorInwallis, f,eli( assured that his communications with Charleston were safe, f(llovwe(l Gates’ beaten army into North Carolina, towards the midd(le of Sep tember. On the 7th of October, a strong detachment of’ his arimy was totally defeated, with a loss of 1200 men, by the militia of North Carolina, at King’s Mountain.

This was a severe blow to him, and checked his advance. At the same time Marion and Pickens renewed their warfare in South Carolina so actively, and rendered Cornwallis’ communications with the sea so uncertain, that he withdrew towards Charleston. In the North, the British commander vainly endeavored to draw Washington into a general engagement, in wNhich he felt confident that his vast preponderance of numbers would give him the victory. Washington warily avoided being caught in the trap; and on the 23d of June, General Greene inflicted such a stinging defeat upon a British force at Springfield, N. J., that Clintoni withdrew to New York, and remained there for the rest of the year. After the battle of Camden, General Greene was sent to the Carolinas, to take comumanid of Gates’

army. On the 10th of July, 1780, a French fleet and 6000 troops, all under the Count de Rochambeau, reached Newport, Rlhodc Island. In September, during the absence of Washington at Hartford, Conn., whither he had gone to arrange a plan of operations with the French officers, it was discovered that General Benedict Arnold, one of the most brilliant officers of the Continental army, had agreed to deliver into the hands of the British the important fortress of West Point, which he commanded at that time. The plot was promptly frustrated, and the traitor escaped, but Major Andre; a British officer who had concluded the arrangement with him, and whose capture ha(l revealed the plot, was hanged as a spy. Towards the close of the year, Great Britain having discovered that Holland and the United States were secretly negotiating a treaty of alliance, declared war against the Dutch. The war against America, however, still continued unpopular with the English people. The campaign of -1781 opened with the brilliant victory at the Cowpens, in South Carolina, won over the British under Colonel 1 3tr

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tarleton by General Morgan, on the 17th of January. On the 15th of March the battle of Guilford Court House was fought in Northi Carolina, and resulted in a partial victory for the British. In September, 1781, the royal forces were terribly beaten in the bloody battle of Eutaw Springs, in South Carolina, and compelled to retire to the sea coast, to which they were confined until the close of the war.

Meanwhile, Cornwallis, after the battle of Guilford Court House, had advanced into Virginia, driving before him the handfil of forces under Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, which sought to oppose his march. He occupied himself chiefly while in Virginia in destroying private property, and at length, in August, 1781, in obedience to orders from Sir Henry Clinton, to occupy a strong defensive position in Virginia, intrenched himself at Yorktown, near the entrance of the York River into Chesapeake Bay. This movement led to an immediate change in the plan of operations which had been resolved( upon by Washington, whose arnmy had been reenforced on the Hudson l)y the French troops under Count de Rochambeau.

It had been his intention to attack the British in New York with his combined force, aided by the French fleet, but Cornwallis’ situation offered such a tempting opportunity that he at once resolved to transfer his army to Virginia. Skilfully deceiving Sir Henry Clinton into the belief that New York was the threatened point, and thus preventing him from sending assistance to Cornwallis, Washington moved rapidly to Virginia, and arrived before the British works at Yorktown, with an army 12,000 strong, on the 28th of September, ]781. The enemly’s position was at once invested by land, and the French fleet cut off all hope of escape by water. The siege was prosecuted with vigor, and. on the 19th of October, Cornwallis surrendered his whole army, which consisted of 7000
well equipped troops. This victory virtually closed the war. It produced the wildpst joy in America, and compelled a change of Ministers in England. Lord North and his Cabinet retired from office on the 20th of March, 1782, and the new administration, perceiving the hopelessness of the struggle, resolved to discontinue the war. Orders were sent to the British commanders in America to desist from further hostilities, and on the 11th of July, 1782, Savannah was evacuated by the royal troops, which event was followed by the evacuation of Charleston on the 14th of December. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris on the 30th of November, 1782, and a formal treaty on the 3d of September, 1783. By this formal treatyGreat Britain aeknow 140

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T HE UNITED STATES. le(ldg,ed her former Colonies to be free, sovereign, and independent States, and withdrew her troops from New York on the 25th of Novt(mber, 1783. The great war was now over, and the new Republic took its place in the family of nations; but it was terribly weakened by its efforts. Its finances were in the most pitiful condition, and it had not the money to pay the troops it was about to disband, and who were really suffering for want of funds. Considerable trouble arose on this account, and it required all the great influence of Washington to allay the discontent. The army was disbanded immediately after the close of the war, and on the 23rd of December, 1783, Washington resigned his commission into the hands of Congress, and retired to his home at MIount Vernon. It was found that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate to the necessities of the Republic, and a new Constitution was adopted by the States after much deliberation. It went into operation on the 4tli of March, 1789. The city of New York was designated as the seat of Government. Washington was unanimously chosen the first President of the Republic, with John Adams as VicePresident, He went into office on the 30th of April, 1789. The first measures of his admainistration greatly restored the confidence of the people in the Governiment. Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, inaugurated a series of financial reforms, which were eminently beneficial. Thie debts of the old Confederated Government and the debts of the St:ttes themselves, were all assumed by the United States; a bank of the United States (which went into operation in February 17‘94) was in(orporated, and a national Mint was established at Philadelphia. A?l Indian war in the West was firmly and vigorously prosecuted to a successfill termination, and the neutrality of the Republic with regard to the various parties of the great Revolution in France, faithfully maintained. Washington and Adams were reelected in 1792. The principal events of the second term were the firmness with which the President met the efforts of the French Republic to embroil the United States in another war with England; the demand for the recall of MI.

Genet, the French Minister, which was at length complied with; the British Treaty of 1794 (commonly known as Jay’s Treaty), which was so warmly discussed by the Federalist and Republican parties in this country; the outrageous decrees by which the French Government sought to cripple American commerce in revenge for the supposed I’ll

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 1artiality of our Government for England; the admission into the Union of the States of Vermont (1791), Kentucky (17

92), and Ten iiessee (1796); and the Whiskey Insurrection, in 1794, whlich was a formidable outbreak in Western Pennsylvania against an odious excise law. Washington promptly suppressed it. Washington was urgently importuned to be a candidate for another term, but declined, although it was sure that there would be no oppo sition to him. In September, 1796, he issued a “Farewell Address” to his countrymen, warning them of the evils to which their new system was exposed, and urging them to adhere firmly to the principles of the Constitution as their only hope of liberty and ha)piness. The third Presidental election occurred in 1796, and was marked by a display of bitterness between the opposing parties never surpassed in the subsequent history cf the Republic. The Federalists presented John Adams as their candidate, vlhile the Republicans advocated the claims of Thomas Jefferson. Adams received the hig,hest number of votes, and Jefferson the next. By the terms of the Constitution as it then existed, Jefferson was declared the VicePresident. President Adams was opposed with considerable bitterness by his political enemies throughout his whole term. The administration of the Navy was removed fronm the War Department in 1798, and a Navy Depart ment established. On the 15th of May, 1797, the President colnvenel Congress in extra session to consider the relations of this country with France. The French Directory had been pursuing for some years a systematic course of outrage towards the ships and citizens of the United States, and had carried this to such an extent as to leave little doubt that it was their deliberate intention to destroy American commerce.

Three envoys were sent to France by President Adams, with authority to adjust all differences between the two countries. The Directory refused to receive them, but they were given to understand that the payment of a large sum of money by their Government would greatly tend towards securing proper treatment for our vessels; and it was plainly intimated that if the American Government refused to pay this bribe, it would have to go to war for its obstinacy. When this message was delivered to the Commissioners, one of their number, Charles C. Pinckney, returned this memorable and patriotic reply, in which his associates heartily joined:” War be it then; millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute.” The French Government then iiifotnimed Mr. Gerry, who \was a Republican, that hle could remain in France, but ordered Messrs. Pinckney andl Marshall to quit the country.

142

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THE UNITED STATES. Great indignation prevailed throughout the Union, when these insults to the American Commissioners became known. The Government at once took measures to raise an army and navy adequate to the struggle which seemed immninent. Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief, with the rank of Lieutenant-General, and hostilities actually began at sea, where the cruisers of the Republic won several brilliant successes over French ships of war. The energy and determination thus manifested by the United States had a happy effect in France, and the war was finally averted by the accession of Napoleon to the dignity of First Consul. The new ruler of France intimated his willingness to reopen the negotiations with America, and a treaty of peace and amity between the two countries Avas definitely concluded, on the 30th of September, 1800. During the existence of hostilities with France, two laws were enacted by Congress, which are generally known as the “Alien and Sedition Laws.” They empowered the President to send out of the country such aliens as should be found conspiring against the peace and safety of the Republic, and to restrict the liberty of speech and of the press. It was true beyond all doubt, as the Government claimed in defence of its course, that the country was overrun with English and French agents, who were here for the express purpose of embroiling the United States in the quarrels in progress in the Old( World, and that the press, which was controlled mainly by European adventurers, had become so corrupt and licentious as to be highly dangerous to the peace of the country. Nevertheless, these Acts aroused such a strong opposition throughout the States, that the Federalists were overwhelmingly defeated in the next Presidential election. During President Adams’ term, the seat of Government was removed to Washington City. In the fourth contest for the Presidency, the votes of the Republican party were equally divided between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. Each received 73 electoral votes. This threw the election into the House of Representatives, where Jefferson was chosen President and Burr VicePresident. This circumstance also occasioned an amendment to the Constitution (adopted finally in 1804), requiring the electors to vote separately, as at present, for President and VicePresident. Mr. Jefferson entered upon his office in March, 1801, and soon after began to remove the Federalist office-holders under the Government, appointed by his predecessor, and to fill their places with Republicans, or Democrats as they ilow began to call themselves. He justified his 143

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. course by declaring that Mr. Adams had appointed none but Fede ralists to office, and that it was not fair for one party to have all the offices, or even a majority of them. This was the beginning of the system of removals from office for political causes, which has been the bane of our Government; but it should be added, ill justice to Mr. Jefferson, that he was not guilty of such wholesale political decapitation as has usually been practised by his successors.

His removals were few in proportion to the whole number of officials. His first term was marked by wisdom and vigor. The domestic affairs of the nation prospered, and the finances were managed in a masterly manner by Albert Gallatin, the great Secretary of the Treasury. Louisiana was purchased from France, and the insolence and piracies of the Barbary States of Africa punished and stopped. In 1804, Mr. Jefferson was reelected, receiving all but 14 of the electoral votes. Burr was succeeded in the VicePresidency by Geor,,13 Clinton, and two years later’vas arrested and tried for a suppose([ attempt to separate the Western States from the Union. He v’vc,; acquitted of the charge, and his innocence is now generally admitt((. American commerce was much injured by the retaliatory decrl.e3 and orders in Council of the French and British Governments, under the sanction of which American ships were seized with impunity ill gross violation of the laws of nations. Great Britain was not content with these outrages, but asserted a right to impress American seamen into her navy, and to stop and search American vessels for deserters from her ships of war. These searches were generally conducted in the most aggravating manner, and hundreds of American sailors, owing no allegiance to King George, were forced into the British service. In June, 1807, the American frigate Chesapeake, on her way to the Mediterranean, was stopped off the Chesapeake Bay, by the British frigate Leopard, whose commander produced an order requiring him to search the ship for deserters. The American vessel refused to submit to the search, and was fired into by the Leopard, and, being in a helpless condition, was forced to yield with a loss of twentyone of her crew. Four men were taken from her and sent on board the Leopard. Three of these afterwards proved to be nativeborn Americans. This outrage aroused a feeling of the most intense indignation in America, and the Federal Government at once demanded reparation at the hands of Great Britain, which was evaded for the time, hut finally made in 1811. On the 11th of November, 1807, England issued an order in 144

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THE UNITED STATES. Council, forbidding neutral vessels to enter the ports of France until they had first touched at a British port and paid a duty; and the next month Napoleoil:,”)plied to thlis, by issuing a decree from Milan, ordering the confie,t;,. of every vessel which should submit to search by or pay any duties to the British authorities. These two piratical decrees, each of which was enforced by a powerful navy, meant simply the destruction of all neutral commerce, and that of America in particular. Mr. Jefferson recommended to Congress, in December, to lay an embargo, detaining all vessels, American or foreign, in the ports of the United States, and to order the immediate return home of all American vessels. This measure, which was a most singular expedient, was adopted, and gave rise to such intense dissatisfaction in all parts of the country, that it was repealed in February, 1809. As Mor. Jefferson declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party supported James Madison, of Virginia, for the Presidency, and George Clinton, of New York, for the VicePresi(lency, and elected them in 1808. They were inaugurated in March, 1 809. The measures of Mr. Jefferson’s second term, and especially the embargo, had given rise to considerable opposition to the Demo(‘racy, and this opposition was now directed against the new administration with no little bitterness, and followed it persistently until its withdrawal from power. Great Britain, instead of discontinuing her outrages upon American seamen and commerce, increased them every day, persistently refusing to be influenced by the protests and representations of the United States; and our Government, having at length exhausted all peaceable means of redress, was compelled to defend its rights with arms.

War was declared against England on the 3d of June, 1812, and measures looking to the conquest of Canada were at once set on foot. The nation was poorly prepared for war. The embargo had almost entirely destroyed the revenue of the Government, and the finances were in a state of sad confusion; the navy consisted of only eight firigates and seven other vessels; and the army was a mere handful of inefficient recruits. Still, America possessed this advantage. Great Britain was forced to make such tremendous exertions to carry on her war with France, that she did not have much strength left to expend upon this country. This is shown by the fact that England made no effort to blockade our coast until the 20th of March, 1813, when, having sent a ptrong fleet to our waters, she proclaimed the blockade of the entire American coast, except the shores of New England. 145

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146 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress authorized the President to increase the regular army by 25,000 men, and to call for 50,000
volunteers. The calls were responded to promptly in some of the States, tardily in some, and almost ignored in others, for the country was far from being united in support of the war. Hostilities b)egan in the Northwest. Previous to the war, the Indians of that region, instigated by British emissaries, commenced to make war upon the American settlements, under the leadership of the famous Shawnee Chief Tecumseh. General Harrison (afterwards President), the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, as soon as he learned of this, organized a considerable force of Western militia, and marched against the savages, whom he defeated with terrible loss, in a sanguinary battle at Tippecanoe, on the banks of the Wabash River, on the 7th of November, 1811. Though defeated in this battle, Tecumseh was not conquered. He passed the next six months in reorganizing his forces, and with the beginning of the summer of 1812, renewed hostilities. General Hull, then Governor of Michigan, was sent to meet him with a force of 2000 men. He had just begun his march when war was declared against England, and he was ordered to discontinue his expedition against the Indians, and invade Canada. His force was utterly inadequate to such an undertaking, but the War Department was too stupid to perceive this. He entered Caqada from Detroit, was met by a superior force of British and Indians, under General Brock, and was driven back to Detroit with a loss of 1200 men. This reduced his army to 800 men, with which he could do absolutely nothing. On the 16th of August, he surrendered Detroit to the enemy, who had followed him from Canada. This placed the whole of Miichigan in the hands of General Brock. An invasion of Canada from the Niagara frontier was also undertaken by our forces during the fall of 1812. It was a most disastrous failure. These defeats on land, however, were partly atoned for by our successes at sea. The navy had been utterly neglected by the Government at the outset of the war, and had been left to win by good service whatever encouragement it afterwards received. It achieved during the latter part of 1812 a series of brilliant victories, which placed it in the proud position it has since held. On the 19th of August, the frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere; on the 18th of October, the sloop of war Wasp, Captain Jones, captured the British brig Frolic; on the 25th of October, the frigate United States, Captain Decatur, captured the British fiigate

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THE UNITED STATES. Macedonian; and on the 29th of December, the Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java.

Privateers were sent to sea in great numbers, and(, by the close of the year 1812, had captured over 300 English merchant vessels. The Government renewed its efforts against Canada with the opening of the campaign of 1813. An army, under General Harrison, was collected near the head of Lake Erie, and styled the Army of the \Vest; an Army of the centre, under General Dearborn, was stationed along the Niagara frontier; and an Army of the North, under General Wade Hampton, was posted in northern New York, on the border of Lake Champlain. There were numerous engagements between these forces and tile enemy, but nothing definite was accomplished during the first half year. In April, General Pike, with a force of 1700

Americans, captured York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, but was himself killed by the explosion of a mine fired by the enemy. The town was not held, however, and the success of the attack was fully balanced by the terrible disaster which had befallen the Western Armny, in January, at River Raisin, in which a detach-, ment of 800 men, under General Winchester, had been defeated and the greater portion of them massacred by the Indians; who were now the open allies of the English. In May, the British made an attack on Sackett’s Harbor, on Lake Ontario, but were repulsed. In the same month, an American force, under General Boyd and Colonel Miller, captured Fort George, ill Canada, inflicting upon the British a loss of nearly 1000 men. Nothing definite was accomplished on the Niagara frontier, owing to the quarrels between Generals Wilkin.son an(d Hampton, and the grand invasion of Canada, from which so much had been expected, never took p)lace. The great events of the year, however, were the destruction of thile British fleet on Lake Erie, lIy the squadron of Captain Oliver H. Perry, on the 10th of September, vliichl caused the enemy to abandon the lake and with it the shores of Michigan and Ohio; and the battle of the Thames, in Canada, in which the Western Army, under General Harrison, on the 6th of October, utterly defeated a strong British column, under General Proctor, and a force of 2000 Indians, under Tecumseh, inflicting upon them a severe loss in killed and wounded-Tecumseh himself being among the former-and taking 600 prisoners, 6 pieces of cannon, and large quantities of stores. At sea, this year, the American brig Hornet, Captain Lawrence, captured the Peacock. On the 24th of February, Captain Lawrence 147

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148 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. . I SCENE OF TIlE BATTLE OF LAKE

CHAMPLAIN. was put in command of the frigate Chesapeake, which was captured by the British frigate Shannon, off Boston, on the 1st of June.

Lawrence was mortally wounded in this engagement. On the 5th of September, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, captured the British brig Boxer, Lieutenant Blythe. Both commanders were killed in the fight.

The campaign of 1814 was more important. The war in Europe having closed, large numbers of Wellington’s veteran troops were sent over to America.

They reached this country during the latter part of the year. Oni the 5th of July, the American army, under General Brown, defeated the British at Chippewa. On the 25th of the same month, General Brown won a second victory over the enemy

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-THE UNITED STATES. at Lundy’s Lane, or Bridgewater. General Winfield Scott held an important command in each of these engagements, and was wounded in the latter. Towards the close of the summer, Sir George Prevost, having been strongly reenforced from Wellington’s army, invaded the United States from Canada, at the head of 14,000 men. He was accompanied by a powerful fleet, which moved up Lake Champlain. He was met at Plattsburg, New York, on the 3d of September, by the little army of General Macomb and a small fleet under Commodore Macdonough. Macdonough inflicted a terrible defeat on the British squadron, utterly routing it with heavy loss, and General Macomb at the same time repulsed every effort on the part of the land forces of Sir George Prevost, who, dismayed at his disasters, retreated hastily into Canada, with a loss of 2500 men and the greater part of his fleet. In August, a British army, under General Ross, landed on the shore of the Patuxent River, in Maryland, and advanced upon the city of Washington, defeating the small American force which sought to bar its way at Bladensburg. General Ross succeeded in occupying Washington, from which, after burning the public buildings, he retired to his fleet, which had ascended the Potomac to Alexandria, to meet him. He then passed up to Baltimore, landing at North Point, near that city, while his fleet made a sharp attack upon Fort McHenry, which commanded the approach by water to the city. The fleet was repulsed by the fort, and Ross was killed in a skirmish near North Point. His successor at once reembarked the army, and abandoned the effort against Baltimore. At sea, the American frigates Essex and President were taken by superior forces of the enemy, while the British sloops of war, Epervier, Avon, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin were captured by the American cruisers. During the remainder of the year, nothing of importance occurred on land, but in January, 1815, a British force of 12,000 of Wellington’s veteran troops made an attack upon the city of New Orleans, but were defeated with the loss of their commander and 2000 men, by 5000 American troops under General Jackson. This battle was fought after a treaty of peace had been signed in Europe between the United States and Great Britain, but before the news had reached America. The victory was most important to the Americans, for had the result been different, there can be little doubt that England would have disregarded the treaty and have clung to a conquest which would have given her the control of the mouth of the Mississippi. In this 10’ 149.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. TIlE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE: SCENE OF THE

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. cse, either the war would have been prolonged upon a more formidable scale, or the destiny of the great West would have been marred forever. The restoration of peace in Europe upon the downfall of Napoleon removed many of the vexatious issues which had produced the war in this country, and disposed the British Government to be just in its dealings with America. Negotiations were begun in 1814, and a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 1814. By the terms of this treaty, the two Governments agreed to settle the vexed question of a boundary between the United States and Canada, and to mutually return all territory taken during the 150

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THE UNITED STATES. war, and arranged some minor details relating to their future intercourse, but nothing was said of the question of the impressment of American seamen, the chief cause of the war. Inasmuch, however, as Great Britain has never since then attempted such outrages, this question also may be regarded as settled by the war. During the war, the Barbary States resumed their old acts of piracy upon Amnerican vessels, notwithstanding the pledges which they had given, and upon the return of peace with England, a strong naval force under Commodores Bainbridge and Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean. This expedition forced the Barbary Powers to make indemnity for their piracies, and to pledge themselves to cease to molest American vessels in the future. The Federalist party had always opposed the war with England, and during its continuance gave it no assistance beyond the aid which the laws of the land extorted from them. The strength of this party lay in the New England States, where the losses occasioned by the war fell heaviest. The Federalists denounced the war as unnecessary and unjust, and waged in reality for the benefit of France rather than of America, and complained that while they lost heavily by it, the Government did nothing for the protection of the Eastern States& To remedy the evils of which they complained, their leaders met in Convention at Hartford, Conn., near the close of the war. The Convention recommended certain measures to the Legislatures of the Eastern States limiting the power of the General Government over the militia of the States, and urged the adoption of several amendments to the Constitution. The news of the treaty of peace put a stop to all further proceedings of this body. The Convention resulted in nothing but the ultimate destruction of the Federalist party, which came to be regarded by the people at large as having been untrue to the Republic in its hour of need. Mr. Madison was reelected President, and Elbridge Gerry chosen VicePresident, in 1812. Thus the former had the satisfaction of conducting the war, which had been begun during his administration, to a successful close. He declined to be a candidate for a third term, and James Monroe, of Virginia, was nominated by the Democratic party, and elected in 1816, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as VicePresident. Mr. Monroe had been Secretary of State during the greater part of Mr. Madison’s administration. The return of peace found the country burdened with a debt of f80,000,000, and with almost a total absence of specie in its mercalf 151

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tile transactions, the majority of the banks having suspended payments of gold and silver. In 1817, Congress established a National Bank at Philadelphia, with a charter for twenty years and a oapital of $35,000,000. The notes of this institution supplied to a great extent the demand for a circulating medium of uniform value throughout the country, and did much to relieve the financial distress of the period. Two States were added to the Union during Mr. Madison’s administration, Louisiana (in 1812) and Indiana (in 1816). Mr. Monroe had been exceedingly popular as Secretary of State, and the good will of the people followed him into the Presidential chair. His administration proved so acceptable to all parties that he was reelected in 1820 by every electoral vote but one. Five new States were admitted into the Union during his continuance in office, viz: Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818); Alabama (1819), Maine (1820), and Missouri (1821)., For some years the opposition to African slavery in America had been spreading through the Northern States, and had been steadily gathering strength. When the territory of Missouri presented its petition to Congress for admission as a State with a Constitution sanctioning slavery within its limits, there was a very general determination expressed on the part of the Friee-labor States to oppose the admission of another Slaveholding State. The Southern members of the Confederacy, on the other hand, insisted upon the right of Missouri to choose its own institutions, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if this right was denied her by excluding her from the Union. A bitter contest witlh regard to the subject of slavery now developed itself between the two sections of the Republic, which ceased only with the late Rebellion. The country was agitated in every portion, and the best men of the land expressed grave fears that the Union would be torn to pieces by the violence of the contending parties. After much wrangling, however, Henry Clay stuceeded in procuring the passage of a series of measures known as the “Missouri Compromise!’ By this arrangement, Missouri was admitted into the Union with her slaveholding Constitution, and slavery was forever prohibited in that portion of the Territory of the Republic lying north of 36~ 30’ N. latitude. This Compromise was regarded as a final settlement of the slavery question, and had the effect of securing about thirty years of quiet and repose for the country. During Mr.

Monroe’s Presidency, the Spanish Republics of South America deelare. their indepenence of Spain, and successfully main 152

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THE UNITED STATES. tained it for several years. In 1822, they were recognized by the United States. In his annual message for the year 1823, Mr. Monroe gave utterance to the following principle, which has since been distinctly recognized by successive administrations as the unwavering policy of the United States: “That as a principle the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power.” This declaration is commonly known as the “Monroe Doctrine.” Mr. Monroe declined to be a candidate for reelection in the political campaign of 1824. A number of candidates were presented to the people, but the popular vote merely threw the election into the House of Representatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen President. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, had already been chosen VicePresident by,the people. The principal event of this administration was the adoption for the first time of a high tariff for the purpose of protecting American manufactures fromi the competition of foreign importations. This act was sustained by the, Northern people, who were engaged in manufactures, and for whose benefit it was adopted, but was bitterly denounced by the South, which, being an agricultural country, naturally desired the liberty of buying her goods where they could be procured best and cheapest. The division of sentiment thus produced grew more distinct every day, and brought about considerable trouble in the end. There canll be no doubt that it was one of the principal causes of the late civil war. In 1828, Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee was elected President over Mr. Adams, and John C. Calhoun chosen VicePresident a sec ond time. The President, at the outset of his term, increased the number of his Constitutional advisers by inviting the Postmaster General to a seat in his Cabinet. The right of the Postmaster-General to such a place had never been conceded before, but has always been acknowledged since 1829. The new President began his career by advising Congress, in his annual message, not to extend the operations of the National Bank, whose directors sought a renewal of its charter. Hle declared that the existence of such an institution was not authorized by the Consti tution. This inaugurated a long and bitter contest between the ad ministration and the friends of the bank, which was sustained by almost the entire mercantile community. In 1832, Congress passed 153

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. a bill renewing the charter of the bank, which was vetoed by the President. An effort was made to pass the bill over the veto, but failed for want of the constitutional number of votes.

The charter of the bank, therefore, expired by law ill 1836. Tile tariff question assumed formidable proportions, during this administration. In 1832, Congress increased the rate of duties. South Carolina immediately declared her intention to resist the efforts of the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston, and prepared to maintain her position by force of arms. Tile great. leader of this opposition to the Government was John C. Calhoun, who had a short time previous resigned the office of VicePresident, to become a United States Senator from South Carolina. His principal coadjutors were Robert G. Hayne, Senator from South Carolina, and George McDuffie, the Governor of the State. Thle party of which these brilliant men were the leaders, boldly declared that a State might at pleasure nullify any law of Congress which it believed to be unconstitutional. The danger to the country was very great, and it seemed that open war would prevail between the General Government and, South Carolina; for President Jackson, who had been reelected in 1832, with Martin Van Buren of New York as VicePresident, declared his determination to enforce the law. He sent a ship of war to Charleston, ordered General Scott to proceed to that place with all the available troops under his command, issued a proclamation denying the right of a State to nullify the laws of the Federal Government, and warning all persons engaged in sustaining the State of South Carolina in its unlawful course that the extreme penalty of the law against treason would be inflicted upon them. He also caused the leaders of the rebellion to be privately informed of his intention to seize and hang them as soon as they shoul( commit the first overt act against the United States. The President’s firmness averted the troubles for the time. He was sustained by the great mass of the people throughout the country, and the vexed question was finally settled by thle introduction of measures into Congress for the gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. This compromise was proposed by Henry Clay, and accepted by the nullifiers, who were now convinced that “Old Hickory” was sincere in his threat to enforce tho law. The bank question came up again, just as the nullification excite ment d(lied out. The public funds were required by law to be deposited in the Bank of the United States, the charter of which wa 154

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THE UNITED STATES. about to expire by limitation. Tile President, in December, 1832, reconimnen(lded( the removal I)y Cong,ress of these funds, but that b)ody refused to take this step. Tile President then ordere(l tile Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. McLane, to remove the funds and d(eposit them in specified State l)anks. Mr. McLanc refused to do so, an(l was transferred to the State Department, vlwhichl was then vac(ant.

William J. Duane was then appointed to the Trelsul.y, but lie, too, refused to remove the funds, and was deprived of lhis office and sue ceeded by Roger B. Taney, who promp)tly-transferred the fulnds from the Bank of the United States to the State banks designate(l by the President.

Thlis step left no doubt on the part of the people of tlm intention of the President to destroy the National Bank, and produced a severe panic in business circles. The President lost many friends, and was severely denounced throughout the country. In the Senate, Clay, Calhoun and Webster, the leaders of the opposition, assailed him bitterly, and the Senate passed a resolution censuring his course, by a vote of 26 ayes to 20 noes. He was sustained by the House of Representatives, whose endorsement, considering the origin of that body, was more important than the censure of the Senate. In March, 1837, the Senate expunged its resolution of censure from its journal. During President Jackson’s administration, the national debt was paid, and the States of Arkansas (in 1836) and Michigan (1837) were admitted into the Union. France, Spain, Naples, and Porttugal wvere forced to make good their depredation.s upon American commerce; important commercial treaties were negotiated with foreign countries; and the war against the Seminole Indians in Florida was begun and prosecuted with vigor. This war lasted until 182, and cost the country $40,000,000. In 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the candidate of the Democratic party, was elected President. The contest for the VicePresidency was thrown into the Senate, and resulted in the choice of Richard M. Johnson. Mr. Van Buren began his administration at the outset of the great commercial crisis of 1837, and was seriously hampered during the whole of his term, by the troubles arising from that disaster. The principal measures of his administration were designed to remedy the financial evils from which the country was suffering. The most important was the establishment of the Sub-Treasury of the United States, whichl is still in operation. In 1840, Williamn Henry Harrison of Indiana, and John Tyler of Virginia, the candidates of the Whig party, were elected Preside~

155

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and VicePresident. General Harrison did not long survive his inauguration. He died on the 4th of April, 1841, and was succeeded by John Tyler, the VicePresident. The Whigs were in favor of a National Bank, and Congress passed several Acts chartering such an institution, all of which were vetoed by the President, whose views on the subject accorded with the principles of the Democratic party. In consequence of these Acts, he was abandoned by the party which had elected him, and was supported by the Democracy, with which he thenceforth identified himself. During Mr. Tyler’s term, the question of the northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was settled by a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of August, 1842. A more real service was rendered, however, by the measures resulting in the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United States, which were carried to a successful issue in spite of a determined opposition by the Whig party. The admission of Texas as a State of the Union, occurred on the 1st of March, 1845. It was a most important step, as it not only increased the territory of the Republic, but forever prevented Great Britain from acquiring a foothold on tle Gulf Coast of America. Mr. Tyler’s last official act was to approve the admission of the States of Florida and Iowa into the Union, on the 3d of March, 1845. In 1844, James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected President, with George M.

Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as VicePresident. This was a Democratic triumph.

When Mr. Polk came into office, the country was involved in a dispute with the Republic of Mexico respecting the boundary between the State of Texas and Mexico. This dispute resulted in hostilities between the two countries, which began on the Rio Grande, between the armies of Generals Taylor and Arista, inll April, 1846. General Taylor defeated the Mexican army on the Rio Grande, at Palo Alto, May 8th, 1846, and at Resaca de la Palma, the next day. On being reenforced, he drove the Mexicans into the interior, capturing their strong city of Monterey, and defeating their best army, under their President himself, at Buena Vista (Feb. 22, 1847).

Taylor’s operations were now brought to a close in consequence of troops being taken from him to reenforce General Scott, who was collecting his forces for an expedition against the city of Vera Cruz. Scott landed before that city on the 9th of March, 1847, and captured it, after a vigorous siege, on the 29th. Moving into the interior, he defeated the enemy in a series of hard fought battles at Cherubusco, Cerro Gordo, Chapultepec, and Molino del Rey, and captured the 156

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THE UNITED STATES. city of Mexico, which he entered in triumph on the 14th of September, 1847, and held until the close of the war. In 1846, General Stephen Kearney conquered New Mexico, while Commodore Stockton and Colonel Fremont drove the enemy out of and occupied California. Kearney marched from New Mexico into California in Jantlary, 1847, and on the 8th of February assumed the office of Governor of the territory, and proclaimed its annexation to the United States. About the same time Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 Missouri volunteers, made a forced march across the Plains, and on the 28th of February defeated a force of 4000 Mexicans and captured the city of Chihuahua. A treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848. Mexico yielded the boundary of the Rio Grande, and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States, and the latter Power agreed to pay Mexico the sum of $15,00,0o6o, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to American citizens, to the amount of $3,750,000. Great Britain had claimed the territory of Oregon as a part of, British America, and our Government had insisted upon it as a part of the common property of the Republic, and had even declared its intention to go to war with England rather than be satisfied with anything less than the whole of Oregon. Nevertheless, as a measure of peace, the administration of Mr. Polk proposed to England the 49th parallel of North latitude for a boundary, our original claim baving extended to the line of 54~ 40’. As this compromise gave to Great Britain all of Vancouver’s Island and the present colony of British Columbia, it was accepted. Recent events have proved that the territory was worth fighting for, and that our Government parted with it too readily. Free trade ideas prevailed during this administration to an extent sufficient to secure a modification of the high protective tariff of 1846. In May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union. Ill 1848, Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, was elected President, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, VicePresident, by the Whigs. In this campaign, the antislavery party presented Martin Van Buren as their candidate for the Presidency. This organization had grown by degrees into considerable prominence upon the principle of opposition to the extension of slavery, and its strength in 1848 is shown by the fact, that although Van Buren secured no electoral vote, he received a popular vote of 291,263. 167

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tile slavery question now presented itself again, this time in a most aggravated forni, for both the friends and enemies of that system of labor had become more powerful since the temporary settlement of 1820. A strong antislavery party had developed itself at the North, which was avowedly determined to oppose the further extension of slavery, and( which was believed in the South to be working for the overthrow of that institution in the States in which it already existed. The contest was resumied in Congress, in 1846, while measures were on foot looking to peace with Mexico, by a Proposition from a Northern member that in the territory which should be acquired by the war then going on, there should be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except for crime. This measure, known as the ” Wilmot Proviso,” passed the House of Representatives by a large majority, but the Senate adjourned before a vote could be had uponi it. The next year the House readopted the “Proviso,” which was rejected by the Senate. The House then abandoned it.

The measure was bitterly assailed by the South, which claimed that inasmuch as it had furnished the larger number of the troops by which the war was fought and the territory won, its institutions should receive the same encouragement and protection in the new Territory as those of the North. Tlhe dispute becanme very bitter, and made the Presidential election of 1848 one of the most memorable in our history. Fresh excitement was added to the quarrel by the events in California. Gold was discovered in that Territory in February, 1848, and it at once attracted a large emigration from the Eastern States and all parts of the world. In a few months the population of the Territory was over 100,000. Early in 1849, it was found that an organized government was an absolute necessity, and that there were inhabitants enough to entitle the Territory to admission into the Union as a State; and in September, 1849, a Convention was held at Monterey, which adopted and submitted to Congress a Constitution prohibiting slavery. The Soithern States took strong ground against the erection of California into a free State, and even went so far as to threaten to withdraw from the Union if slavery were interfered with any further by the Government. They held a Convention at Nashville, Tennessee, in 1850, and pledged themselves to a united course of action.

The tone assumed by them was belligerent and threatening in the extreme.

They demanded in Congress not only the rejection of the free Constitution of California, but an amendment of the Constitution of the United States which should equalize the power of the Free and 158

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THE UNITED STATES. Slave States in the General Government. New Mexico now asked admission into the Union, and Texas set up a claimn to a western boundary which included a large part of New Mexico. These minor questions very greatly complicated the main issue. The cxcitemlent throughout the country was even greater than that of 1820, and for a vlwhile it seemed that the Union would surely be destroyed. Finally a compromise, known as the “Compromise of 1850,” was proposed in the Senate by Henry Clay, and carried through Congress by great exertions on the part of the moderate men of both sections. This Compromise admitted California as a free State; erected Utah and New Mexico into Territories, leaving the question of the exclusion of slavery to the people thereof when they came to form State Constitutions; arranged the western boundary of Texas; abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and substituted a new law for the rendition of fligitive slaves, in place of the old Act, whichi was ineffective. This Compromise Nvas bitterly opposed by the extreme men of both the North and the South. The former delnounce(d the concessions to Texas in the boundary question, and fiercely assailed the refiusal to forbid slavery in the Territories; and the fugitive slave law was not only denounced as unchristian and unconstitutional, but was opposed on the part of the Free States by a series of p)rohibitory acts which the candid student of history is compelled to regard as as unlawful as the disunion measures of the proslavery party. The South, on the other hand, was furious over the admission of California as a free State, and the refilsal of Congress to sanction and protect slavery in the Territories. Still, as it was plain that these measures embodied the only settlement possible at the time, the great body of the nation accepted tlhem in good faith, and the Government honestly executed the fugitive slave law in all cases in which its aid was invoked, putting down the resistance of mobs by force.

In the midst of the struggle over the “Compromise,” General Taylor died (on the 9th of July, 1850), and was succeeded by Millard Fillmore, the VicePresident, who opened his administration with a change of Cabinet ministers. He gave his hlearty support to the Compromise measures, and contributed greatly towards securing their passage. The principal events of his term were, the invasion of Cuba by Lopez, in 1851, which was defeated by the Spaniards; tho visit of Kossuth to the United States, in 1851; the disputes with England concerning the fisheries, in 1852, which were satisfactorily settled; and the expedition of Commodore Perry to Japan, by means 159

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of which an important treaty was negotiated withl the Japanese Government, and the ports of the empire opened to the commerce of all nations. The slavery question entered largely into the Presidential campaign of 1852, and so greatly weakened the Whig party as to defeat it. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Alabama, the candidates of the Democracy, were elected President and VicePresident by handsome majorities. This administration is memorable for the violent political contests which prevailed during its term. It began by settling a dispute with Mexico, by purchasing from it the Territory of Arizona. In 1853, Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War, inaugurated the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, by sending out anl expedition of U.S. Engineers for that purpose. In December, 1853, Mr.

Douglas, the Senator from Illinois, introduced a bill organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, lying west of the Missouri River, and northi of the line of 36~ 30’ N. latitude, in which region the Act of 1820
had forever prohibited slavery. This new bill repealed the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820, and reopened the slavery question in that region.

The administration and the leaders of the Democratic party supported the measure, which was opposed by the great mass of the people of the free States without regard to party, and denounced by them as a violation of the plighted faith of the nation. It was hotly debated in Congress, but passed the Senate by a vote of 37 to 14, and the House by a vote of 113 to 100, and at length received the Executive approval on the 31st of May, 1854. The passage of this bill created the most intense excitement in the country. It greatly increased the strength of the antislavery party, which now began to be known as the Republican party, and alienated many Democrats from their party. The Act left the Territories free to decide between slavery and free labor, and thus opened the way for a long and bloody warfare within their limits; the events of which will be related in another part of this work. An effort was made by the administration to purchase Cuba from Spain; but that Power declined to sell the island. An expedition of filibusters, under General William Walker, succeeded in conquering the Central American State of Nicaragua. Walker at once sent an envoy to WVashington, who was formally recognized by the President. The antislavery, or Republican party now exhibited its strength by electing Mr. Banks, of Massachusetts, Speaker of the Lower Hlouse of Congress, and in the Presidential contest of 1856, nominated John 160

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THE UNITED STATES. C. Fremont as its candidate, and secured for him 114
electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,341,264. A new element in this contest was the Know-Nothing, or American party, which supported Mr.

Fillmore for the Presidency. It was founded upon a principle of hostility to the influence of foreigners, and especially of Roman Catholics, in our Government. Mr. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes, and 874,534 popular votes. The election resulted in the choice of the candidates of the Democratic party; James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was elected President, and John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, Vice President. Mr. Buchanan’s administration was entirely Southern in its sympathies, and was marked by a constant struggle in Congress and throughout the country over the slavery question. The struggle in Kansas went on with great bitterness until the close of his term, the power of the Government being generally cast against the free settlers of that Territory, who were forced to take extraordinary measures for their defence. An effort was made to force a proslavery Constitution upon the Territory, and it split the Democratic party into two wingsthe larger of which, led by Stephen A. Douglas, united with the Republicans in opposing the Constitution; while the smaller, led by the extreme Southern men in Congress, received the aid of the administration, and secured the adoption of the Constitution by Congress after a severe and protracted struggle. In 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State, and was followed by Oregon in 1859. In 1857, the Mormon settlers of Utah Territory took up arms against the authority of the General Government. The rebellion continued for some time, and a military force was sent against the rebels; but the trouble was at length quieted without bloodshed. In October, 1859, John Brown, with a small band of followers, seized the United States Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, and endeavored to incite the slaves of Virginia to revolt against their masters. IHIe and his men were captured by the United States troops, a number of them being killed by the soldiers in the fight. The survivors were turned over to the authorities of the State of Virginia, by whom they were tried, convicted, and hanged. This attempt was regarded in the South as incontestable evidence of the determination of the North to destroy slavery, while at the North a formidable party denounced the execution of Brown as a murder, and by their unwise and unpatriotio course greatly strengthened the hands of the leaders of the disunion movement in the South. 161

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Presidential election of 1860, turned mainly upon the question of slavery ill the Territories. The Democratic party, already weakened by the’(ansas question, now finally split into two fragments. The larger wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, as their candidate. They held that Congress had no power either to sanction or forbid slavery in the Territories, but that the question could be decided only by the people thereof, who were most interested in it. The smaller wing chose John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, as their candidate, and declared it to be the express duty of Congress to sanction and protect slavery in all the Territories of the Republic, maintaiming that the Constitution of its own force carried slavery into them. The Republican party nominated Abraham Tiincoln, of Illinois, as its candidate. This party denied any intention to interfere with the domestic institutions of any of the States, but avowed its determination to prevent the introduction of slavery into the Territories by Congressional legislation, and denounced as false the doctrine that the Constitution established slavery in any part of the Union. It asserted the right of every community to manage its domestic affairs in its own way, and denounced the invasion of Virginia by John Brown as wicked and unjustifiable. A fourth party, known as the “Constitutional Union Party,” nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the Presidency, and adopted the following very vague and indefinite platform of principles: “The Union, the Constitution, and the enforcement of the laws.” The contest was bitter beyond all precedent When the election took place, the result at the polls was as follows: Popular vote for Lincoln……… 1,866,452 ” ” ” Douglas……… 1,375,157 ” ”’

” Breckenridge………………. 847,953 ” ” I IBell……………..

590,631 The electoral vote was divided as follows: For Lincoln, 180; for Breckenridge, 72; for Bell, 39; for Douglas, 12. The election of Mr.

Lincoln was seized upon by the extreme proslavery leaders as a pretext for the withdrawal of the Southern States from the Union. The Gulf States had, indeed, during the early part of the Presidential contest, declared their deliberate determination to secede, in case of the election of a Republican President. Their people honestly believed that such a result of the campaign would be fatal to their-institutions, inasmuch as they expected a Republican President to destroy the institution of slavery, forgetting in their alarm 162 0

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THE UNITED STATES. that that official could have no power to harm them.

The disunion leaders took paints to deepen this vague fear. Hlow well they suoceeded is shown by the result. As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the Legislature of South Carolina summoned a Convention of the people of that State, which met on the 17th of December, 1860. This Convention adopted an ordinance of Secession, and withdrew the State from the Union, on the 20th of December. The cause of this action was declared to be as follows: “We assert that fourteen of the States have deliberately refused for years to fulfil their Constitutional obligations, and we refer to their own statutes for proof…. In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from the service of labor claimed, and in none of them has the State government complied with the stipulations made in the Constitution….. Thus the Constitutional compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the nonil-slaveholding States; and the consequence follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation.” Another cause was declared to be, “the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery.” This declaration may be regarded as embodying the principal reasons assigned by the other States for their action. The secession of South Carolina was followed by that of Mississippi, January 9th, 1861, Florida, January 10th, Alabama, January 11th, Georgia, January 19tl, Louisiana, January 26th, and Texas, February 1st. Thie forts, arsenals, and other public property of the United States in these States were seized by the State authorities, and held by their troops, except Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida. Fort Sumter was occupied by Major Robert Anderson with 80 men. Major Anderson had originally occupied Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s Island, but knowing the purpose of the State authorities to seize the public property at Charleston, he evacuated his post on the night of December 25th, 1860, and threw himself with his command into Fort Sumter. The General Government was at this time almost helpless. The army, but 16,000 strong, wvas posted on the remote frontier, and the available vessels of the navy were nearly all in foreign waters. Many of the most prominent officials, including several of the Cabinet Ministers, were in open sympathy with the seceded States, and the President seemed ony anxious to delay any definite action in the matter until the inauguration of his successor. His recommendations to 163

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress were not equal to the emergency.

He was in favor of conceding everything but separate independence to the South, not seeing that the leaders of the secession movement would accept nothing but separation, and by his timidity lost the advantages which the Governnient would have gained by a bold and firm course. Still, he refused to yield to the pressure which was brought upon him for the purpose of securing the surrender of Fort Sumter to the State of South Carolina. He also refused to sell the fort to the State, or to order Anderson back to Fort Moultrie, as he was urged to do. Various plans were proposed in Congress and by the States for the settlement of the national troubles, but none were attended with success. A Border State Convention met in Washington on the 4th of February, 1861, for this purpose, but adjourned, after a session of three weeks, without having accomplished anything of a definite character. The quarrel waxed hotter every day. An attempt on the part of tle Government to send reenforcements and supplies to Fort Sumter was resisted by the forces of South Carolina, and the vessel charged with that duty was fired on, and turned back. South Carolina, through her Legislature, declared that any future attempt to send aid to Fort Sumter would be regarded as an act of war, and would be resisted by force. On the other hand, the Legislatures of New York, Ohio, and Massachusetts pledged those States to assist the President with their whole military force “in putting down the rebellion.” The seceded States now formed a league for their common defence. The various State Conventions elected delegates to a Convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, on the 4th of February, 1861.

This Convention at once organized a new Republic, to which it gave the name of the Confederate States of America. On the 8th of February, a Provisional Constitution having been adopted, the Convention elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, VicePresident of the Confederate States. The action of the Convention was approved by all the States comprising the new Confederacy, and the Provisional Government at once entered upon its duties. Montgomery was made the seat of government. On the 4th of March, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of the United States. As it was feared that an attempt would be made to prevent the inauguration, the city of Washington was held by an armed force under the command of Lieutenant-General 164

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THE UNITED STATES. Scott. The ceremonies passed off without interruption.

In his inaugural address Mr. Lincoln announced his determination to collect the revenue in the ports of the seceded States, and to “ho]d, occupy, and possess” the forts, arsenals, and other public property seized by those States. At the time of his entrance upon the duties of his office Forts Sumter and Pickens were still held by Federal garrisons. The Confederate Government, convinced that a struggle was in, evitable, prepared with energy for it. Nearly all the officers of the army and navy of the United States, who wcse natives of the seceded States, resigned their commissions and entered the service of the Confederacy. The troops assembled at Charleston and Pensacola were reinforced from other States.

The command at the former place was conferred upon General Pierre G. T.

Beauregard, and of the latter upon General Braxton Bragg, both of whom had been distinguished officers of the old army. In the meantime the Federal Government had determined to sen(c an expedition to Charleston for the relief of Fort Sumter. A fleet of seven ships and 2400 men was prepared, and sailed from New York early in April. On the 8th of April, after the fleet had sailed, Governor Pickens was informed of the departure of the expedition, and of the purpose of the Government to relieve Fort Sumter at all hazards. The Governor communicated the intelligence to the Con.

federate authorities, who ordered General Beauregard to demand of Major Anderson the surrender of the fort. The demand was refused, and on the morning of the 12th of April the Southern batteries opened fire upon Fort Sumter, and continued it until the afternoon of the 14th, when the fort, which had been greatly injured, surrendered. The Federal fleet arrived in the offing during the bombardment, but made no effort to assist the fort.

The garrison embarked on board of it after the surrender, and it returned to New York. The attack upon Fort Sumter put an end to the last hope of peace. Both sides at once flew to arms. On the 15th of April President Lincoln called upon the States to furnish 75,000 troops for the suppression of the rebellion, and issued a proclamation convening congress in extra session on the 4th of July. The Northern and ,gestern States quickly responded to the call, and promptly forwarded their troops to the designated points. The Southern Government also called for troops to resist the Federal forces, and its call was responded to with alacrity.

Until now the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 11 1

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Missouri, generally known as the border States, had remained in the Union in the hope of effecting a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. Each of these States was illecluded in President Lincoln’s call for troops; but their sympathies wvere with the South, and they refused to furnish the quotas demanded of them. All but Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri cast their lot with the South. Virginia seceded on the 17th of April; Arkansas on the 6th of May; North Carolina on the 20th of May; and Tennessee on the 8th of June. All these States subsequently ratified the Constitution of the Confederate States, and became members of the new RIepublic. Kentucky and Missouri attempted to remain neutral, but were ere long drawn into the struggle. Harper’s Ferry and the Portsmouth Navy Yard, in Virginia, were seized by the State forces, and the other important points in the South were occupied by the Confederate forces. The western counties of Virginia refused to follow the eastern portion of the State, and declared their independence. In November, 1861, a Convention at Wheeling organized the new State of West Virginia, which was at length admitted into the Union by Congress on the 20th of June, 1863. The call of President Lincoln for troops was answered by 300,000 volunteers. In a short time a sufficient force was assembled at Washington to insure the safety of the capital, and Alexandria and the Virginia shore were seized and fortified. Baltimore was occu)ied, and the communications of Washington with the North were secured. On the 19th of April the President issued a proclamation d(eclaring all the ports of the South in a state of blockade. Oil the 10th of May he declared the writ of habeas corps suspended in certain localities. A little later the Legislature of Maryland, which was largely Southern in its sympathies, was prevented from meeting by the arrest and imprisonment of a large number of its members by order of the Secretary of War. Congress met on the 4th of July, and measures were adopted without delay for putting in the field an army of half a million of men, and for collecting and equipping a powerful navy, and the sum of $500,000,000 was appropriated for the prosecution of the war. In the meantime the Confederates had collected troops in West Virginia, at Hlarper’s Ferry, at Manassas Junction, near Washington, and on the Peninsula, between the York and the James rivers.Norfolk was also held by a strong force. On the 10th of June a column of Federal troops attacked a Confedemte force at t etbel I,66

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THE UNITED STATES. Church, near Fortress Monroe, and was defeated. In West Virginia the Federal forces were more successful. General McClellan defeated the Confederates at Rich Mountain on the 11th of July, and drove themn across the mountains with the loss of their leader, General Garnett.

The main Federal force was assembled before Washington, and was placed under the command of General McDowell. An advance upon the Confederates at Manassas Junction, under General Beaure gard, having been determined upon, General Patterson was sent into the valley of Virginia to prevent General Johnston from marching from -Harper’s Ferry to Beauregard’s assistance. On the 17th of July McDowell began his advance from the Potomac with over 50,000 men and 49 pieces of cannon. Upon learning of this move ment Johnston skilfully eluded Patterson and marched to Manassas, arriving there with the bulk of his army in time to take part in the battle. On the 21st of July McDowell attacked the Confederate army, which was 31,400
strong, with 55 guns, on the banks of Bull Run, and after a severe battle, which lasted from sunrise to nearly sunset, was driven back in utter rout upon Alexandria, with a loss of between 4000 and 5000 men and 28 cannon.

The Confederates nmade no effort at pursuit. As soon as it had recovered from the first shock of the disaster, the Federal Government set to work with vigor to repair its losses. General George B. McClellan was appointed to the chief command of the forces of the Union, and was ordered to take charge of the Army of the Potomac, which was assembling before Washington.

Hle made of this force the best disciplined army in America. In Virginia the fall and winter were passed by both armies in preparing. for the struggle which was to begin in the spring. On the 21st of October a Federal force under Colonel Baker was repulsed with heavy loss in an effort to drive in the Confederate left wing at leesburg. In order to be near the scene of operations the Confederate seat of government was removed on the 21st of May to Richmond, Virginia. That city remained the capital of the Confederacy throughout the war. Indecisive but severe fighting marked the latter months of the year in West Virginia. The result was that the Confederates were unable to regain the footing they had lost in that section.. The efforts of Missouri to remain neutral met the unqualified oppo* 167:

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sition of the Federal authorities,-and thile Governor and State officials took up arms and formed a league with the Confederate States. The Federal troops under General Lyon drove the State forces from Jefferson City on the 15th of June, and defeated them in an encounter at Booneville on the 17th. The Missourians then retreated into the southwestern part of the State, and on the 5th of July repulsed the attack of a Federal column under General Sigel, at Carthage. The next day the Missourians were joined by a Confederate force under General McCulloch. The combined forces advanced into the interior of the State, and on the 10th of July were attacked by General Lyon at Wilson’s Creek, near Springfield. Lyon was killed and his army defeated. On the 20th of September the State forces under General Price captured Lexington after a short siege. By the close of the year the Confederates had been driven out of Missouri into Arkansas. The State was by these d(lecisivelmeasures saved to the Union. Neither party respected the neutralitv of Kentucky, which State, like Missouri, furnished troops to both armies. The Federal forces vwere poured into Kentticky, and the Confederates seized Columbus Ln(d Bowling Green. On the 7th of November General Grant, with a small force, attacked a Confederate foree at Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the Mississippi, opposite Columbus, but was repulsed. At the outset of the war the Confederates held the principal points on the southern Atlantic coast, which they’fortified as well as the means at’ hand would permit. In order to render the blockade effectual, the Government determined to capture these as soon as possible. The first expeditio”i was despatched in August, 1861, from Fortress Monroe, and resulted in the capture of the Confederate works at Hatteras Inlet, which commanded the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. On the 7th of November a, powerful fleet reduced the works at the entrance to Port Royal, South Carolina, and secured that magnificent harbor. It remained during the war the principal naval station of the Federal fleet on the southern coast. Efforts were made to render the blocklade effective, but “bl)lockade runners,” built and owned principally in England, managed to elude the vigilance of the fleet, and kept up a regular communication between the South and Europe, by way of the Bahamas and West Indies, until near the close of the war. In the fall of 1861’ James M. Mason, of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, were sent by the Confederate Government as 168 I

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THE UNITED STATES. Commissioners to England and France. They ran the blockade and reached Havana in safety. There they embarked for England oil board the British mail steamer “Trelt.” This vessel was stopped (on the high seas by the United States steamer “San Jacinto,” Captain Wilkes.

Wilkes removed thle Southern Commissioners to his own vessel, and suffered the “Trent” to proceed on her voyage. He then sailed to Boston, where the Commissioners were consigned to Fort Warren. The “Trent” reached England in safety, and her co(mlnanider reported to his government the indignity offered to its flag. Great Britain promptly demanded of the United States the immediate and unconditional release of the Confederate Commissioners, and satisfaction for the insult to her flag. The Federal Government disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes in seizing the Commnissioners, and those gentlemen were released and allowed to continue their voyage. They reached Europe in due time. Mr. Mason proceeded to London, Mr. Slidell to Paris; but neither was received in an official capacity by the English or French Governments, nor could they at any time during the struggle secure the countenance of those governments for their cause. The opening of the year 1862 found both parties better prepared lor the conflict. The war had by this time assumed colossal proportions. The military operations extended almost across the continent and engaged a number of powerful armies and a formidable navy. The opening of the year found the United States with an effective alrrmy of over half a million of men, splendidly equipped, and suppliel with everything necessary for the prosecution of the war. Specie had disappeared from circulation on both sides of the Potomac, and both the General Government and that of the Confederacy had resorted to paper money as a means of supplying the lack of currency. In th(e North a heavy government loan was readily negotiated with the capitalists of the Eastern States, and furnished the Federal Government with the funds needed for the prosecution of the war. In the South volunteering had ceased, and the Confederate Government, after trying various expedients, was driven to the adoption of - conscription law which placed every ablebodied male white between the ages of eighteen and thirtyfive years in the military service. The military operations of the year began in the West. On the 19th of January General George H. Thomas defeated a Confederate force under General Zollicoffer, at Mill Spring, in Kentucky, and broke the right of the Confederate line of defence, the centre of which 169

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. was at Bowling Green and the left at Columbus. This success was followed by the capture of Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, on the 6th of February, by the troops of Brigadier-General Ulysses S. Grant and the gunboat fleet’under Commodore Foote. After this success the gunboats moved around to the Ohio and entered the C,umberland, while Grant’s army marched across the country to Fort Donelson on the latter river, below Nashville. This strong work was invested, and was captured on the 16th of February, after three days of hard fighting. Over 5000 prisoners fell into the hands of the victors.

These successes compelled the Confederate forces to evacuate Bowling Green and Columbus. General Beauregard fell back from Columbus to Corinth, an important railroad centre in northern Misissippi, and General A. S.

Johnston fell back from Bowling Green through Nashville to the Tennessee river, and finally by a flank march joined Beauregard at Corinth. All Kentucky and Middle Tennessee were thus gained by’the Federal troops.

General Buell’s army occupied Nashville, and General Grant advanced to Pittsburgh Landing, on the Tennessee, not far from Corinth. Buell was ordered to join Grant as soon as possible, when their combined forces were to attack Corinth. To prevent this junction General Sidney Johnston, the Confederate commander, after uniting his force with that under Beauregard at Corinth, advanced to the Tennessee to attack Grant before Buell could join him. He attacked the Federal army on the morning of April 6th, at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Laniding, and drove it to the Tennessee.

Towards the close of the day he was mortally wounded, and died a little later. The command passed to General Beauregard, who failed to follow up his advantage. During the night Buell’s army arrived, and thus reinforced, Grant, on the morning of the 7th, attacked the Confederates, and after a sharp fight forced them to retreat to Corinth. On the 7th of April Island No. 10, in the Mississippi, which had been fortified by the Confederates, was captured by the gunboat fleet and a force under General Pope. The Confederates retreated to Fort Pillow, a short distance above Memphis.

General Halleck now took command of the Union army in the West, and laid siege to Corinth, which was evacuated on the 29th of May by Beauregard, who retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. This retreat compelled the evacuation of Fort Pillow, and on the 6th of ,June the Fed~eral forces occupied Memphis. All West Tennessee was now held by the Federal forces, whose line extended from Memphis, through Corinth, almost to Chattanooga.

170

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THE UNITED STATES. The Confederates still held East Tennessee, and collected an army of over 50,000 men, under General Braxton Bragg,. at Chattanooga and Knoxville. It was determined to use this army in a bold effort to regain West Tennessee and Kentucky. About the middle of August Bragg’s army moved from East Tennessee in two divisions, the advanced forces being under General E. Kirby Smith. Smith moved rapidly into Kentucky, and on the 30th of August defeated a Union force under General Mason, at Richmond. He then occupied ,Lexington and Frankfort, and advanced towards Cincinnati; but learning that a powerful Union army was assembling at Cincinnati, fell back to Frankfort, where he rejoined General Bragg on the 4th of October. Bragg had moved off as soon as Kirby Smith had gotten fairly on his way, and had marched for Louisville; but Buell had fallen back from Nashville with such speed that he had managed to reach Louisville before Bragg, who therefore halted at Frankfort. Being heavily reinforced, Buell moved forward from Louisville to attact Bragg, and the latter fell back slowly before him. An inde cisive encounter occurred between the two armies at Perryville, on thl 8th of October, and Bragg withdrew to Nashville without any further effort on the part of Buell to check him. He took with him a trair of wagons forty miles long loaded with plunder. During this campaign West Tennessee was held by the army of General Grant, whose line extended from Memphis to Corinth. A Confederate army under Generals Price and Van Dorni endeavored to drive Grant out of Tennessee, but was defeated at Iuka on the 19th of September, and again at Corinth on,the 4th of October. Bragg continued his retreat from Nashville to Murfreesboro’, 30 miles distant. General Buell was removed from the command of the Federal army, and was succeeded by General Rosecrans, who, toward the last of December, marched from Nashville to attack Bragg. At the same time, Bragg, ignorant of this movement, advanced to attack Nashville. The two armies met at Stone River on the 31st of December. A severe battle, which lasted all day, ensued, and at nightfall the Union forces were driven back at all points. During the night Rosecrans took up a stronger position, and on the 2d of January, 1863, Bragg renewed his attack and was repulsed with heavy loss. t Each army lost about 10,000 or 12,000 men. Bragg retreated in good order to Tullahoma, about 30 miles from MurfreesborQ’. In December General Grant made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, which the Confederates had fortified .171

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to enable them to retain their hold on the Mississippi river. A severe battle, lasting two days, was fought at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, on the 7thl and 8th of March. In the first day’s fight the Confederates, who were commanded by General Van Dorn, were successful; but were repulsed by General Curtis the next day. The plan of the Government to reduce the prominent points on the southern coast was continued with success during the year 1862. On the 8th of February a powerful expedition, under General A. E. Burnside, captured Roanoke Island, between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. On the 14th of March Newbern, North Carolina, was taken by the same force, and on the 25th of April Fort Macon, at the entrance of Beaufort Harbor, surrendered. A fleet under Commodore Farragut was sent against New Orleans. On the 24th of April it forced a passage by the batteries of Forts Jackson and St.

Philip, and the next day anchored in front of New Orleans, which surrendered without opposition. A day or two later a force of Federal troops under General B. F. Butler occupied the city. The capture of New Orleans was followed by the surrender of Forts Jackson and St, Philip.

These successes deprived the Confederacy of the largest and wealthiest city of the South, and wrested from it the whole of the lower Mississippi.

On the 11th of April Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the Savannah river, surrendered to General Hunter after a bombardment of fifteen days. Its capture closed the port of Savannah to blockade runners. The Federal naval forces had a narrow escape from a crushing disaster on the coast of Virgiuia. Upon the evacuation of the Portsmouth Navy Yard, at the opening of the war, the Federal authorities sunk several vessels in the yard, as they were unable to remove them. One of these was the steam frigate “Merrimac.” She was raised by the Confederates, rebuilt by them, heavily plated with iron armor, and named the “Virginia.” A long, stout bow was fitted to her to enable her to act as a ram, and she was armed with ten heavy guns. Thus prepared she was the most formidable vessel afloat. On the 8th of March she left Norfolk Harbor and ran down to Hampton Roads, where she destroyed the frigate “Congress” and the sloop-of-war “Cumberland,” and spread dismay among the rest of the squadron colleted there. She was herself uninjured. At sunset she withdrew into the Elizabeth river. During the night the iron-clad “Monitor” arrived from New York on her trial trip to Fortress Monroe. On the reappearanee of the “Virginia” the next morning the “Monitor” engaged 172

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THE UNITED STATES. her, and after a close fight of several hours forced her to draw off and return to Norfolk severely injured. This was the first engagement ever fought between ironl-clads, and inaugurated a new era in naval warfare. The military events in Virginia were of the highest importance. Fearing that McClellan would interpose his army between him and Richmond, General Johnston, the Confederate commander, fell back from Centreville, on the 8th of March, to the line of the Rapidan McClellan thereupon transported his army, 120,000 strong, by water to Fortress Monroe, and advanced upon Richmond by the peninsula between the York and James rivers. His progress was stayed by the Confederate works extending across the peninsula from Yorktown to the James. This line was defended by a smntll force under General Magruder, who held it until the arrival of Johlnston and his army from the Rapidan. On the night of the 3d of May Johnston fell lack from this exposed line to a strong position on the north side of i he Chickahominy river, immediately ill front of Richmond.

MIcClellan followed leisurely, and took position on the left or south fIank of that stream. The evacuation of the peninsula by the Confederates compelled them to abandon Norfolk also, which they did on the 9th of May.

The iron-clad “Virginia” was taken into the James river and destroyed, .,hus leaving that river open to within a few mniles of Richmond. Upon the transfer of his army to the peninsula, General McClellan had been required to detach a heavy force to cover Washington city. [Jpon reaching the Chickahominy he induced President Lincoln to order this covering force to move by way of Fredericksburg and unite wvith the Army of the Potomac before Richmond. With his army thus augmented, the Union commander had no doubt of his ability to capture Richmond. While awaiting the arrival of this force he threw his left wing across the Chickahominy and lodged it in a position nearer Richmond. In this exposed position it was struckl a tremendous blow by General Johnston, at Seven Pines, on the 31st of May, and was driven back a considerable distance., General Johnston was severely wounded, and was unable to drive the Federal left across the Chickahominy as he intended. Warned by this battle, McClellan heavily intrenched his position on both sides of the river. Early in the year General Jackson, who had been stationed with a small Confederate force in the valley of Virginlia, was ordered to manceuvre his troops in such a manner as to threaten Washington, 11-3

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and prevent reinforcements from being sent to McClellan.: He was entirely successful in this attempt. Fremont’s army had been ordered to march from West Virginia into the valley to relieve Banks, who was to cover Washington, and allow the force in front of that city to move to McClellan’s assistance. Jackson’s task was to neutralize this plan. He attacked Fremont’s advance, at McDowell, in West Virginia, and drove it back on the 8th of May, and then, by a forced march across the mountains hastened to tile valley, defeated Banks’ advanced guard at Front Royal, on the 23d of May, and his main body at Winchester, on the 25th, drove him out of the valley, and pursued him to the Potomac. This bold movement so alarmed the Federal Government that the effort to reinforce McClellan was abandoned. A part of the force intended for him was retained for the protection of Washington, and the rest was sent under General Shields to co-operate with Fremont, who was advancing into the valley from West Virginia,” in an effort to intercept Jackson. Jackson, however, retreated up the valley with remarkable speed, and when he had placed himself beyond his pursuers, wheeled upol Fremont, and dealt him a blow at Cross Keys, onil the 8th of June, which checked his advance, and on the 9th defeated Shields at Port Republic, and drove him back. Then, moving leisurely to a point of safety, he rested his army for a few days, and hastened to the Chickahominy to reinforce General Lee. Upon the fall of General Johnston at Seven Pines, the command of the Confederate army before Richmond was conferred upon General Robert E. Lee, who determined to force McClellan back from the Chickahominy. Upon the arrival of Jackson’s corps his army was increased to a strength of.90,000 men.

McClellan’s force numbered 115,000 men. On the 25th of June Lee attacked the Federal right wing at Mechanicsville, and drove it back upon the centre at Cold Harbor. On the 27th the position at Cold Harbor was carried by the Confederates after a desperate struggle. With great difficulty McClellan secured his retreat to the south side of the Chickahominy, and destroyed the bridges in his rear. McClellan now decided to abandon his base on the York river and retreat to the James by way of White Oak Swamp.

The retreat was begun on the night of the 28th. Lee attacked the retreating army at Savage Station on the afternoon of the 29th, and at Frazier’s Farm on the afternoon of the 30th, but was not able on either occasion to prevent its passage through the swamp. On the 1st of July the Federal army was 174

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THE UNITED STATES. massed at Malvern Hill, within a mile of the James. It was attacked there by the Confederates, who were repulsed with heavy loss.

McClellan then moved to Harrison’s Landing on the James, where he established his army under the protection of his fleet. His losses in the “Seyen Days’ Battles” amounted to 20,000 men, 52 cannon, 35,000 stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores. The Confederates lost 19,533
men. The disasters to McClellan’s army threw the North into the deepest despondency. President Lincoln, on the 2d of July, issued a call for 300,000 fresh troops, and on the 4th of August ordered a draft for 300,000
militia to serve nine months. Within three months this enormous mass of 600,000 fresh troops was placed in the field. A new army was formed in northern Virginia before Washington, and was placed under Major-General John Pope. Somewshat later McClellan was ordered to abandon his position on the James, and send his troops to the Potomac to reinforce Pope. In the meantime General Lee had sent General Jackson with his corps to the Rappahannock to watch Pope. On the 9th of August Jackson defeated Pope’s advanced guard, under General Banks, at Cedar Mountain. As soon as he was informed of McClellan’s withdrawal from the James, Lee hastened with his whole force to the Rappahannock. He determined to attack Pope at once, before McClellan could reach him. He accordingly threw Jackson’s corps in the rear of the Federal army, and seized its communications with Washington. Pope immediately fell back to the line of Bull Run, and Lqe hastened with all speed to rejoin Jackson. Before his arrival Jackson’s forces resisted two attacks from Pope’s troops. On the 29th the junction between Lee and Jackson was effected. On the same afternoon Pope attacked them and was repulsed, and on the 30th, having risked the fate of the campaign on a decisive battle, Pope was routed in the second battle of Bull Run, and was driven within the lines of Washington. His losses during the campaign “amounted to over 30,000 men. The Confederate loss was about 9000. General Lee followed up his victory by an invasion of Maryland, which State it was generally believed was only awaiting an opportunity to unite its fortunes with the Confederacy. Scarcely a handfuil’ of Marylanders joined him. The Potomac was crossed on the 5th of September, and on the 6th the Confederate army occupied Frederick City. As Harper’s Ferry was held by a garrison of 11,000 men, the reduction of that place was necessary in order to preserve Lee’s 175

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. communications with his own country.

General Jackson was de spatched with his corps to reduce it, while Lee, with the rest of the army, took position at South Mountain to await the result. Jackson reached Harper’s Ferry and promptly carried the heights overlooking the town. On the 15th the garrison surrendered to him. After securing his prisoners he set off at once to join General Lee. In the meantime General McClellan had been restored to the com mand of the Army of the Potomac. This force he reorganized on the march, and at once set out to meet the Confederates, moving slowly. At Frederick he found a copy of Lee’s confidential order, giving his plan of operations. This document enabled the Federal commander to act with certainty, and he marched rapidly to South Mountain, and on the 14th of September attacked General Lee, who, after a stubborn fight, fell back behind Antietam Creek, where he was joined on the morning of the 17th by the troops of General Jackson, who had made a forced march from Harper’s Ferry. The Southern army was now reduced to about 40,000 men, thousands having straggled from the ranks on the march through Virginia. On the 17th McClellan attacked Lee at Antietam. The battle lasted through the day, but the Confederates held their ground. On the night of the 18th Lee fell backl to the Potomac, which he recrossed without losing even a wagon, and retired to Winchester.

McClellan moved to the vicinity of Harper’s Ferry, and on the 2d of November crossed the Potomac east of the Blue Ridge. Lee at once passed the mountains and moved towards the Rappahannock, placing his army between McClellan and Richmond. On the 7th of November McClellan was removed from his command, and was succeeded by General A. E. Burnside, who mnarched to the Rapp)ahannock, opposite Fredericksburg. Lee took position on the hills back of that town. On the 11th and 12th of December Burnside crossed the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg, and on the 13th endeavored to carry the Southern line by assault. He was driven back with fearful loss, and retreated across the Rappahannock, where his army went into winter quarters. He was soon after relieved of his command at his own request. On the 1st of January, 1863, President Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all the negro slaves within the limits of the Confederate States free from that day. General Joseph Hooker was appointed to succeed General Burnside in the command of the Army of the Potomac. Its losses were 176

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THE UNITED STATES. made up by reinforcements, and it was thoroughly reorganized and brought to a splendid state of efficiency by its new commander. By the opening of the spring it numbered 120,000 men and 400
pieces of artillery. Learning that Lee’s army had been weakened by the withdrawal of Longstreet’s corps, 24,000 strong, Hooker determined to attack him. He detached a column of about 25,000 men, under General Sedgwick, to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg and force the Southern lines in the rear of the town, and with the bulk of his army moved to his left, crossed the Rappahannock, and planted himself on Lee’s right and in his rear. Lee perceived his danger and took prompt measures to avert it. Leaving a small force to hold his lines in the rear of Fredericksburg, he moved with his main body against Hooker, who had intrenched himself at a place called Chancellorsville. About the same time Sedgwick crossed the river and threatened the position at Fredericksburg.

On the 2d of May Lee sent Jackson’s corps to turn the right of Hooker’s line. This movement was brilliantly executed, but cost the Confederates the life of Stonewall Jackson, who was mortally wounded. Hooker’s right was driven in on his centre, and the next d-ay,Lee stormed his position at Chlancellorsville and forced him to retreat to the junction of the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was about to renew his attack on Hooker at this point, when he was informed that Sedgwick had carried the heights of Fredericksburg and was niarching against him. Leaving a part of his army to hold Hooker in check, Lee marched rapidly to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at Salem Heights, on the 4th, and drove him over the Rappaltannock. Then turning upon Hooker, he prepared to renew his attack; but the latter, disheartened by Sedgwick’s defeat, withdrew his army across the Rappahannock on the 5th of May, and returned to his. old position opposite Fredericksburg. The Confederate victory was dearly bought. Stonewall Jackson died a few days later. The Confederate Government now rapidly reinforced Lee’s army o a strength of nearly 80,000
men, and brought it to an equality with Hooker’s army, which had been reduced by losses in battle, desertions, and expirations of enlistment to that strength. It was resolved to take advantage of this circumstance, and of the despondency of the North which had followed the defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville, to renew the invasion of the North, in the hope of carrying the war out of Virginiia. Accordingly Lee, on the 3d of June, left the Rappahannock, and marching rapidly through the 177

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OUR COUNTRY -AND ITS RESOURCES. valley, crossed the Potomac on the 22d of June, and moved towards Hagerstown, in Maryland. On the 23d his advanced corps occupied Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Hooker, who had follownved slowly, crossed the Potomac on the 25th and 26th of June, and marched towards Frederick. Unable to agree with the War Dep)artment as: to his movements, he asked to be relieved, and was succeeded by Major General George G. Meade. General Lee now moved his army east of the mountains, and directed his advance towards Gettysburg. In ignorance of his adversary’s design, General Meade hastened forward to occupy the same point. The most intense excitement was occasioned throughout the North by the invasion of Pennsylvania by theConfederates, and preparations were made to oppose an energetic resistance to it. On the morning of the 1st of July the advanced forces of the two armies encountered each other at Gettysburg. The Federal advance was forced back and its commander, General Reynolds, killed..

General Hancock, who succeeded to the command, recognized the advantages of the position at Gettysburg, and held it until Meade, came up with fhe main army. The two armies then took position on. the hills on opposite sides of Gettysburg, with the town between them. On the 3d of July General Lee endeavored to carry the Federal position by storm, but his attack was repulsed with terrible loss. The Federal victory was decisive. It put an end to the invasion. On the night of the 4thl of July Lee fell back from Gettysburg and retreated to the Potomac, which he passed in safety on the 13th and 14th, without serious opposition by the Federal army., On the 18th General Meade crossed the Potomac below Harper’s Ferry, and endeavored to place his army between Lee and Richmond. The latter, by rapid marches, gained the line of the Rappahannock before him, and so defeated this effort. The remainder of the.year was passed by the two armies on the Rapidan. In the West the Federal arms were crowned during the year by a series of brilliant and decisive successes. The first of the year found the army of General Grant encamped on the Mississippi at Milliken’s Bend, a short distance above Vicksburg. The Confederates had strongly fortified Vicksburg, and had collected an army of over 30,000
men, under General Pemberton, for its defence. - They had also fortified Port Hudson, about 100 miles lower down the river. It was all important for them to hold these posts, as they commanded the river between them and secured free comr 178,

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THE UNITED STATES. munication between the States east and west of the Mississippi. After spending several months in fruitless endeavors to attack Vicksburg from the north, General Grant ran a number of gunboats and transports by the batteries at that place, and marched his army across the country to a point opposite Bruinsburg, Mississippi, and with the aid of his boats crossed the river on the 1st of May and marched towards. the rear of Vicksburg. Near Port Gibson a part of Pemberton’s’ army was encountered and defeated on the same day. This success compelled the evacuation of Grand Gulf by the Confederates. Grant’ now boldly threw his army between Jackson-where a small force was being collected by General Joseph E. Johnston-and Pemberton’s army, near Vicksburg, intending to prevent any junction between these forces, and to drive Pemberton within the lines of Vicksburg.’ On the 14th of May he attacked Johnston at Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, and forced him to retreat northward towards Canton. Then turning upon Pemberton, he’ defeated him at Baker’s Creek, on the 16th, and the next day defeated him at the Big Black River, and compelled him to retreat within the defences of Vicksburg, which were promptly invested by the Federal army. On the 19th of May, and again on the 22d, Grant attempted to carry the Southern works by assault, but was each time repulsed with heavy loss. He then laid siege to the city, and subjected it to a terrible bombardmentf. While the siege was carried on, Johnston’s army was held back and’ prevented from undertaking any movement for the relief of Vicksburg. On the 4th of July Vicksburg was formally surrendered to General Grant by General Pemberton. Thirty thousand prisoners, 60,000 stand of arms, 250 cannon, and an immense quantity of stores were captured by the Union forces. It was justly regarded as the greatest victory of the war. While the siege of Vicksburg was in progress, General Banks ascended the Mississippi from New Orleans and laid siege to Port Hudson. It was surrendered to him on the 8th of July, the fall of Vicksburg having rendered it of no value. These victories wrested from the Confederates their last hold upon the Mississippi. They created the greatest rejoicings in the Northern and Western States, and a corresponding depression in the Soutibh. Being simultaneous with the defeat of the Southern army at Gettysburg, they were decisive of the war, which, though it lingered for nearly two years aonger, had from this time one inevitable result. In June, 1863, Rosecrans advanced from Nashville and threatened 179 0 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the commnunications of Bragg’s army, which had passed the winter at Chattanooga. Bragg evacuated that place and fell back to Dalton, Georgia, where he was reinforced by Longstreet’s corps from Lee’s army. Thus strengthened, he wheeled upon Rosecrans, who had followed in pursuit, and attacked him at Chickamauga on the 19th of September. The battle was resumed on the 20th, and was one of the most stubbornly contested of the war. Rosecrans was defeated and driven into Chattanooga. Bragg at once invested that place and reduced the Federal army to great suffering. General Rosecrans was now removed from the command of the Army of the Cumberland, and was succeeded by General Grant, who was given the command of all the Western armies of the Union. He marched with a strong force to the relief of Chattanooga, and arriving before that place, soon changed the aspect of affairs. On the 23d of November the besieged army, by a vigorous sortie, drove the Confederates from the important position of Orchard Knob; on the 24th General Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain and carried it; and on the 25th the Confederates were driven from their last position on Mission Ridge. Bragg retreated into Georgia. He was soon removed from his command, and was succeeded by General Joseph E. Johnston. During the progress of this campaign, General Burnside, with about 25,000 men, moved from Kentucky into East Tennessee, and had occupied Knoxville. After the battle of Chickamauga Bragg sent Longstreet to recover East Tennessee, and that general laid siege to Knoxville. Burnside held the town, though almost starved, until Sherman’s corps, sent by Grant after Bragg’s defeat, arrived to h)is assistance and forced Longstreet to raise the siege and retreat into Virginia. On the 7th of April, 1863, Admiral Dupont endeavored to force his way into Charleston Harbor with the iron-clad fleet, but was repulsed with severe loss by the Southern batteries. Early in July a force under General Gilmnore effected a lodgment on the south end of Morris Island, and pushed their advance towards Fort Wagner with such steadiness that on the night of the 6th of September the Confederates evacuated that work jtiust in time to avoid the final assault. The Federal batteries on Morris Island soon reduced Fort Sumter to a mass of ruins and bombarded Charleston. Early in March, 18645

General Grant was raised to the grade of lieutenant-geoeral, and was given the chief command of all the armies of the Union. He established his headquarters with the Army of 180 a,.

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THE UNITED STATES. the Potomac; the Western army was placed under the command of General Sherman, and was to advance simultaneously with the Virginia army. On the 4th of May the Army of the Potomac, 140,000 strong, under General Grant’s command, crossed the Rapidan, turned Lee’s right, and entered the region known as the Wilderness. Lee had but 50,000 men, but attacked Grant in the Wilderness, on the 5th of May, hoping to prevent him from reaching the open country beyond. The conflict was maintained for two days, both armies suffering greatly. On the 7th Grant moved to the right of Lee, and endeavored to seize the strong position of Spottsylvania Court House. Lee divined his purpose and reached the position before him.

On the 10th and 12th of May Grant made vigorous efforts to drive Lee from this position, but failed. On the 21st of May he moved from Spottsylvania to the North Anna river, hoping to get between Lee and Richmond; but upon reaching that river found his antagonist intrenched in a strong position behind it. Being unwilling to attack the Confederate army in this position, the Federal-commander again moved to his left and marched to the Chickahominy. Lee followed him promptly, and took position at Cold Harbor, on the north side of the Chickahominy and within nine miles of Richmond, occupying nearly the same line as that held by McClellan in the battle of the 27th of June, 1862. He covered his line with strong earthworks. On the 3d of June the Army of the Potomac made a determined attack upon these works, and was repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men. Its losses since the passage of the Rapidan amounted to over 60,000 men. The Confederate loss during the same period was about 20,000 men. Failing to force the Southern works at Cold Harbor, Grant marched to the James river and crossed that stream at Wilcox’s Landing, on the 15th and 16th of June, and advanced upon Petersburg. At the opening of the campaign a force under General Butler nmoved up the neck of land between the James and Appomattox rivers, and endeavored to capture the works and railway between Richniond and Petersburg. It was defeated on the 16th of May by a for’ce: under General Beauregard, and was driven back to Bermuda Hundreds, where it was forced to remain until Grant crossed the James-river. After passing the-James Grant advanced at once upolrt Petersburg, and oln’ the 16th, 17th, and -18th of June-made repeated effortsto.car~ 18‘1’ 12

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the defences of that place and the line between Petersburg and Richmond by storm, but without success. He thereupon laid siege to Petersburg. During the fall he gradually extended his left until he wrested from the Confederates the railway connecting Petersburg with Weldon, North Carolina. From this point he sought to extend his left still farther and seize the South Side Railway, Lee’s only remaining line of communication with the Southern States, but without success. The siege was marked by a number of battles during the remainder of the year, but we have not space or time to enumerate them all. During the early fall General Grant extended his lines across the James river, and established a force on the north side of that stream to lay siege to the defences of Richmond. Simultaneously with the advance of the Army of the Potomac a force of 10,000 men, under General Sigel, entered the valley of Virginia with the design of penetrating into Southwestern Virginia and seizing the railway connecting Lynchburg with East Tennessee and Georgia.

General Breckenridge attacked Sigel at New Market, on the 15th of May, and drove him back down the valley. General Hunter succeeded Sigel and advanced to the vicinity of Lynchburg, where he was attacked by General Early and driven into West Virginia. Early then moved rapidly down the valley, crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on the 5th of July, and on the 7th occipied Frederick City, Maryland. On the 9th he defeated a small force utinder General Lew Wallace, at Frederick Junction, and marched upon Washington city. He arrived before that place on the 11 th, and found the defences so strongly manned that, after skirmishing before them for several days, he recrossed the Potomac on the 14th and returned to Winchester. A force of 40,000 men was assembled on the upper Potomac by the Federal Government, and was placed under command of General Sheridan, who at once advanced against Early. On the 19th of September he defeated him at Winchester, and again, on the 22d, at Fisher’s Hill, and drove him up the valley as far as Staunton. By order of General Grant, Sheridan now devastated the valley, driving off the stock and burning all the crops, mills, and farming imnplements. Having received reinforcements, Early moved back down the valley, and on the 19th of October surprised Sheridan’s camp at Cedar Creek, and drove his army in confusion. Sheridan was at “Winchester, twenty miles away,” at the opening of the battle; but as soon as he heard the firing sprang on his horse and rode with all 182 0

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THE UNITED STATES. speed for the army. He reached it just as General Wright had rallied it. Early’s men stopped to plunder the captured camp, and Sherid-ai moved back, routed them, and drove them up the valley for thirty miles. This success ended the valley campaign. The Western army, 100,000 strong, under General Sherman, marched from Chattanooga on the 7th of May. General Johnston, with an army of 50,000 Confederates, held a strong positiolln at Dalton, Georgia. Sherman, being unwilling to assail him in this position, turned it, and compelled him to fall back to Resaca.

On the 14th and 15th of May he attacked the Confederate lines near Resaca, but without success, and by moving around Johnston’s left flank again, compelled him to fall back to Dallas. He attacked him again between the 25th and 28th, when, Sherman having turned Allatoona Pass, Johnston occupied a new position embracing Pine, Kenesaw, and Lost Mountains., Being unable to force this position, Sherman turned it, and Johnston crossed the Chattahoochee and fell back within the defnces of Atlanta, where he meant to risk a decisive battle. On the 17th of July, however, he was removed from his’ command, and was succeeded by General John B. Hood.

On the 17th of July the Union army crossed the Chattahoochee and advanced towards Atlanta. On the 20th and 22d Hood attacked it on Peach Tree Creek, but was defeated. Sherman now thrust his army between the two wings of Hood’s army, and -.that commander, on the 31st of August, evacuated Atlanta and retreated towards Macon. On the 2d of September Sherman occupied Atlanta. That city had been the principal depot in the South for the manufacture of military stores. Its loss was a crushing blow to the Confederates. With the hope of drawing Sherman out of Georgia, Hood, by the orders of his Government, marched into Tennessee and threatened Nashville. General George H. Thomas was intrusted with the defence of that place, and Sherman prepared to put in execution a plan he had long cherished, but had not been able to carry out while Hood remained in Georgia. Hood began his movement on the 19th of November. On the 30th he defeated General Schofield at Franklin, eighteen miles from Nashville, and forced him to retire within the defences of the latter place. Hood then advanced to Nashville and invested the place. On the 15th and 16th of December he was attacked by General Thomas, routed, and driven across the Tennessee with the remnant of his army. In the meantime Sherman had put in execution his plan, which .183

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. was to march from Atlanta through Georgia to the sea-coast, from which he could move northward to Virginia and aid Grant in bringing the war to a close by the destruction of Lee’s army. On the 14th of November he set fire to Atlanta and began his “march to the sea” at the head of a splendid army of 60,000 men. He ravaged the country as he went, leaving behind him a broad belt of desolation 60 miles in width and 300 in length. In about four weeks he reached the coast near the month of the Savannah river. On the 13th of December he carried Fort McAllister by assault, and on the 22d of December occupied the city of Savannah. On the 5th of August, 1864, Admiral Farragut forced his way with his fleet, by Forts Morgan and Gaines into Mobile Bay, ant defeated the Confederate fleet, destroying and capturing the whole of it. On the 7th of August Fort Morgan surrendered to General Granger, and on the 23d Fort Gaines also capitulated. These cap tures closed the harbor of Mobile to blockade runners. A notable success was won at sea in this year. On the 19th of June the United States steamer “Kearsarge” sunk the Confederate cruiser “Alabama,” in a fight off Cherbourg, France. In the fall of 1864

Abraham Lincoln was reelected President of the United States by a large popular vote, and received the electoral vote of every State except New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. The year 1865 opened with an effort to restore peace. An informal interview was held in Hampton Roads, on the 3d of February, between President Lincoln and Secretary Seward and a commission appointed by the Confederate Government. It accomplished nothing, as Mr. Lincoln would listen to no terms that were not based upon the unconditional submission of the South. On the 15th of January Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river, was captured by a land force under General Terry, after a terrific bombardment by the fleet under Admiral Porter. On the 22d of February Wilmington was occupied by the Federal forces. After the capture of Savannah Sherman allowed his troops a monthl’s rest, and then, in spite of the horrible condition of the roads, began his march northward. On the 17th of February he reached Columbia, SQuth Carolina, and on the same day the Confederates evacuated -Charleston and its defencs, which were occupied the next 184

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THE UNITED STATES. day by the Union forces under General Gilmore. On the 12th of March Sherman entered Fayetteville, North Carolina. In the emergency to which it was reduced, the Confederate Government was obliged to confer the command of the force assembling in Sherman’s front upon General Joseph E. Johnston. General Johnston succeeded in collecting about 35,000 troops, with which he attacked Sherman, at Averasboro’, on the 16th of March, and again, at Bentonville, on the 19th. He was unable to stay the advance of the Federal army, however, and on the 23d of March Sherman occupied Goldsboro’. Johnston withdrew towards Raleigh. At Goldsboro’

Sherman was joined by the forces of Generals Schofield and Terry, which had moved up from the coast. The armies of Grant and Lee had confronted each other at Petersburg during the winter. On the 26th of March Grant was reinforced ~by 10,000 magnificent cavalry under General Sheridan, who had .moved down from the valley, laying waste the country along his route.

Lee’s situation was growing more critical every day. He had less than 40,000 men with him, and it was certain that no more could be obtained. By the last of March the Federal army numtered 170,000 men. On the 29th of March Grant began his final advance, moving his left wing around Lee’s right flank. On the 31st Lee endeavored to (Irive back the Federal left, but without success. On the 1st of April Sheridan captured the important position of Five Forks, taking .5000 prisoners and planting himself fairly in Lee’s rear. As soon as Sheridan had seized this position, Grant opened a heavy fire upon the (Confederate lines along his.entire front, and maintained it throughout the night. On the 2d he made a general attack upon Lee’s line and troke it at several points. General Lee thereupon took up a new )osition on a shorter line immediately around Petersburg, and held it against every effort to carry it. Seeing that it was impossible to hold his ground longer, Lee withdrew his army from Richmond and Petersburg, and retreated in the direction of Amelia Court House. The next morning the retreat was discovered by the Federal army, which at once occupied both Richmond and Petersburg. Leaving a small force to occupy them, Grant hastened with the rest of his army in pursuit of Lee. It was General Lee’s intention to move by way of Burkesville to Danville, and seek to form a junction with General Johnston. Upon reaching Amelia. Court House, to which place he had ordered supplies l 85

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. for his army to be sent, he found that his orders had been countermanded by the Confederate Government. His troops were without food, and had eaten nothing since the commencement of the retreat. Parties were sent into the surrounding country to obtain supplies, and this consumed the whole of the 4th and 5th of April, which Lee had hoped to use in getting beyond his pursuers. The delay enabled Sheridan, with 18,000 mounted men, to seize the Confederate line of retreat at Jetersville and cut Lee off from Danville. The Confederate army therefore turned to the right and retreated towards Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynchburg; but Sheridan by a forced march threw himself across Lee’s path on the night of the 8th of April, near Appomattox Station. The next morning Sheridan was joined by the Army of the James, under General Ord. The Army of the Potomac at the same time was closing in rapidly in Lee’s rear. Seeing that the effort to retreat was hopeless, General Lee asked for a suspension of hostilities. In’an interview between Generals Grant and Lee, on the same day, the terms of the surrender were arranged. General Grant treated the vanquished army with great generosity.

The Confederates were fed by their conquerors, and after laying down their arms and signing their paroles, were allowed to withdraw to their homes.

On the 12th of April the vanquished army formally laid down its arms at Appomattox Court House. About 7500 men with arms, and about 18,000 unarmed stragglers took part in the surrender. The news of the capture of Richmond and Petersburg, and of the surrender of General Lee, was received in the North with great rejoicings. It was understood on all sides that this was practically the end of the struggle. These rejoicings were suddenly brought to an end by the assassination of President Lincoln, at Ford’s Theatre, in Washington, on the evening of the 14th of April. He was shot in his private box by John Wilkes Booth, and died the next morning. At the same time an attempt was made to murder Secretary Seward, who was confined to his bed by the effects of an accident. Booth was pursued into Virginia, and was killed in the attempt to capture him. His accomplices were secured, and were executed or imprisoned for various terms. The death of Mr. Lincoln was a severe blow to the country, and the manner of it caused great exasperation in the North. It was at first believed that the murder was encouraged by the South; but it is now plain.?hat Booth, who was evidently inane, had no -acom 186

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THE UliTED STATES. plices in that section. His dastardly act wvas regarded with horror by the Southern people. After the fall of Richmond Mr. Davis and the various officers of his government repaired to General Johnston’s army, which was near Raleigh. On the 10th of April General Sherman advanced from Goldsboro’ towards Johnston’s position, and steadily pressed the Confederate army back. On the 13th Sherman occupied Raleigh. Upon learning of the surrender of General Lee’s army General Johnston was convinced that further resistance on his part was hopeless. He therefore opened negotiations with General Sherman, and on the 18th of April an agreement was signed by the two commanders for the surrender of the Confederate army. As this agreement provided for the restoration of the Southern States to their lost places in the Union, it was repudiated by the Federal Government, and Sherman was ordered to resume hostilities.

General Johnst6n was at once notified by General Sherman of this order, and on the 26th of April entered into an agreement with him by which he surrendered to General Sherman all the Confederate forces under his command upon terms similar to those granted to General Lee by General Grant. The example of Generals Lee and Johnston was followed by the other Confederate commanders throughout the South. The last to surrender was General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the 26th of May. On the 29th of May President Johnson issued a proclamation announcing the close of the war and offering amnesty to all who had participated in it on the Confederate side, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. Upon the surrender of Johnston’s army Mr. Davis and the members of his former cabinet endeavored to make their way to the coast of Florida, firom which they hoped to reach the West Indies. Some of them succeeded in doing so, but Mr. Davis was eaptured at Irwinsville, Georgia, on the 10th of May, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, where he was held in confinement until May, 1867. The civil war was over. It had cost the country 1,000,000 of men in the killed and maimed for life of the two armies. In money it had cost probably as much as $5,000,000,000. By the death of Mr. Lincoln the VicePresident, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, became President of the United States. He took the oath of office on the 15th of April, and at once entered upon the discharge of his duties. The first task devolving upon the new administration was the dis 187

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. banding of the army, which at the close of the war numbered over a million of men. It was successfully accomplished in the course of a few months. At the close of the war the public debt amounted to $2,700,000,000. The interest on this sum was $133,000,000.

Congress by a solemn resolution pledged the faith of the nation for the payment of the debt, principal and interest, and adopted a system of direct taxation to pro vide a revenue sufficient for the immediate wants of the Government. The most important question of the day was the adjustment of the relations of the Southern States to the Union. President Johnson held that they had never been out of the Union, but had simply been in insurrection, and having been brought back, were entitled to resume their former positions upon adopting constitutions recognizing the new order of affairs. He thereupon recognized the States which complied with these conditions as members of the Federal Union. On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress adopted the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting slavery within the limits of the Union. Having been ratified by the requisite number of States, this amendment became a part of the Constitution in Decem ber, 1865. Upon the assembling of Congress in December, 1865, the reconstruction acts of President Johnson were treated by that body as null and void, and the Senators and Representatives of-the Southern States were refused admittance into Congress, which body insisted that the Union should not be “restored,” but should be “reconstructed” upon in entirely new basis. This basis was the citizenship of the newly enfranchised negroes. This was secured by the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was ratified after a considerable struggle by the requisite number of States. It became a part of the Constitution in Juty, 1868. This amendment was at first rejected by all the Southern States except Tennessee, which State ratified it, and was readmitted into the Union by Congress. The quarrel which thus began between the President and Congress grew more bitter every day. During this session Congress enacted a “Freedman’s Bureau Bill,” creating a department of the Federal Government for the care and protection of the newly emancipated negroes and the destitute whites of the South. It also adopted a “Civil Rights Bill,” securing to the negro the rights of a citizen. Both measures were passed over the veto of the President.. 188

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THE, UNITED STATES. . As the quarrel between the President and Congress deepened, various efforts were made by the latter to hamper the executive and impair his powers. The Thirty-ninth Congress adopted for this purpose a measure known as the “Tenure of Office Act,” by the terms of which the President was forbidden to remove any person from a civil office under the Government without the consent of the Senate. This measure was passed over the President’s veto. On the 1st of March, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. In February, 1867, Congress placed all the Southern States that had refused to ratify the fourteenth amendment under martial law, by depriving them of their State governments and erecting them into military districts. The writ of habeas corpus was suspended within their limits, and the will of a military commander was made the supreme law in each. These measures were also passed over the President’s veto. The military commanders exercised their authority with fairness and moderation, and took measures for the early reconstruction of their respective districts as States. Conventions were summoned and delegates were returned representing the extreme views of the party in power. They proceeded to ratify the amendments to the Federal Constitution, and after a bitter and protracted struggle organized their respective State governments. On the 24th of June Congress passed a bill over the President’s veto admitting the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina into the Union.

Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas having refused to ratify the fourteenth amendment, were refused admission into the Union. In the meantime the President brought the quarrel between Congress and himself to a decisive issue. Having twice removed Mr. Stanton from the post of Secretary of War, in spite of the provisions of the Tenure of Office Act, which he held to be unconstitutional, he was impeached by the House of Representatives for a violation of this Act, on the 24th of February, 1868. The Senate met as a High Court of Impeachment, for the trial of the President, on the 5th of March, 1868. The trial lasted until the 26th of May, and resulted in the acquittal of the President of the charges preferred against him. Oil the 13th of May, 1867, Jefferson Davis, who had been indicted for treason, was released from Fortress Monroe on bail. The indictment was subsequently quashed by the Government. ; During the progress of the civil war the French Emperor had 189

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. forcibly intervened in, the affairs of Mexico, and had brought about the downfall of the Mexican Republic and the establishment of an empire in that country, with the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor. The Government of the United States had regarded this ourse with undisguised hostility, but, being engaged in the effort to crush the resistance of the South, was obliged to limit its opposition to a protest. Upon the return of peace it took a bolder stand, and demanded of France the withdrawal of her troops from Mexico. The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a while, but finally acceded to the American demand. The French troops were withdrawn from Mexico at the close of the year 1866, and the Emperor Maximilian was left to face the Mexican people alone. They at once rose against him, took him prisoner, and shot him on the 19th of June, 1867. In July, 1866, a telegraphic cable was laid across the Atlantic from Valentia Bay, in Ireland, to Heart’s Content, in Newfoundland. Since then telegraphic communication between America and Europe has been uninterrupted. On the 29th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded between the United States and Russia, by which the former purchased, for the sum of $7,200,000, all the Russian possessions in America. The new territory received the name of Alaska. In the fall of 1868 General Ulysses S. Grant, the candidate of the Republican party, was elected President of the United States by a popular vote of 2,985,031, over 2,648,830 votes cast for Horatio Seymour, his Democratic competitor.

In the Electoral College Grant received 217 votes and Seymour 77. The States of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to take part in the election. In February, 1869, Congress adopted the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which provides that “The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” This amendment became a part of the Constitution in March, 1870. On the 4th of March, 1869, General Grant was inaugurated President of the United States. On the 10th of May, 1869, the Pacific Railway, extending from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco, California, was completed. :In the year 1870 the ninth census of the United States showed the population of~ the country to be 38,558,371 souls. IIn the same year the work of reconstruction was concluded.’ On 190

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THE UNITED STATES. the 26th of January, 1870, the State of Virginia, having ratified the amendments to the Constitution, was readmitted into the Union. On the 17th of February, 1870, Mississippi was readmitted upon the same terms. Texas was the last to ratify the amendments; but having done so at last, was readmitted before the close of the year. Since the opening of President Lincoln’s second term of office negotiations had been in progress with Great Britain for the settlement of the claims advanced by the United States against that power for the losses inflicted upon American commerce during the civil war by Confederate cruisers, built, equipped, and manned in Great Britain. The British Government, after long refusing to admit its responsibility for these acts, at length consented to submit the matter to a Board of Arbitration. This Board assembled at Geneva, ih Switzerland, on the 15th of April, 1872, and on the 27th of June made its award ill favor of the United States. The claims of the United States were admitted; the damages awarded to that Government amounting to $16,250,000. They were paid in due time by Great Britain.

Thus were settled the famous “Alabama Claims” (so called from the fact that the Confederate cruiser “Alabama” caused the greater part of the loss), which at one time threatened to embroil the two countries in war.

On the night of Sunday, October 8th, 1871, a fire broke out in Chicago, and raged with tremendous violence for two days, laying the greater part of the city in ashes. It was the greatest conflagration of modern times, destroying about $196,000,000 worth of property and rendering 98,000
persons homeless. In the fall of 1872 the Presidential election occurred.

General Grant was renominated by the Republican party. A new party-the Liberal Republican-nominated Horace Greeley for its candidate, and hlie was endorsed and supported by the Democratic party. The campaign resulted in the election of General Grant by an overwhelming majority. A deplorable sequel to the struggle, which was unprecedented in its bitterness, was the death of Horace Greeley, who died on the 29th of November, 1872. On the 9th of November, 1872, a fire broke out in Boston and burned until the 10th. It destroyed the greater portion of the businegs quarter of the city and inflicted upon it a loss of $78,000,000. On the 4th of March, 1873, General Grant was inaugurated a second time, at Washington, with great pomp. Twelve thousand troops from various parts of the country took part in the procession that escorted himn to the Capitol. I-ol

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Since 1868 a revolution had been in progress in the island of Cuba. Great sympathy had been manifested for the patriots by the people ,f the United States, but the Government had faithfully observed its duties as a friendly and neutral power. In spite of its efforts, however, several expeditions managed to leave American ports for the assistance of the Cubans. One of these embarked in the steamer “Virginius,” which was overhauled by the Spanish war steamer “Tornado,” on the high seas, and was carried as a prize into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The American flag was flying from the ” Virginius” at the time of her capture, and she was not in Spanish waters. The officers and a portion of the crew and passengers of the captured steamer were shot by order of a hastily summoned courtmiartial, at Santiago de Cuba. The American Consul exerted himself to save them, but was grossly insulted by the Spanish officials, and was not allowed to communicate with his Government by telegraph. The news of these outrages created the most intense excitement in the United States, and the popular voice demanded the instant punishment of Spain for the insult to our flag. The Government acted with firmness and prudence. A strong naval force was sent to the West Indies, the execution of the surviving prisoners wasIprevented, and their restoration to liberty and the surrender of the “Virginius”

demanded. The captives were set at liberty and the steamer was delivered up off the port of Havana. On the 17th of September, 1873, a severe financial crisis, known ils “the railroad panic,” burst upon the country.

The panic was fol).owed by several years of great financial distress. On the 4th of March, 1875, Colorado was admitted into the Union as a State.

On the 19th of April, 1875, the one hundredth anniversary of the battles of Lexington and Concord was celebrated with great rejoicing. As early as 1872 measures were begun for the proper observance of the one hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. It was decided to celebrate it by an international exhibition of the products of the country, to be held at Philadelphia in 1876. All nations were invited to participate in it. The exhibition will undoubtedly be one of the prominent events of the century. l92

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THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. MAINE. Area,…………… 31,766 Square Miles.

Population in 1860………628,279 Population in 1870,…….. 626,915

MAINE is the most easterly of the United States. It is situated between latitude 42~ 57’ and 47~ 32’ N., and longitude 66~ 52’ and 71~ 06’ W. Its extreme length, from north to south, is 303 miles, and its extreme width 212 miles. Its average length is about 200 miles, and its average width about 160 miles. It covers an area of 20,330,240 acres. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Canada, on the east by New Brunswick, on the south and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by New Hampshire. TOPOGRAPHY. Beginning on the west at Kittery Point, and following the general coast line to Quoddy Head, on the east, the shore of Maine measures about 278 miles; but if we follow its indentations, and include the islands, the coast line will measure 2486 miles. The coast is deeply indented with numerous bays and inlets, many of which form excellent harbors. Many islands lie along the shore, some of them of considerable size. JIount Desert, the principal island, is situated in Frenchman’s Bay,and forms a part of Hancock county. It comprises an area of 60;000 acres, and is 15 miles long, and 12 broad. It is traversed from west to north by a range of thirteen granite peaks, rising to a height ofi from 1500 to 2300 feet. Mount Adam, or Mount Green, is the highest of these. Several beautiful lakes lie high -up in these mountains. Somiie of these are quite large, and from nearly all of them flow blear, *,~~~~~~

~~~193

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cool streams, abounding in trout. The southeastern coast is formed of huge cliffs, several hundred feet high. A narrow bay enters the island from the south side, and extends into the interior in a northerly direction for about seven mniles. The scenery of the island is surpassingly grand and beautiful, and attracts many visitors and artists. Mount Desert is divided into 3 townships, Eden, Tremont, and Mount Desert. It contains 6 small villages, 9 post-offices, 8 churches, and over 50 schools. Its population is about 4000. Shipbuilding lnd(
mackerel fisheries are carried on, and there is regular steamboat comn munication with Portland and Bangor. The island was discovered and nanmed by the French near the year 1600. In 1613, a small French settlement was formed here, which was broken up soon after by an expedition from Virginia. It was first permanently settled by Abraham Somes, in 1761.

Twenty miles to the saiouthward is Mount Desert Rock, with a fixed light, 50 feet above the sea. The other islands of the State which merit notice are Isle au Haut, at the entrance to Penobscot Bay, Deer, Long, and Fox islands, in that bay, and the Isle of Shoals, a group belonging in part to New Hampshire. The principal Bays are Passamaquoddy, Machias, Pleasant, Frenchman’s, Penobscot, Muscongus, Casco, and Saco. Passamaquoddy Bay lies at the southeast extremity of Maine, and separates the State from the British province of New Brunswick. It extends inland about 15 miles, and is 10 miles wide. It is irregular in shape, contains a number of islands, affords numerous good harbors, and receives the waters of the St. Croix River. Frenchman’s Bay extends inland about 30 miles. It contains Mount Desert and several other islands, and abounds in good harbors, which are never closed by ice. Casco Bay does not extend very far inland, but lies aloing the coast for a distance of 20 miles. It contains nearly 300
islan(s. Portland harbor opens upon it. The principal Rivers are the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Andreoswogg,in, the Saco, the Woolastook, and the Aroostook. The Penobscot is the largest river in the State. It is formed by two branches, the East and the West, which rise in northern MAaine, and unite in the upper part of Penobscot county, near the centre of the State. The general course of the river is south-southwest, and it flows into the sea through Penobscot Bay. Its length from its mnouth to the headwaters of its western and larger branch, is about 300 miles, 194

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MAINE. but from the junction of the two branches to its mouth, the distance is only 135 miles. It meets the tide water at Bangor, 60 miles from the sea. At this point the tides rise to a height of 17 feet. The river is navigable to Bangor for vessels of all classes, and for small steamers above that place. It receives through the West branch the waters of Chesuncook and Pemadumcook lakes, and through the East branch those of the Seboois lakes. Its upper part affords valuable water power. There are a number of villages and towns on the river. Bangor is the only city on its banks. The Kennebec River rises in Moosehead Lake, in Somerset county, Maine, and flows southward into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 150
miles, and as its total descent in this distance is over 1000 feet it affords most excellent water power. It is navigable for sloops to Hallowell, 40 miles, and for all vessels to Bath, 12 miles from the sea.

It is closed by ice early in December, and remains frozen until early in April. Bath, Hallowell, Augusta, Waterville, and Norridgewock are the principal towns on its shores. The Androscoggin is a tributary of the Kennebec. It rises in Coos county, New Hampshire, and empties into the Kennebec 20 miles from the sea. It is 140 miles long. The Saco River rises among the White Mountains, in Coos county, New Hampshire, and flowing southeasterly through Maine, empties into the Atlantic near the northeast corner of York county. It is broken in several places by considerable falls, which afford fine water power, and is subject to sudden and dangerous freshets. The last falls are only 4 nmiles from the sea. Saco, Biddeford, and Hollis are its principal towns. The IYoolastook and Aroostook drain the northern part of the State, and flow into the St.

John, a river of New Brunswick. The State is well supplied with rivers and other streams, which not only afford fine water power, but furnish a means of floating vast quantities of lumber from the interior to the coast. A number of Lakes are scattered through Maine, some of which are very beautiful. The principal are Umbagog, Sebec, Chesuncook, Schoodic, Baskahegan, Long, Portage, Ealgle, Madawaska, Millikonet, and Sebago.

Moosehead Lake is the largest in the State. It is situated between Somerset and Piscataquis counties, and is very irregular in shape. It is about 35 miles long, and ten miles across at its widest point. The waters are very deep, and abonld in trout. The scenery is wild and 195

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. I)eautiful. On the west side Mount Kineo overhangs the water at a height of 600 feet, and affords a view of great but wild beauty. An hotel has been erected about midway, for the accommodation of travellers. Numerous islands stud the lake, which is navigated by steamers engaged in towing lumber to the Kennebec River, which forms the outlet. The surface of the State is generally hilly and diversified. Towards the coast it is level, but rises towards the interior. A chain of detached mountains, supposed to be an extension of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, crosses the State from west to northeast, terminating in Mars Hill on the border of New Brunswick These *peaks rise to a considerable elevation, and are very beautiful. Mount Katahdin, 5385 feet high, is the best known, as well as the most picturesque. It is situated in the eastern part of Piscataquis county, and is frequently visited by artists and the more daring tourists. The other peaks are the Saddleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South Russell, and the Haystack. The Forests of Maine furnish an immense amount of valuable lunmber, and large numbers of hardy men, are employed in cutting and floating the logs down the streams. The great forests lie in the upper part of the State, around the sources of the Kennebec, Penobscot.

Aroostoolk and Woolastook rivers. Mr. Charles Lanman thus pleasantly describes them: “Their extent can only be realized by fixing the mind upon the whole northern half of the State, which they cover with their sombre green, and by remembering the fact that no less than four splendid rivers have their birth in this great wilderness-the St. Croix, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Androscoggin. According to such figures as we have been able to collect, the number of saw-mills and other lumbering machines in operation on the above rivers, just before the rebellion, was nearly 900, the number of men employed about 17,000, and of horses and oxen perhaps 10,000; while the towns which are, to a great extent, supported by the lumbering business are Calais, Bangor, Augusta, and Brunswick, as well as Portland. The predominating tree in the wilderness under consideration, as is the case ill Minnesota and Wisconsin, is the white pine, )ut the hemlock, the fir, and the spruce are also abundant in all its borders. It is said that fifty years ago specimens of the pine were found in Maine which attained the height of more than 200 feet, )hut in these times it is but seldom that we find a tree exceeding 150 feet in length. The grand 196

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MAINE. THE PINE FORESTS OF MAINE. old monarchs of the land would seem to have perished with grief on beholding the ravages of man. But there is an aristocracy existing iti these woods at the present day, for it has been observed that there are different classes of trees-farnilies of nobility clustering together in one place-while the more plebeian varieties congregate in comnmunities by themselves. Were it not for the changing seasons and its living creatures, the monotony of this forest scenery would be well nigh unbearable; but summer fills every sunny nook with its bright flowers, and winter scatters everywhere the fantastic creations of the frost and snow. It is in these solitudes that the bold and hardy Penobscot Indian hunter tracks the moose and the deer, fights the bear in his den, decoys the gray wolf, and sets his traps for the wild cat 197 I i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and mink, the marten, the sable, and the beaver; and if, in the most genial seasons, there should be found a scarcity of birds, you can never fail to hear the plaintive whistle of the Canada bird, or mse/capa of scientific dreamers. In the Valley of the Potomac this favorite bird of ours is the very first harbinger of spring, coming from the South even before the blue-bird; and when heard there late in autumn, you may be sure that winter has asserted his empire on the Northern frontiers. We have heard it in the pinie forests of Florida, among the mountains of Tennessee, along the glorious rivers of New Brunswick, Canada, and a part of Labrador, but never with more pleasure than in the forests of Maine. When away from home, it always carries us back in fancy to the region where our lot is cast, and to our friends; and when at home it reminds us of far-off places and other friends linked with happy recollections. Its whole life, it seems to us, is devoted to singing, in a kind of monotone, about the jots of the wilderness. “Of permanent human inhabitants, the forests of Maine can boast of but a small supply; but for about nine months in the year the hardy lumbermen, consisting of explorers and choppers, of swampers, or roa(l-cutters, and teamsters, make their dim, interminable aisles alive and cheery with their presence and manifold employments. In the autumn, small parties, equipped like trappers, go up the rivers in (<anoes and locate the lands which are to be grappled with in winter; ind when winter comes, the great majority, with their oxen and axes, their salt pork and flour, migrate to the selected grounds, and, after ]iousing, themselves and their cattle in cabins half covered with snow, they proceed to the work of extermination; and when the spring arrives, (own to the tributary streams do they drag their logs; and when the first great thaw arrives, away they go down the larger rivers, driving the produce of their toil through lakes and lakelets, and over waterfalls, with many a wild and wayward shout, until they reach the booms where they would be; and then for home and their happy fanmilies nearer the sea. All this for money? Most true. But where will you find better specimens of true manhood than among these lumbermen?

And as for poetry and romance, where can we find their equal among the laborers for hire in any land but ours? Fancy the heart-bursts of true patriotism, and the wild stories told by the side of their watch-fires, the hoot of the great white owl at midnight in those dim solitudes, the white moonlight on the still whiter snow, the ringing cadences of the frost, the wolf prowling for food .!98

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MAINE. around the sleeping camps, the cave-like forest pictured against the cold blue sky, the terrible storms of sleet and hail, and then the thousand dreams of wives and children sleeping in their distant and peaceful homes. “The continuousness of the Maine woods, taken in connection with their extent, is one of their most impressive features.

Unless there were something to relieve their monotony, a sensitive man could iiever have journeyed from one extremity to another without becoming a personification of gloom; but behold with what exquisite taste and skill nature interposes her relief! She plants old Moosehead near the centre of the great forest, and scatters a thousand smaller gems of purest water on every side; bids a few mountain peaks rise up as watch-towers against the northern sky; sends the most beautiful rivers like flashes of light in every direction singing to the sea; and in a few localities spreads out those wonderful fields which have been denominated’oceans of moss,’

sometimes several feet in thickness, and in one instance covering a space of many miles. But more than this: around the lakes and along the watercourses are permitted to grow :is great a variety of the more delicate and graceful trees as the climate wvill allow, with shrubs and vines, and flowers innumerable. All this is the workmanship of nature; but it is man who marks the earth w,ith ruin, and, not content with robbing the old forests of their giant treasures, he sometimes sets them on fire for his amusement, or by accident, and thus come into existence the desolate burnt districts to take the places of trees once valuable, and grand, and beautiful. “The last object that the wide-awake tourist beholds on leaving the great wilderness of Maine, is Mount Katahdin; and that reminds us of the mountain forests of the Northern and Southern States.

The representative peaks of the North are Katahdin, Mount Washington, the Camel’s Hump, Tahawus, and High Peak; and around all these are to he found the hemlock and spruce, the cedar and fir, the maple, the ash, the elm, and the birch, in such numbers, and variety, and beauty as to bewilder the mind. The declivities up which travellers climb oftentimes frown upon them as if to warn them of coming danger, but the tough and rugged trees plant their roots in the rocky fissures and hold on with heroic fortitude; nor do they cease their lersevering efforts, while apparently changing their places at each zone, until, robbed of their luxuriance and reduced to mere bushes by the savage winds and by the cold, they peep out from their hiding Solaces only to behold the stupendous fields of granite desolation, thou 199-‘

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. - A LUMBERLMANrS CAMP IN THE WOODS OF

MAINE. sands of feet above the sea, shrouded in fogs, or bounded by tile sea. Inaccessible, for the most part, as are these Northern forests, the enterprise of man has been such as to penetrate their hidden depths for his advantage, and plunder them of their wealth. In Maine, selfish man robs themn of their stately leaders; in New -Hampshire, he builds fairy-like palaces, and invites the world to come there and be happy; in Vermont, he gashes the maple trees and compels them to yield up, for his enjoyment, the sweetness of their lives; and in New York he hanmmers out of their mountain sides, in their lonely retreats, the valued iron ore, and meanly strips the henmlock of its shaggy barks and leaves it to perish ingloriously upon the hills.” I l 200

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MAINE. MINERALS. The mineral resources of Maine are limited. Copper pyrites, lead, and manganese are found in small quantities, but iron, lime, and a fine granite are plentiful. The principal iron deposit occurs onIL the Aroostook River, about 50 miles from its mouth, and the country along the west branch of the Penobscot furnishes a limited quantity of an excellent marble. A fine quality of slate is found in the region between the sources of the Kennebec and St. John rivers. The granite of which the Treasury Extension in Washington City is built, was brought from the coast of Maine. CLIMATE. The climate of Maine is considered healthy, in spite of the extreme northeastern situation of the State, because it is less subject than that of the other New England States to sudden and violent changes. The winters are severe and long. The mercury sometimes falls to 20 or 30 degrees below zero, but for the greater part of the season there is a uniform temperature averaging about 18~. The summers, though short, are warmn. The thermometer has been known to indicate a heat of 100~, but the average temperature is about 60~. The snow lies on the ground from 3
to 5 months, and the season of vegetation lasts scarcely 4 months. The spring and early summer are rendered unpleasant by the cold northeast winds, which sweep down from the ice-fields of the Atlantic. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not uniform. Between the Kennebec and Penobseot, the lands are generally good and productive, and the same may be said of the valley of the St. John and the country watered by some of the lesser rivers. The lands in the mountainous districts and along the coast-are for the most part poor, and require laborious culture. In 1869, there were 2,704,133 acres of improved lands, and 2 996,622 acres of unimproved lands in the State. Its agricultural wealth in the same year may be stated as follows: Cash value of farms,…… -… $80,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,400,000 Number of horses,………… 71,110

.” asses and mules……. 168 201

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Number of milch cows,….. other cattle,….e ” sheep, -. swine,……. Value of domestic animals,. Bushels of wheat,……. rye……… ” Indian corn,….. oats,…….. peas and beans,.. ” Irish potatoes,… ” barIey,……., buckwheat,……

clover-seed,… Pounds of wool……..1 ” butter,……… 7 cheese,……

” hops,….. flax,…. maple sugar,……. ” beeswax anad hl(m.ey, Tons of hay,…… Value of orchard products,. market garden products,. home made manufactures, ” slaughtered animals,. COMMERCE. The staple export of Maine is lumber. The coast offers the best in. dlucements for commerce of any State in the Union. It is so thickly studded with bays and navigable rivers that vessels canl find an excellent harbor at any point along its whole length. Shipbuilding is carried on to a considerable extent. The commercial returns for the year 1870 were as follows: Value of lumber produced during the year.. $11,728,122 Product of the fisheries..,…….

979,610 Besides these large quantities of marble, granite, lime, and ice are produced, of which we have no statistics. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 774,040 tons. In 1863, the total foreign imports were $3,911,468, and the exports $7,016,342. In 1870 this State built ships to the value of $2,358,445. 202 190,110 230,110 ,501,210#. 65,340 $19,437, 248,000 158,000 11450,,OOD 3,200,000 346,915 7,500,000 7-50,000 350,000

50,000 1,495,063 11,7,781 1,799,862 102,987 17,081 306,74 32,3,454

1,050,000 $501,767 $194,006 $490,787 $’?7SO,179

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MAINE. MANUFACTURES. According to the census of 1870, there were in that year 5550 establishments in Maine devoted to maniufactures, mining, and thie mechanic arts. They employed 49,180 hands, possessed a capital of $39,796,190, consumed raw material to the amount of $49,379,757 (including fuel), and produced goods worth $79,497,521. Of these establishments, 23
were cottonl maniufactories, employing 2606 male and 6246 female hands, consuming annually $6,716,780 worth of raw material, paying annually $2,565,197 for labor, and producing $11,844,181 worth of goods; and 56
were woollen miills, with a capital of $4,092,685, employing 1471 male and 1244 femalehands, conIsuming $3,761,715 worth of raw material, paying $1,035,483 for labor, and producing goods worth $6,150,620. There were $4,939,781 worth of leather; 7000 tons of rolled iron, worth $1,591,196; $1,791,82:3 worth of steam engines and machinery; $231,991 worth of agricultural implements; $4,415,998 worth of flour; and $93,050 worth of malt and $215,715 worth of spirituous liquors produced during tlI) same year. The manufacturing interest of Maine has greatly increase(] since 1860. In 1860, the capital invested in manufactures amountedl to $22,044,020 and the annual value of fabrics produced to $38,193,284. The waterpower of the State is immense, and holds out the best indlucetnents to manufacturers. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State is making steady progress in internal improvements. Ini 1860, there were 14 railroads in Maine, hlaving an aggregate length in the State of 472 miles, which had been constructed at a cost of $16,576,385. The Grand Trunk, which extends from Portland, through New Hampshire and Vermont to Quebec and Montreal in Canada, passes through Maine for but a short distance. It is a firstclass’road, in respect to the amount of business done by it. The Maine Central is 138 miles long, and extends from Portland to Bangor, passing through Auburn and Waterville. The Portland and( Kennebec, extending from Portland to Skowhegan, through Richmond, Gardiner and Augusta, is 100 miles long. There are other thriving lines in the State, one of which (the Portland, Saco, an(d Portsmouth) connects Portland with Portsmouth, N. IH. The only canal in the State is the Cumberland-Oxford, uniting 203

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Portland with Sebago, Brandy, and Long Ponds. It is 20 miles long, and llas 26 locks. Together with the Songo River improvements, it forms a navigable line of 50 miles, constructed at a cost of $50,000. EDUCATION. Maine has a permanent school fund, drawn from the sale of lands donated for that purpose by the State. Besides this, the banks are taxed onehalf of one per cent. on their capital, and the towns are assessed at the rate of 40 cents per capita, for educational purposes. In 1860, Maine had 2 colleges and 337 students, 110 academies and other schools, with 8273 pupils, and 4376 public schools with 186,717
pupils. In the same year, the whole number of pupils, between the ages of 4 and 21 years, at all the schools in the State, was 244,920. In 1868, this number had been reduced to 225,290, a flling off due to the actual decrease of children in the State. In 1850, the p)ropor tion of minors in the State was 49 per cent. of the whole population, but in 1860 it was only 36 per cent. This, too, in spite of the fact that the populationi of Maine has steadily grown larger. It is doubtless due to the fact that children are not now as much desired as in the better days of the community. * In 1868, the number of schools in the State was 3782. A writer in the Annual Cyclopaedia for 1867, says: “The permanent school fund amounts to $245,121.23, the income of which for the past year is $13,244.14., Tlhe receipts from the bank tax are rapidly falling off, being but $4475. The people are determined, however, that the schools shall not suffer. They have raised, by direct taxation, the sum of $518,292.97, an average of $2.28 a scholar, and built seventy-nine new schoolhouses, at a cost of $323,581.13. Add to this the sum of $15,316.93, contributed to prolong public schools, with $40,614.33, paid for private schools and academies, and $6,428.25 paid out of the State for the same purposes, making an aggregate expen(liture for schools of $935,131.75, and you have abundant proof that thle burdens and discouragements of the times are not allowed to dliminish the interest of the people in common school education. There are also two Normal Schools, both of which are in a flourishing condition, and are liberally sustained.

’” The State has chartered a College of Agricultural and Mechanic *

Appleton’s Cyclopedia, 1868. 204

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MAINE. Arts; and commenced the erection of suitable buildings for its uses. …. The Reform School has entered upon a course of unusual prosperity.” In 1870, there were 3,334 libraries, containing a total of 984,510 volumes. There were 400 puLblic libraries, comrprisiliig 500,000
vols. In the same year, there were 65 newspapers and periodicals published in the State. These consiste(d of 7 daily, 1 tr-iwveelkiy, and 47 weekly political papers, 3 weekly religious pa[)ers, and(l 10 journals of a miscellaneous character. These had an aggregate annual circulation of 9,867,680 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Maine, are the State Prisoln, at Thomaston, the Insane Asylum, at Augusta, and the State Reform School, at Cape Elizabeth. The State Prison was much enlarged and improved in 1867. It is not adequate to the necessities of the commn unity, however, and in 1867, was so overcrowded that its earlings fell $7000 short of its expenditures. The number of prisoners in 1866 was 135, against 78 in 1865. The number of inmates in the Irmanc Asylum in 1867 was 303-144 men and 159 women. The institution is well supported by the State, and has received several endowments. The State Reform Schoot, in 1870, contained 254 inmates, of whlom 71 we recommitted during the year. The children, upon being admitted to this school, are employed on the farm or in the wvorl-shoI)s. They are kindly treated, and, as a general rule, a great chanllge takes place for the better in their morals a febw months after their comiiilitmnent. The actual cost of the school to the State for 1868, was about $13,945, the earnings of the boys making utip the remainder of the expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMIINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Maine was 85,200,853, aid the number of churches, 1104. FINANCES. The public debt of the State on the 31st of December, 1873, was $9,959,690, and is due in 1883 and 1889. The amount paid off in 1873 was 50,000. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal 205

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. year 1874 were $1,859,904, aind the expenses of the State $1,537,718. On January 1st, 1875, there was a cash balance in the Treasury of $322,185. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 61 National banks doing business in the State, with anl aggregate capital of $9,085,000. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted in 1820. Every adult male citizen. of the United States, not a criminal, is entitled to a vote in the elections. The Government of the State consists of a Legislature, comprising a Senate and House of Representatives, and a Governor, all chosen by the people. The Governor is elected annually, and is assisted in his executive duties by a Council of seven members, elected on joint ballot by the houses of the Legislature.

The Senate consists of 31 members, and the House of Representatives of 151
members, all chosen annually by the people, on the second Monday in September. The Legislature meets at Augusta, on the first Wednesday in January in each year. The chief executive officers are the Secretary of State and the State Treasurer, both chosen by the joint ballot of the Legislature. There is a probate court with a judge and register in each county, and municipal andl police courts in the several cities. Cases originatimg within the jurisdiction of these bodies are tried before them.

Tilhe Supreme Judicial Court of the State consists of a Chief Justice andl seven Associate Justices, an Attorney General, and a Reporter of Decisions. Courts are held in three districts, for the purpose of hearing and determining cases brought before them. The Court for the Eastern district sits at Bangor, that for the Middle district at Augusta, and that for the Western district at Portland. The income of the State is derived chiefly from direct taxes, sales of land, and a tax on the banks. The seat of Government is established at Augusta. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 16 counties. HISTORY. Maine was first visited in 1602 by Gosnold, who was followed in 1603 by Martin Pring. A French expedition, under Des Monts, passed the winter of 1604 at the present site of Calais, on the St. Croix. Des Monts took possession of the region of the Kennebec the next spring, and was granted a patent for it by the French King. The province was visited by Captain George Weymouth, in 1605, 206

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MAINE. and in 1607 the first colony was established by the Plymouth Comjpany. This settlement was abandoned in one year. A French colony was sent out in 1613, by Madame de Guercheville, who had purchased the patent of Des Monts, and planted on Mount Desert Island for nmissionary purposes.

This settlement was broken up by an expedition from Virginia. In 1614, the coast was thoroughly explored by Captain John Smith, who published an account of it on his return to England. The Plymouth Company obtained a renewal of their charter from James I., in 1620, and, as the region granted them included the present State of Massachusetts, bitterly opposed the formiation of settlenments by the Pilgrims at Plymouth and Salem, but without effect. In 1621, William Alexander, who subsequ(ently became Earl of Stirling, purchased from the Company the territory east.of the St.

Croix River; which stream, until this day, forms the eastern boundary of Maine. The next year, Monhegan was settled by emigrants if’romn Great Britain. Saco was settled in 1623. These settlements prospered even better than their founders had ventured to hope. In 1629, the Plymouth Company established the western boundary of Maine, by selling to John Mason the territory “lying between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers,” to which they gave the name of New Hampshire. In 1635, the Company surrendered its charter to the king, and divided its territory among its members. The country between the Piscataquis and the Kennebec was assigned to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the Province of Maine. Gorges was also appointed Governor-General of New England with almost despotic powers. In 1640, he sent his son Thomas to Maine as his deputy. Thomas Gorges took up his residence at the settlement of Agamenticus, now the town of York, and in 1642 changed the name of the place to Gorgeana. Since the settlement of the colony, the French had claimed the region between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under the name of Acadie, and after the death of the elder Gorges the province was still further divided among his heirs. These cut it up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of this result the colony of Massachusetts Bay, incited to such a course by the eiintreaties of many of the inhabitants, set up a claim, in 1651, to the province of.

aine, which it declared had been granted to the colony by the original charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent 07

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to admit the province into the jurisdiction of the Bay Colony, but the authorities of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the Government of Great Britain. The people of Maine were adherents of the king and the established Church, and England was now ruled by the Puritans. Consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was declared a part of that Colony. Massachusetts made a generous use of her authority, however, and allowed the towns of Maine very much the same privileges and government as they now enjoy, and in religious matters was far more tolerant to them than to her own people. This forbearance, joined to the natural liberality of the province, entirely exempted it from the religious persecutions which have stained the history of the other colonies. In 1653, Cromwell declared void the transfer of Acadie to the French, which had been made by Charles I. in 1632, and appointed a Governor of that territory, who held his office until the treaty of Breda, in 1669, by which Acadie was restored to France. Upon the restoration of Charles II., the heirs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges succeeded in obtaining a royal order, restoring the province of Maine to them. Massachusetts resisted this order, but in 1670 settled the matter by purchasing the interests of the claimants for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling. In 1675, King Philip’s war began in New England. Maine came in for her full share in these horrors; and from this time until 1760, nearly one hundred years, was never free fromn incursions by the savages. This constant danger greatly retarded her progress. Settlers were afraid to venture within her limits, and many of those who had already established themselves there removed to the other colonies. Tile Duke of York having received from Charles II. a grant of the Dutch territories in North America, set up a claim to the region between the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers; which claim was resisted by Massachusetts, who advanced( her boundary to the west shore of Penobscot Bay. The duke sent Sir Edmund Andros to America, as Governor of New York and Maine; but his authority in the latter province was not recognized by Massachusetts. Upon the accession of the duke to the English throne as James II., Andros was made Governor of all New England, where he was guilty of the most outrageous extortion. The charter of Massachusetts having been declared forfeited, the Colony was powerless to protect the injured people, and Andros had his own way until the Revolution of 1688, which placed William and Mary on the English throne, overthrew him, and restored the former state of affairs.

208

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MAINE. During the Revolution, Maine, which continued to form a part of the State of Massachusetts, was almost entirely exempted from the disasters of the war; and the power of the savages being destroyed, commenced to increase rapidly in population and wealth. The war of 1812 exposed the province to great suffering at the hands of the English, who occupied and held the eastern portion of the State until the conclusion of peace. In 1820, Massachusetts, wishing to offset the growing power of the Southern States, signified her willingness to part withl Maine. A State Constitution was accordingly adopted by the people of the province, and on the 15th of March, 1820, Maine was adimitted into the Union as a State.

The Treaty of 1783 failed to establish the eastern boundary of Maine with accuracy; and for more than half a century, the Governments of the United States and Great Britain were involved in a controversy concerning it, which at length bade fair to embroil the two countries in another war. In 1842, the Treaty of Washington adjusted( the dispute and settled the boundary as it exists at present. The United States and Maine agreed to cede to Great Britain a small part of the territory claimed by her, in return for the free navigation of the St. John’s and for Rouse’s Point in New York. During the Rebellion, Maine was subjected to two incursions of the Southern forces. On the night of the 29th of June, 1863, the officers and crew of a Confederate privateer captured the U. S. revenue cutter Caleb Cushing, in the harbor of Portland, and carried her to sea. They were pursued by two steamers manned by armed volunteers, and overhauled a short distance from the city. Finding escape imnpossible, they blew up the cutter, and took to their boats, but were speedily overtaken and made prisoners. “At midday, on July 18th, 1864, a bold attempt was made to rob the Calais Bank, in that town, by a small party of rebel raiders from St.

John, N. B., led by one Collins, a captain in a Mississippi regiment. But the town authorities having been previously put on their guard by the American Consul at St. John, three of the party were arrested and committed, and the remainder prudently kept out of the way. This attempt, though frustrated, created an uneasy feeling along the eastern frontier; and in Eastport, Calais, Belfast, and other border towns, volunteer organizations were formed for the purpose of patrolling the streets at night, and the regular police force was increased ~nd armed.” 20[)

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. During the Rebellion, Maine furnished an aggregate force of 71,558 nen to the army and navy of the United States.

Of these, 8446 were killed in battle or died from wounds and sickness, and 6642 were mustered out for disabilities resulting from wounds or sickness while in active service. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities of Maine are Augusta, Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Biddeford, Calais, Gardiner, Hallowell, Portland, and Rockland. The principal towns are Camden, Eastport, Ellsworth, Frankfort, Kittery, Lewiston, Old Town, Saco, Thomaston, Waldoborough, Waterville, and Wiseasse. AUGUSTA. The city of Augusta is situated in I(ennebec county, on the Kennehec River, at the head of navigation, 43 miles from the sea. It is 60 miles north-northeast of Portland by railroad, and 175 miles from Boston. It lies on the right bank of the Kennebec, which is spanned I)y two fine bridges, one used by vehicles and pedestrians and the other by the railroad. The city is built partly upon the crest of a hill, and partly along the river at the foot of the hill. The former portion is occupied principally by private residences, while the latter is devoted to business. It is well built, and contains many handsome edifices, the principal of which is the State House, a splendid structure of white granite, located in the southern part of the city, and fironted by a large and tasteful park. A United States Arsenal, and the State Insane Asylum, lie on the opposite side of the river, and are attractive features of the landscape. Augusta is well supplied with waterpower by means of a large dam constructed across the Kennebec, a short distance above the city. This dam also affords water enough for steamboat communication between Augusta and Waterville when the stream is not closed by ice. There are several large manufacturing establishments in the city, 4 or 5 banks, an excellent female academy, 9
or 10 churches, and 8 or 9 hotels. It is connected with Portland and Bangor by railroad and steamboat. The greater part of the business portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1865. The population in 1870 was 7,808. The city was founded in 1754. Four weekly papers and one monthly are published in Augusta. 210

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MAINE. PORTLAND, The principal city of the State, “is handsomely situated on a peninsula, occupying the ridge and side of a high point of land, in the southwest extremity of Casco Bay, and, on approaching it from the ocean, is seen to great advantage. The harbor is one of the best on the Atlantic (oast, the anchorage being protected onil every side by land, whilst the water is deep, and communication with the ocean direct and conveiiient. It is defended by Forts Preble, Scammell, and Gorges, and (lotted over with lovely islands. These islands afford most delightful excursions, and are among the greatest attractions of the vicinity. On the highest point of the peninsula is an observatory, 70 feet in height, commanding a fine view of the city,’ harbor, and islands in the bay. The misty forms of the White Mountains, 60 miles distant, are discernible in clear weather. The original name of Portland was Muchiqonne. It was first settled by the whites as an English colony in 1632, just two centuries before the charter of the present city was ,ranted. On the night of the 4th of July, 1866, a fire occurred which swept away nearly onehalf of the entire business portion of the city. “Portland is elegantly built, and the streets beautifully shaded and e mbellished with trees, and so profusely, that there are said to be no less than 3000 of these rural delights.

Congress Street, previous to the fire the main highway, follows the ridge of the peninsula through its entire extent. Among the public buildings of Portland, the City Hall (rebuilding), the Court House, and some of the churches, are worthy o)f particular attention. The Society of Natural History, organized 1843, possesses a fine cabinet, containing specimens of the ornithology of the State, more than 4000 species of shells, and a rich collection of inineralogical and geological specimens, and of fishes and reptiles. The Athenseum, incorporated in 1826, has a library of 12,000
volumes; and the Mercantile Library possesses, also, many valuable l)ooks.

The Marine Hospital, erected in 1855, at a cost of $80,000, is an imposing edifice. Brown & Co.‘s extensive sugar refinery, wholly dlestroyed by the late fire, has been rebuilt, and will shortly be in operation. The city is being rebuilt as rapidly as possible. Population, 31,414. The vicinity has several’fine drives.” In 1676, the savages made a descent upon it, and captured or killed thirty of the inhabitants, and compelled the rest to seek safety Hand-Book of American Travel. 211

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CITY HALL AND COURT HOUSE, PORTLAND. on a neighboring island. In 1689, the French and Indians made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the town; but the next year the Indians were more successful. They took the forts erected for the defence of the settlement, massacred the garrison and carried one hundred of the inhabitants into captivity. The settlement was resumed the next year. On the 19th of November, 1775, Falmouth was bombarded and destroyed by a British fleet.

Ten newspapers and other journals are published in Portland. BANGOR, The second city in the State, is situated in Penobscot county, on the right bank of the Penobscot River, 60 miles from the sea, and 126 miles northeast of Portland, with which it is connected by railroad and steamer.

The city is located at the mouth of the Kenduskeag River, a branch of the Penobscot, and is built on both banks of the former stream, the two divisions of the city being connected by several 1)ridges. each about 570
feet long. A fine bridge crosses the Penob 212

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MAINE. sot a short distance above the city, and unites Bangor with Brewer.

This bridge marks the upper line of the harbor, which is about 1500 feet wide, with a depth of water sufficient for the largest vessels. Bangor is the principal lumber port in the Union. Immense quantities of lumber are brought down the Penobscot, and shipped from this place by sea. During the season of navigation, which continues for about 8 months, over 2000
vessels leave this port laden with lumber. The city is also extensively engaged in the coast trade, in foreign commerce, and in shipbuilding.

Bangor is located upon high ground, commanding an extensive view of the surrounding country. It is well built, and contains several fine structures, the principal of which is the Custom House. It contains 12 or 13 banks, 11 churches, 4 of which are among the handsomest in the State; a theological seminary, and a number of flourishing schools. Two daily and 4
weekly newspapers are published in the city. The waterpower is derived from a fall in the Keniduskeag, half a mile above its mouth, and is excellent. Several large factories, including found(leries, machine shops, furniture manufactories, and saw mills, are established here. There is railroad communication to Old Town, on the Penobscot, and this road will soon be extended to Calais, on the border of New Brunswick. The population in 1870 was 18,289 MISCELLANY. ARNOLD’S MARCH TO QUEBEC. Hon. J. T.

Headley, in his biography of the Rev. Samuel Spring, Chaplain of the expedition, thus describes this memorable march: At length provisions began to grow scarce, and every one had to be put on short allowance. Mr.

Spring took his threequarters of a pound of pork per day cheerfully with the rest. After incredible hardships, and the loss of 150 men, by sickness and desertion, the army at last reached the great carrying place, 15 miles long, extending from the Kennebec to the Dead River. Only 3 small ponds occurred the whole distance, on which the boats could be launched. The rest of the way they and the provisions, ammunitions, etc., had to be carried on men’s shoulders. This was a terrific strain on the army, and the dispiriting effect upon the soldiers was not relieved by the appearance of the Dead River, when they reached it, for it moved sluggish and dark like the waters of oblivion through the silent and motionless forest. Day after day they toiled up this sluggish streamn, between the monotonous walls of forest that lined its banks, until it seemed as if there was no outlet or opening to the apparently interminable wilderness.

At every bend, the eye strained forward to catch some indication of change, and when at last they came 14 213

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in sight of a snow-covered mountain in the distance, telling them there was an outer world after all, the men sent up a shout that woke the echoes far and wide. Near its base they encamped 3
days, and Spring spent most of the time in visiting the sick, and praying with them. The army had scarcely got under way again, when the heavens became overcast; dark and angry clouds swept the heavens, and the heavy winds sobbed and moaned through the forest. Soon the rain came down in torrents. Side by side with the drenched soldier the tall chaplain trudged uncomplainingly on, and lay down like him on the wet ground at night. It poured without cessation for 3 days, shedding still deeper gloom over the army. The river rose steadily the whole time, till the sluggish current at length swept down with such velocity and power that the boats could with difficulty stem it. On the third night, just as the soldiers had lain down to rest, after having kindled a huge fire, Mr. Spring heard a roar in the forest above them like the sound of the surf beating upon the shore, and the next moment the glan. cing waters were seen sweeping through the trees on both sides of the stream. In an instant the camp was alive with shouts and cries rising above the turbulent flood that deluged the ground on which they stood. The fires were extinguished, and in the tumult, and confusion, and darkness, no one knew which way to flee for safety, or what to do. In, this state of uncertainty and dread the night wore away. The daylight revealed to them a spectacle sad enough to fill the bravest heart with discouragement. Boats had drifted into the forest, and as far as the eye could reach the level ground was one broad lake, out of which arose the dark stems of the trees like an endless succession of columns. In nine hours the water rose 8 feet, totally obliterating the shores of Dead River. But the provisions were getting lower and lower, and Arnold could not wait for the river to subside. The army was, therefore, pushed on, slowly stemming the flood; but seven boats, carrying provisions, were caught in the whirling, angry waters, and upset, and all their contents destroyed. The boldest now paused in dismay, for only 12 days’ provisions remained, while 30 miles across the mountain were to be traversed before they could reach the head waters of the Chaudiere, that flowed into the St. Lawrence. A council of war was called to decide what should be done in this crisis of affairs. They had now been a month away from civilization, the sick were increasing, while famine’was staring them in the face. It was determined at length to leave the sick there, and despatch orders to Colonels Green and Knox, in the rear, to hasten up, and take them back to Cambridge. Here was an opportunity for the young chaplain to abandon the expedition, and yet apparently be in the path of duty. He had had enough, one would think, of toil, exposure, and suffering,, not to wish to face still greater hardships, and perhaps death itself, by famine in the wilderness, he following its fortunes. But he believed the welfare of his country was deeply involved in its fate, and he determined, come what would, to share its vicissitudes, hazards, and destiny. Hlaving, therefore, prayed with the sick, encouraged the desponding with the promise that relief would soon, come, and pointed those whom he believed dying to the Saviour of men, and commended all to the care and mercy of God, he bade them farewell, and moved forward with the advancing column.

The cold, autumnal rains had now turned into snow, which, sifting down through the leafless tree-tops, covered the weary, wan, and straggling column with a winding-sheet, that seemed to be wrapping it for the tomb.

After they left the sick in the wilderness, they passed 17 falls before they reached the head 214

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MAINE. waters of Dead River. It was still 4 miles across to the Chaudibre, down which they were to float to the St. Lawrence. Here, on the summit of the hills on which the waters divide, one part flowing south and the other north, Arnold distributed the last provisions to the separato companies, and, taking only 13 men, pushed on for the Chludibre. He told those left behind, in parting, that he would obtain provisions for them in advance, if human efforts could procure them; but directed them to follow after as fast as they could, for, he added, their only safety lay in advancing.

Spring remained behind with the army, to share its privations and its fate, whatever that might be. The gallant fellows gave their indomitable leader three parting cheers, and then began to heave their heavy boats from the water. Hoisting them upon their shoulders, while others were loaded down with baggage and ammunition, and others still dragged the few pieces of artillery along like cattle, they staggered on through the forest. The scanty provisions that were left them, though eked out with the greatest parsimony, grew rapidly less, and finally failed entirely.

Under the low rations and severe labor combined, the men had gradually grown weaker and weaker, and now, pale and emaciated, looked on each other in mute inquiry. A council of war was called, and it was determined to kill the dogs they had with them, and push on till this loathsome supply was exhausted. These faithful animals, hitherto the companions of their toils, were slain and divided among the different companies. After the bodies were devoured, their legs and even claws were boiled for soup. It was a sad sight to see the groups of half-famished soldiers seated together around a fire, watching with eager looks the pot containing this refuse of the dogs, and gazing with strange meaning into each other’s eyes. The chaplain fared like the rest, and famine and incessant toil and exposure were telling on him as well as on the soldiers. The tall frame grew less erect, and the wan face showed that starvation was eating away his life. Trusting, however, in God, whom he served, he endured all cheerfully, and bore that famished multitude on his heart to the throne of heavenly grace. The soldiers, in all their sufferings, thought of him with the deepest sympathy, and could not but feel encouraged when they saw his serene, though emaciated countenance, and listened to his expressions of calm confidence in God, that he would yet deliver them. He often walked through the woods to look at the various groups, and see where he could be of most service. His heart bled at the destitution he witnessed on every side. One day he came upon a company gathered around a fire, boiling some dogs’ claws they had preserved to make soup with. As he paused to look at theim they rose, and, in true kindness of heart, urged him to share their meagre, disgusting broth. It was a novel, but touching evidence of the deep affection they bore their young chaplain, and told, in language stronger than words, what an example of patient endurance he had shown, and how kind and faithful had been his labors among them. At last the dogs gave out, and then the soldiers tore off their moose-skin moccasins, and boiled them to extract a little nourishment. The feet could stand the November frosts better than their stomachs endure the gnawings of famine.

They reached at length the banks of the Chaudibre, and launched their boats. The current, however, was swollen and rapid-now boiling amid the rocks, and now shooting like an arrow around a jutting precipice. On such a turbulent flood the boats soon became unmanageable, and one after another was stranded or shivered into fragments, till nearly all were destroyed. 21,5

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. They were still 30 miles from the French settlements, and now were compelled to shoulder their burdens, and advance on foot, in straggling parties, through the forest. During all these perils and sufferings, scarce a Sabbath passed in which Spring did not mount his pulpit of knapsacks, and preach to the troops, while every morning, before the march began, his earnest prayer arose to God for help.

The last miserable substitute for food was at length exhausted, and witlI empty stomachs and bowed forms they slowly, despairingly toiled onward, while all along their track the snlow was stained with blood. As they were now approaching the Frenchl settlements, severe discipline was enforced.

They needed no fires to cook their food, for they had none to cook; but none was allowed them to warm themselves by, and strict orders were given not to discharge a gun for any purpose. While the weary column was thus staggering silently on, suddenly the report of a musket was heard far in advance, then another, and another, till twenty echoed through the forest.

They ceased, and then a long shout rolled back through the solitude, producing the wildest excitement.‘lr. Spring never forgot that thrilling scene, and long after, in speaking of it, said: “The army was starving, but moving on. The pioneers, who were ahead to clear the way, roused suddenly a noble moose. It was the first that had been seen. The temptation was too strong to be resisted. One man fired-lie missed. Twenty gulns were levelled at him. He fell-they forgot all discipline in their extremity, and shouted. It was a noble moose, weighing not less than 1000
pounds. A halt was ordered-camp kettles taken out, fires kindled, meat, blood, entrails, hoofs and horns chopped up, and soup made of all for the army.” Revived by this unexpected supply, the troops pushed on. The next day they met a company of men with provisions, sent back by Arnold to relieve them. A loud shout arose from the whole army, and a general feast was ordered. Several of the soldiers, unable to restrain their appetites, eat so voraciously that they sickened and died. They had braved the wilderness, and withstood the ravages of famine, to fall’victims to unrestrained indulgence. It was with profound sadness the young chaplain performed the last religious rites over their rude graves in the northern wilderness 216’

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NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area,…………..9,280 Square Miles. Population il 18060,…….. 326,073 Population ill 1870,…….. 318,300 THE State of New Hampshire is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean, on the southl by Massachusetts, and on the west by thl( Connecticut River and Vermont. It is 90 miles broad at its southern, and 45 miles broad at its northern extremnity, and 185 miles long from north to south. It forms a species of irregular triangle, and is situated between latitude 42~ 40’ and 45~ 25’ N., and between longitude 70~ 40’ and 72~ 35’ W. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is broken and mountainous.

The country rises rapidly as it recedes from the coast until its greatest height is attained in Mount WVashington, one of the White Mountains, in Coos county. The White Mountains proper are only about 20 miles long, and lie almost entirely in Coos county, but broken and detached groups lie all over the State from the northern boundary down to and across the Massachusetts border. Tile only level land, exclusive of the mountain valleys, extends along the coast, and for about 30 miles into the interior. The principal Peaks in New Ilampshire which are distinct from the White Mountainis, are as follows: the Blue Hills, 1151 feet above the ocean, situated in the southeast part of the State; Mount Chocura, in Carroll county, 3358 feet high; Carr’s Mountain, in Grafton county, 1381
feet high; Mount Kearsarge, in Hillsborough county, 3067 feet; Mount Monadnock, in Cheshire county, 3718 feet; Mount Andover, in Merrimack county, 2000 feet; and Moosehillock, in Grafton county, 4636 feet. 217

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The White Mountains lie in the southern part of Coos county, in the northeastern part of the State. The principal peaks of this range are Mount Washington, 6226 feet; Mount Jefferson, 5657
feet; Mount Adams, 5759 feet; Mount Madison, 5415; Mount Monroe, 5349; Mount Franklin, 4850 feet; and Mount Pleasant, 4712 feet. The prominent features of this region, which is styled, on account of its beauty, “The Switzerland of America,” are thus sketched by a recent writer: “The White Mountains, already referred to, attract more tourists than any other natural object in the United States, excepting only Niagara Falls. The traveller may journey for weeks through its wild scenery, with a constant succession of grand objects to interest his mind. The fashionable route is to enter New Hampshire by the Boston and Montreal Railways to Wier’s, on Lake Winnipiseogee; then take the steamboat, and, having made the circuit of the lake, enter the stage for Conway, on the east side of the White Mountains, and from thence, by another stage, through the celebrated Notch, to the Notch House, which stands in the very jaws of the pass. The return is by the Franconia Notch (about 26 miles southwest of the White Mountain Notch), and south down the valley of the Pemigewasset, to Plymouth, or back to Lake Winnipiseogee, according as the tourist wishes to direct his steps thereafter. The White Moutintain Notch is a pass of great celebrity. Coming from the north or west, you enter it by an opening only 23 feet in width, between two perpendicular rocks, one 20, and the other 12 feet high. The infant Saco trickles its way through this nar ow opening, gradually expanding as it proceeds down the pass, and receiving other tributaries from the mountain-sides, which form the walls of the gorge, and which tower to the height of about 2000 feet above the bed of the Saco. In this pass occurred, in 1826, the landslide which destroyed the Willey family. The more wild and abrupt parts of the Notch extend for 2 or 3 miles from its entrance at the Notch House. Mount Washington is ascended on horseback from the Notch House, by a bridle-path, first climbing Mount Clinton-in immediate proximity to the hotelfor 21 miles, and then coasting the east side of the peaks of Mount Pleasant, Mount Franklin, and Mount Monroe, for 4 miles further, occasionally ascending a rough, steep ridge, and again descending, now riding on the verge of a vast ravine of several hundred feet in depth, and now on the crest of a ridge commanding a view of both sides of the chain-we arrive at the foot of Mount Washington, 1500 218

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NEW HAMPSHIRE. SCENE IN THlE WHITE MOUNTAINSo feet in perpendicular, and about one mile in inclined ascent, above the base of the cone or peak, and 6226 feet above the sea. This is the most difficult, though scarcely dangerous, part of the ascent, as it is little else than riding on horseback over a pile of rocks of every variety of size, cast together as if hurled there by the Titans, in war or at play. From the summit, if the day be clear, is afforded a view unequalled, perhaps, on the eastern side of the North American continent. Around you, in every direction, are confused masses of mountains bearing the appearance of a sea of molten lava suddenly cooled, whilst its ponderous waves were yet in commotion. On the southeast horizon gleams a rim of silver light-it is the Atlantic Ocean, 65) miles distant-laving the shores of Maine. Lakes-of all sizes from Lake Winnipiseogee to mere mountain ponds-and mountains beneath you gleam misty and wide.’ Far off to the northeast is Mount Katahdin. In the western horizon are the Green Mountains of Vermont, and to the south and southwest are Mount Monadnock and Kearsarge, or Kiarsage, while the space between is filled up witl 219

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. every variety of landscape, mountain, and hill, plain and valley, lake and river. “Those to whom it is an object to reach Mount Washington with as little stage-riding as possible, may be landed at Gorham by the Portland and Montreal Railway cars, within 5 miles of the base of the mnountain. The Franconia Notch is deemed by many quite as interesting as the White Mountain Notch. Near it are many agreeable accessories not to be found in the latter; alllong which are Echo Lake, just at the northern entrance of the gorge, and the’Old Man of the Mountain,’ a welldefined profile of a human face, 1000 feet above the level of the pass. The Basin, 4 miles south of the Notch, is a pool of beautifillly transparent water. One mile below this, again, in the vicinity of the Flume House, is the celebrated Flume, a narrow gorge or opening in the rocks, only a few feet in width, and from 70 to 120 feet in height, through which flows a small tributary of the Pemigewasset; below this is a cascade of 616 feet in length, which in the spring and fall freshets is an object of great interest. In the same neighborhood is the Pool (a basin formed by a small fall in the Peuiigewasset), whlich is about 60 feet in diameter, and 40 feet deep, surrounded by mural precipi(ces 150 feet in height. The Flumne, the Basin, and the Pool, all within an agreeable walking distance of the Flume House, make this one of the most agreeable stopping-places among the mountains. Mount Lafayette-only 700 feet inferior in altitude to Mount Washingtonis also ascended from the same house, which has the further advantage of being within a five-miles ride of the Franconia Notch. The other detached mountains scattered over New Hampshire would, in any other State, not overshadowed by Mount Washington and his court, merit conspicuous notice.

Dixville Notch, about 46 miles north of Lancaster, is said to be but little inferior to the two great passes already described. New Hampshire shares with Vermont the beautiful river Connecticut, whose shores are often grand, and seldom tame. Bellowvs Falls, in this river, on the southwest border of the State, are formed by the contraction of the river bed to about 20 feet on the west side at low water, through which the stream rushes with great violence. At high water, it flows in the eastern as well as western channel. These beds are separated by a huge rock. The entire descent in half a mile is 42 feet. At Amoskeag, the Merrimac descends 50 feet in three successive pitcles. In the White Mountain Notch is a cascade which winds down the face of the mountain, through a fall of 800 feet, giving, after copious 220

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NEW HAMPSHIIRE. rains, an additional interest to the scene, as it glides or leaps over the different stages of its descent. There are two interesting falls in tile Ammonoosuck, within a pleasant drive from the Notch House.”* Lake Tl7innipiseogee is the principal inland sheet of water. It is irregular in shape, its shores being deeply indented with a number of bays. It is 25 miles long, and varies ill width from 1 to 10
miles. It is very deep, and the water, pure and clear as crystal, is alive with fine trout. It is thicklly studded with islands, and abounds ill the most picturesque scenery. Steamers ply between Alton Bay and Centre Harbor, stopping at the various points along the lake. Large numbers of visitors come here every summer. The Connecticut River, the largest and most beautiful in New England, rises in the extreme northern part of this State, in the hills lying along the border of Canada. Flowing across the State, it turns to the southwest at the northern line of Vermont, and pursuing a generally southwest course, forms the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire, and passes into Massachusetts. The scenery along the river is very beautiful, and has made the “Connecticut Valley” famous throughout the country. Above the Massachusetts line it is chiefly mountainous. The M[errimnac River is the next in importance, and lies almost entirely within the State. It is formed by the junction of the Petnligewasset and Winnipiseogee rivers, in Belknap county. Flowing to the southward, it enters Massachusetts about 80 miles from its source. Then turning abruptly to the northeast, it flows into the Atlantic near Newburyport. It is about 110 miles long, and flows throughl a valley noted for its beauty. IHaverhill, in Massachusetts, 15 miles from the sea, is the head of ship navigation, but canals have been cut around the falls, which enable boats to ascend to Concord, New Hampshire. The river turns by its excellent waterpower more mills and factories than any other in the Union. The Salmon Falls, Piscataqua, Contoocook, Souhegan, and Nashua are the other prominent streams. Tlie Isle of Shoals is the name given to a group of 8 islands, 3 of which belong to New Hanmpshire, and the rest to Maine. They lie off the coast, 11 miles from Portsmouth. A steamer plies daily between that city and the principal island. “The voyage is but an hour in length, and the scenery, as the boat passes down the river *

Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1306. 221

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. through the Narrows, stemming bravely the rushing tide, or borne surfing upon it, is most delightful. Sliding by Fort Constitution and the Whale’s Back Light House, the steamer is soon upon the wide Atlantic. Directly in front is the dim outline of the islands, while behind stretches the white line of the coast.‘In the distance rise the hills of New Hampshire and the blue sides of Agamenticus, the high mountain of York. As the boat approaches the Appledore Island, the hotel unfolds its size and proportions. Landing by row-boats, the traveller ascends, by an easy path, to the portico, where an expectant crowd is assembled. “The’Appledore’ is conducted by Oscar and Cedric Laighton, whose father is well remembered as the former proprietor.

His grave is now one of the interesting and noteworthy spots upon the rocky island. Here also are buried the unfortunate crew of a Spanish vessel drivenp upon the cliff onI a winter’s night. This incident has been made the subject of an effective poem by Longfellow. “The steamboat reaches the’Appledore’ at 1 o’clock each day, and starts upon its homeward trip at 3 P. I. Visitors to the other islands of the group are carried across in small boats. The distancc is short to Gosport, where is a small village of some 30 houses, a church, and a schoolhouse. ThIe population are hardy fishermen, among whom can still be traced the Portuguese features of the original colonizers from the fleet of John Smith, by whom these islands were discovered. A disaster fell upon them a year ago, in the shape of fire. Half their little settlement was consumed in a single night; and this calamity, to so hlard(-working a people, excited much sympathy throughout New England. Assistance was given them, and they are now recovering from their losses. “Near by is White Island, where a revolving light casts a crimnson glow over a sea which sleeps through the summer months, but wNliit(1 rises in the winter storms with mighty strength. The other islands are known by the euphonious names of Smutty-Nose and Hog. They are visited only by sportsmen, and are a refuge for innumerable seafowl.” MINERALS. Iron is found in several counties, principally at Franconia, Piermont, and Bartlett. Bog-ore deposits are thickly scattered over the State. Copper, lead, zinc and pl umbago are also found in several localities, and silver has been discovered near Pittsfield. Granite of 222

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NEW HAMPSHIRE. a fine quality abounds. Gneiss, crystallized-quartz, talc, steatite, tourmalins, ochres, limestone, spars of various kinds, terra sienna, sulphur, magnesia, beryls, garnets, jasper, manganese, asbestus, and amethysts are found. CLIMATE. The climate of New Hampshire is severe, but uniform. Franconia is said to be the coldest place in the Union; the thermometer sometimes indicating 40 degrees below zero. The summers are short, but pleasant. The cold weather begins in October, and snow falls in November and lasts until May, in the northern part of the State, and until April in the southern. In the mountains it frequently lies on the ground until July. The springs are damp and are reIl(lered disagreeable by heavy fogs. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not naturally fertile, but has been made so by patient and laborious tillage. The northern part is but little cultivated, and the best lands are in the valleys of the rivers, which occasionally enrich them by overflows. Sheep and cattle raising foral a prominent part of the industry of the State, the high lands and mountain sides affording good pasturage. There are about 2,367,034 acres of improved land in New Hampshire, and 1,377,591 acres unimproved. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of the State may be generally stated as follows: Cash value of farms,………. Value of farming implements and machinery, Number of horses,……….. I” asses and mules,……….

milchli cows,……….. ” other cattle,………. ” sheep…………. “
swine,……….. Value of domestic animals……… Bushels of wheat,……….. ” rye…………… Indian corn,………. ” oats,…

peas and beans………. Irish potatoes,… ” barley,…………

buckwheat……….. 223 45,101 40 99,540 203,800 620,890 79,680

$12,924,629 291,000 150,000 1,400,000 1,663,000 89,454 1 4,500,000 106,000

90,400

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of clover seed (estimated),….. “
grass seed (estimated),….. Pounds of wool (estimated),……..

butter,……….. ” cheese,…………. hops……….. ” maple sugar,…………. ” beeswax and honey,……. Tons of hay,………….

Value of orchard products,……. homemade manufa,ctures,…. slaughtered animals,…… COMMERCE. New Hampshire has but one good harbor, that of Portsmouth; and but one river navigable, and that for but a short distance from the sea This, of course, limits the amount of her foreign trade.

During the year ending June 30tll, 1861, the commerce of the State was as follows: value of exports, $6112; value of imports, $20,887. MANUFACTURES.

The rivers of New Hampshire furnish an abundance of first class waterpower, and the people are largely engaged in manufactures. According to the census of 1870, there were 3342 establishments in the State engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $36,023,743 and 40,783 hands; consumed raw material worth $44,577,697; and yielded products worth $71,038,249. Of these 35 were cotton factories, employing a capital of $13,331,710, and 3751 male and 7490 female hands, consuming $13,318,447 worth of raw material, paying $398,853 annually for labor, and yielding an annual product of $16,999,072; and 66 were woollen factories, employing a capital of $4,598,800, and 1811 male and 1549
female hands, paying annually $1,353,992 for labor, consuming raw material worth $5,264,520, and yielding an annual product of $8,703,307. The other manufactures were as follows: value of leather produced, $3,758,236; rolled iron, $455,000; steam engines and miachinery, $2,737,493; agricultural implements, $254,470; sawed and planedl lumber, $4,786,692; flour, $2,747,973; liquors, $636,405. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there w.ere 790 miles of railroad within the limits of the State. These.

in manv instances. merely crossed it. terminating at 224 13,000 6,500

2,000,000 6,956,764 2,323,092 150,000 2,255,012 130,078 700,000 $.557,934

$251,013 $3,787,500

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NEW HAMPSIIIRE. either Boston or Portland. Others had one terminus in New Hampshire, and another in some other State, and a few short routes lay within the State. The railroads have almost entirely supplanted the canals built for the improvement of the Merrimac River. EDUCATION. In the year 1870, there were 2542 public schools in New Hlampshire, attended by 33,123
male, and 31,554 female pupils. These schools were conducted by 653 male, and 2702 female teachers. Besides these, there are about 50 private academies in the State, and one college, which is located at Dartmouth.

This institution was founded in 1769, and is in a flourishing condition.

The educational system is maintained by sales of public lands, taxes upon the capital of the banks, and a poll tax upon the inhabitants. It is controlled by a series of district commnittees, who are subordinate to the Board of Education of the State. The expenditures for schools, not including the private schools, for the year 1870, was $403,310. In 1870, there were 1526 libraries in the State, containing 704,269 volumes. In the same year, upwards of 50 newspapers were published in this State. PUBLIC

INSTITUTIONS. The Insane Asylum, at Concord, was incorporated in 1838. It is provided with excellent and commodious buildings, and has a farm of 155
acres attached to it. The whole number of patients under treatment during the year 1870 was 367-190 males, 177 females. The Reform School is located near Manchester, and is surrounded by a farm of 100 acres, which is worked by the boys of the school. Children of both sexes are received here, and are subjected to a mild but firm course of discipline for their reformation. The school was founded in 1856, and has been very successful in its operations. During the year 1869-70, its inmates numbered 155-males 135, females 20. The State Prson is located at Concord. It is in a flourishing condition, and is conducted upon a system which aims to reform as well as punish. The Legislature of 1867 passed an Act, known as the “Commutation law,” by which, says the Governor of the Commonwealth, “every month of exemplary conduct on the part of a prisoner gains him a certain amount of time to be deducted from the term of 225

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OUR COUNTI’RY AND ITS RESOURCES. his sentence…… Every convict who avails himself of the benefits of this provision is released in advance of the expiration of his original term of imprisonment, and thus retains the rights of citizenship.” During the year 1870, the whole number of prisoners confined here was 118. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, thie value of church property was $3,303,780. The number of churches was 624.

FINANCES. The finances of the State are in a prosperous condition. In 1874, the total public debt was $3,826,599. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1874, including cash on hand, were $740,062, and the disbursements $431,491, leaving a balance of $308,571 in the Treasury on the 1st of July, 1874. There are but few State banks left, nearly all of the old institutions having embraced the National Bank system. In May, 1868, there were a few remaining with an aggregate capital of $237,300, and these were preparing to reorganize under the new system.

At the same time, there were 40 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of $4,785,000, besides a number of Savings institutions. GOVERNMENT. Every adult male inhabitant of the State, over twentyone years of age, excepting paupers and persons not paying taxes, is entitled to vote in the place of his residence. The Government consists of a Governor assisted by a Council of five members, and a Legislature, divided into a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen annually by the people on the second Tuesday of March. The Secretary of State and Treasurer are chosen on joint ballot by the Legislature at the beginning of every session of that body.

The two houses of the Legislature are together styled “The General Court of New Hampshire.” There is a Supreme Judicial C’ouit, the highest State tribunal, comprised of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. They are appointed by the Governor and Council, and hold office during good behavior. The State is divided, for convenience, into four Judicial Districts. There is also a Superior Court for each county, and a local tribunal for each city. 226

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NEW HAMPSHIRE. For purposes of government, the State is divided into ten counties. The seat of Government is located at Concord. HISTORY. New Hampshire was first settled by the English, at Dover and Portsmouth, in 1623. It was originally a part of Massachusetts, but was organized as a separate province, with its present name, by a royal charter, in 1679. In 1689 it was annexed to Massachusetts, and was afterwards transferred to New York. It was erected into an independent province in 1741, however, and has since maintained a distinct existence. It was considerably annoyed in its early years by the Indians, who, in 1689, made a descent upon Dover, burned a part of the town, and killed a number of the inhabitants.

In 1776, the State declared its separate independence of Great Britain.

During the Revolution, it made liberal contributions of men and money to the cause. Its troops won especial credit at Stillwater, Saratoga, Monmouth, and Bennington. It adopted the Constitution of the United States on the 21st of June, 1788. During the late war, it contributed 33,427 men to the army of the United States. Of these, 5518 fell in battle, and 11,039 were disabled by wounds and sickness. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns of New Hampshire are Concord, the capital of the State, Manchester, Nashua, Portsmouth, Dover, Somersworth, Keene, Claremont, Rochester, Exeter, Gilford, Sanbornton, and Great Falls.

CONCORD, The capital of the State, is situated on the banks of the Merrimac River, 20 miles above Manchester, and 59 miles northwest from Boston. It extends along the river for about 2 miles, and has an average width of about half a mile. Main street, the principal thoroughfare, is 2
miles long, and 150 feet wide. It contains the hotels and nearly all the prominent buildings. The city is handsomely built; the streets are broad, and well shaded; and the entire place wears an air of comfort and refinement characteristic of New England towns. The principal building is the State House, constructed of a fine quality of native granite, and surrounded by a beautiful park. Concord is the seat of extensive manufactures, the falls of the Mer 227

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CONCORD STATE HOUSE. rimac furnishing excellent waterpower. It contains 9 churches, several banks, and a number of fine private buildings. The State LI,unatic Asyluni is also located here. Railroads connect it with Boston and all parts of the Union, and with Canada. The population is 12,241. Four newspapers are published here.

MANCHESTER, The largest city in the State, is situated in Hillsborough county, on the banks of the Merrimac River, 18 miles from Concord, and 59
miles from Boston. It is built along the river, on an elevated plateau, about 90 feet above the water. Several railroads centre here, and afford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the country. The city is well laid out, having broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, and several handsome public squares. The eastern section is built almost entirely of brick, but the western part is built of wood. It contains several fine buildings, the principal of which is the new town.house, or city hall. The more elevated portion of the place is occupied by residences and churches, and the slope between 228

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NEW HAMPSHIRE. the plateau and the river is devoted to the mills and the dwellings of the operatives. The city contains a good public library, about 12 churches, about 24 public schools, besides several private establishments, 3 or 4 banks, and 7 newspaper offices. Manchester owes its importance to its extensive manufactures. Cotton, woollen, and other factories are numerous, the motive power being derived from a series of rapids in the Merrimac, called the Amoskeag Falls. The river here makes a descent of 54 feet in a mnile, and dams and locks have been constructed at the head of the rapids, by which the water is conveyed to all the mills in the city. Cotton and woollen goods, wrought iron goods of various kinds, locomotives, railroad cars, and steam fire-engines constitute the principal manufactures, and give employment to between six and seven thousand hands. The population is 23,536. PORTSMOUTH, In Rockingham county, is the second city, and only seaport in the State. It is situated on the right bank of the Piscataqua River, 3 miles from the sea, and 54
miles northeast of Boston. Several railroads terminate here, and others pass through it, leading to all parts of the Union and Canada. The city is built upon a peninsula near the mouth of the river, and upon rising ground, which affords a fine view of the harbor. It is well laid off, and possesses a number of handsome buildings. It contains a public library of over 10,000 volumes, and several excellent literary institutions. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. It is the seat of an active foreign and coasting trade, which, though not so large as formerly, is still important. The fisheries are a source of considerable profit to it, as they lie but a short distance from it. The harbor of Portsmouth is one of the best in the world. It is completely land-locked, is never frozen, and is accessible to the largest ships. Its tides are high and rapid, and the bottom is a smooth bed of rock. The channel at low water is 40 feet in depth. It is defended by Fort Constitution, on Great Island; Fort McClary, opposite; Fort Sullivan, on Trepethen Island; and Fort Washington, on Pierce’s Island. It is estimated that the harbor is sufficiently caparious to admit with ease as many as 2000 vessels. The city is connected by bridges with Newcastle, on Grand Island, and with K(ittery, in Maine, on the oipp)osite side of the Piscataqua. 229 I 1

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The United States Navy Yard at Kittery, commonly known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is one of the principal establishments of the Government, and the greatest attraction of the place. It is pros vided with a splendid dry dock, constructed at a cost of $800,000, with three large ship-houses, and all the appliances necessary to the construction of the largest vessels of war. Portsmouth was made a naval station during the Revolution, and the first ship of the line (the North America) ever constructed in the New World was laid down here during that struggle. The Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama during the civil war, was built here. Portsmouth contains numerous public schools, and supports 4 newspapers, 2 of wlhich are daily. The New HJimpshire Gazette, published here, was established in 1756, and claims to be the oldest American journal now in existence. The population is 11,000. DOVER, In Strafford county, is the oldest city in the State. It is situated at the lower falls of the Cocheco River, and on both sides of that stream. It is at the head of sloop navigation, and is connected with all parts of the country by railroad. It is 12 miles northwest of Portsmouth, and 68 miles north of Boston. It is well built, and regularly laid off. It contains several handsome buildings, the principal of which is the city hall, several banks, a number of excellent public schools, 10 churches, and 2 good hotels. The falls of the Cocheco are 32 feet high, and furnish an abundance of excellent waterpower. The capital invested in manufactures amounts to several millions of dollars. Cotton and woollen goodls, boots and shoes, and iron ware are the principal articles produced. Shipbuilding was formerly an importailt interest. The city is lighted with gas, and contains a population of over 10,000. Dover was settled by a company from England, in 1623, and its early years were marked by constant trouble with the savages. In 1688, it was almost entirely destroyed by them. Belknap, in his “History of New Hampshire,” gives the following account of this tragedy: In that part of the town of Dover which lies about the first falls in the rivei Cocheco, were five garrisoned houses; three on the north side, viz., Walidron’s, Otis’s and Heard’s; and two on the south side, viz., Peter Coffin’s and his son’s. These houses were surrounded by timber walls, the gates of which, as well as the mse doors, were secured with bolts and bars. The neighboring families retired 230

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NEW HAMPSI IRE. to these houses by night; but, by an unaccountable negligence, no watch kept. The Indians who were daily passing through the town, visiting and trading with the inhabitants, as usual in time of peace, viewed their situation withl an attentive eye. Some hints of a mischievous design had been given out by tiieir.squaws; but in such dark and ambiguous terms that no one could compreliend their meaning. Some of the people were uneasy; but Waldron, who, from a long course of experience, was intimately acquainted with the Indians, and on other occasions had been ready enough to suspect them, was now so thoroughly secure that, when sonime of the people hinted their fears to him, he merrily bade them go and plant their pumpkins, saying that he would tell them when the IIndians would break out. The very evening before the mischief was done, being told by a young man that the town was full of Indians and the people were much concerned, he answered that he knew the Indians very well and there was n(o danger. The plan which the Indians had preconcerted was, that two squaws should go to each of the garrisoned houses in the evening, and ask leave to lodge by the fire; that in the night, when the people were asleep, they should open the doors and gates, and give the signal by a whistle; uponl which the strange Indians, who were to be within hearing, should rush in, and take their long-meditated revenge. This plani being ripe for execution, on the evening of Thursday, the 27th of June, two squaws applied to each of the garrisons for lodging, as they frequently did in time of peace. They were admitted into all but the younger Coffin’s, and the peol)le, at their request, showed them how to open the doors, in case they should have occasion to go out in the night. Mesandowit, one of their chiefs, went to Wal(lron’s garrison, and was kindly entertained, as he had often been before. The squaws told the major that a number of Indians were coming to trade with him the next day, and Mesandowit while at supper, with his usual familiarity, said: “Brother Waldron, what would you do if the strange Indians should come?” The major carelessly answered, that hlie could assemble 100 men by lifting up his finger. In this unsuspecting confidence the family retired to When all was quiet, the gates were opened and the signal given. Tlhec Indians entered, set a guard at the door, and rushed into the majores apartment, which was an inner room. Awakened by the noise, he jumped out of bed, and though now advanced in lite to the age of 80 years, he retained so much vigor as to drive them with his sword through two or three doors; but, as he was returning for his other arms, they came behind him, stunned him with a hatchet, drew him into his hall, and, seating him in an elbow chair on a long table, insultingly asked him, “Who shall judge Indians now? I” They then obliged the people in the house to get them some victuals; and when they had done eating, they cut the major across the breast and belly with knives, each one with a stroke, saying, “I cross out my account.” They then cut off his nose and ears, forcing them into his mouth; an.d when spent with the loss of blood, he was falling down from the table, one of them held his own sword under him, which put an end to his misery. They also killed his son-in-law, Abraham Lee; but took his daughter Lee with several others, and having pilaged the house, left it on fire. Otls’s garrison, which was next to the major’s, met with the same fate; he was killed, with several others, and his wife and child were captivated.

Heard’s was saved by the barking of a dog just as the Indians were entering: Elder Wentworth, who was awakened by the noise, pushed them out, and falling on his back set I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES his feet against the gate and held it till hlie had alarmed the people; two balls were fired through it, but both missed him. Cofflin’s house was surprised, but as the Indians had no particular enmity to him, they spared his life, and the lives of:his family, and contented themselves with pillaging the house. Finding a bag of money, they made him throw it by handfuls on the floor, while they amused themselves in scrambling for it. They then went to the house of his son!, who would not admit the squaws in the evening, and summoned him to surrender, promising him quarter. He declined their offer, and determined to defend his house, till they brought out his father and threatened to kill him before his eyes. Filial affection then overcame his resolution, and he surrendered. They put both fImilies together into a deserted house, intending to reserve them for prisoners; but while the Indians were busy in plundering, they all escaped. Twenty-three people were killed in this suprisal, and 29 were captivated; 5 or I houses, with the mills, were burned; and so expeditious were the Indians in the execution of their plot, that before the people could be collected from the other parts of the town to oppose them, they fled with their prisoners and booty. As they passed by Heard’s garrison in their retreat, they fired upon it; but the people being prepared and resolved to defend it, and the enemy being in haste, it was preserved. The preservation of its owner was more remarkable. Elizabeth Heard, with her three sons and a daughter, and some others, were returning in the night from Portsmouth. They passed up the river in their boat unperceived by the Indians, who were then in possession of the houses; but suspectinlg danger by the noise which they heard, after they had landed, they betook themselves to Waldron’s garrison, where they saw lights, which they imagined were set up for-direction to those who might be seeking a refuge. They knocked and begged earnestly for admission; but no answer being given, a young man of the company climbed up the wall, and saw, to his inexpressible surprise, an Indian standing in the door of the house, with his gun. The woman was so overcome with the fright that she was unable to fly, but begged her children to shift for themselves; and they with heavy hearts left her.

When she had a little recovered, she crawled into some bushes, and lay there till daylight. She then perceived an Indian coming toward her with a pistol in his hand; he looked at her and went away: returning, he looked at her again; and she asked him what lie would have; he made no answer, but ran yelling to the house, and she saw him no more. She kept her place till the house was burned, and the Indians were gone; and then returning home, found her own house safe. Her preservation in these dangerous circumstances was more remarkable, if (as it is supposed) it was an instance of justice and gratitude in the Indians. For at the time when the four or five hundred were seized, in 1676, a young Indian escaped and-took refuge in her house, where she concealed him; in return for which kindness lie promised her that lie would never kill her, nor any of her family, in any filture war, and that hle would use his influence with the other Indians to the same purpose. This Indian was one of the party whlo surprised the place, and she was wetll know i to the most of them. 232 I

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VERMONT. A r ea,………… 10,212 Square Miles. Population in 1860………315,098 Population in 1870,………. 330,552 THE State of Vermont lies between latitude 420 44’ and 45~ N., and longitude 710 33’

and 73~ 25’ W., and is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by New Hampshire, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by Lake Champlain and the State of New York. It is 150 miles long from north to south, 85 miles wide from east to west in its northern part, and 35 miles wide from east to west at its southern boundary. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is greatly diversified by hill and valley. The Green Mountains extend in a direction almost from north to south, throughout its entire length, dividing it into two unequal portions. Just below Montpelier, the capital, this ridge divides into two portions, one of which, the higher, extends in a northern direction to the Canada line. The other, although lower, is continuous, and follows the line of the Connecticut River, though at a considerable dist a nce from it, to the northeast corner of the -Stat e. The eastern ridge is.broken in several places by the passage of the Onion, Lamioille, and Missisque rivers. South of this division, the range is not broken by any stream. The Green Mountains are among the most picturesque and beautiful in the Union, and offer many attractions to the tourist. The highest peaks are Mount Mansfield, 4360 feet above the sea, Camel’s Rump, 4188 feet, Killington’s, 3675 feet, a nd Ascutney Mountain, near the Connecticut River, 3320 feet.

The southern part of the r a n g e divides the tributaries of the Hudson from those of the Con ‘~~~~ ~233

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. necticut. The mountains are covered with a thick growth of the evergreen fir, spruce, and hemlock, which give them always a rich hue of dark green, from which their name is derived. Lake Champlain, the largest over which the State has any jurisdic tion, lies between Vermont and New York, and belongs principally to the latter State; but, for convenience, will be described here. It extends from Whitehall, in New York, northward, a few miles be yond the Canada line. It is 130
miles long, varies in width from half a mile to 10 mniles, and is from 50
to 280 feet deep. A line, run from Vermont to New York across the principal island of the lake, would measure 15 miles. It receives the waters of Lakes George and Wood, and of the Saranac, Chazy, Au Sable, Missisquoi, and Wi niiooski rivers, and discharges itself through the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence. On the New York side the shores are rocky, mountainous and sterile; but the Vermont shore is very productive, and is highly cultivated. The scenery of the lake is wild and beautiful, the view ranging, in fair weather, as far back as the Green Mountains in Vermont, and the Adirondacks in New York. The waters are clear and abound in fish. Steamers ply daily between the upper and lower ends of the lake.

By means of canals there is uninterrupted navigation, except during the season of ice, between Lake Champlain and the Atlantic, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson River. The commerce of the lake is estimated at over $30,000,000 annually. About 200,000 tons of shipping and 12,000 men are employed in this trade. Navigation is usually closed between the last of November and the first of April. There are a number of islands in the lake, the principal of which are Grand Isle, South Hero, and North Hero, all belonging to Vermont. The principal towns belonging to Vermont are Swanton, Burlington, Charlotte, and Ferrisburg. Lake Champlain was discovered by Samuel Champlain, a French naval officer, in 1609. Important events occurred on its waters during the Revolution, and in the war of 1812-15, a British army and fleet were routed at Plattsburg, on the New York shore. Lake Memphramagog, which lies almost entirely in Canada, indents a portion of northern Vermont. The other lakes are Dunmore, Austin, Bombazine, and Long Pond. The Connecticut River separates the State from New Hampshire. The other streams are the Otter Creek, Onion, Lamoille, and Missisque. TIhey are insignificant in length, but furnish good waterpower. 234

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VERMONT. MINERALS. Iron is found in considerable quantities in the Green Mountains, and there are deposits of bog-ore in various parts of the State. A brownish coal is found in Brandon. Sulphuret of iron is found near Strafford, and is used in making copperas, of which large quantities are produced. Granite and marble, the latter of a most excellent quality, abound. Slate quarries are numerous, and manganese is found in considerable quantities near Rutland. The other minerals are titanlium, oxide of manganese, lead, magnetic iron ore, plumbago, copper and zinc.

Traces of gold are very decided in the towns of Stowe and Bridgewater.

CLIMATE. Being sheltered from the breezes which sweep over the other New England States from the ice fields of the Atlantic, Vermont has an even temperature, which renders it one of the healthiest States in the Union.

The thermometer ranges from 17~ below zero to 92~ above. The winters begin about December, and continue until near the middle of April: They are severe, as well as long. The summers are brief, but pleasant. Frost begins to appear in September, snow about the last of November. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The valleys of Vermont are fertile, the lands along the river bottoms being excellent. The mountain slopes are used extensively for pasture, and large quantities of maple sugar are produced every year in the uplands. In 1869, there were 2,823,157 acres of improved land in the State, and 1,337,682 of unimproved land. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of Vermont, at the present time, may be stated as follows: Cash value of farms,…….. Value of farming implements and( machllinery, Number of horses,………… ” asses and mules,…….. milch cows,………. ” other cattle,……….. . sheep,…….. o swine,………. Value of lomestic aiiimals…….. Z. 21 $91,511,673

,$3,554,728 71,840 120 190,420 230,300 997,890 81,,450 $19,241,989

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of wheat,……….

rye,…………* . 5 ” Indian corn,………. ” oats,……….. “

Irish potatoes,……….,. ” barley,.. ” buckwheat, ” grass seed,………. Pounds of wool,……….. ” butter,……….. “
cheese,…;…….. ” maple sugar (estimated),…. ” beeswax and honey (estimated),. Tons of hay (estimated),…. Value of orchard products (estimated),… ” market garden products (estimated), ” homemade manufactures, “. COMMERCE. Being an inland State without navigable rivers, Vermont conducts its commerce connected with navigation exclusively by way of Lake Champlain. During the year 1862, the foreign exports amounted to $736,663, and the imports to $2,567,892. The entrances for the same year reached 22,012 tons, and the clearances to 23,281. Of this amount, 6067
tons were owned in the State. MANUFACTURES. Vermont has the best waterpower of any New England State, but is not as extensively engaged in manufactures as the others, the principal pursuit of her people being agriculture. According to the cecnsus of 1870, there were 3270
establishments in Vermont devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. These employed a capital of $20,329,637, and 18,686 hands, consumed raw material worth $17,007,769, and returned an annual product of $32,184,606. The cotton manufactures were valued at $546,510; woollen manufactures at $3,550,962; leather manufactures at $2,052,913; pig iron at $66,000; rolled iron at $31,500; steam engines and machinery at $1,122,567; agricultural implements at $523,669; sawed and planed lumber at $6,069,725; flour at $3,895,058. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Vermont is crossed by several lines of railway, connecting the prineipal towns with the cities of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New 236 766,000 155,000

1,475,000 5,050,000 5,750.000 102,000 - 231,000 12,000 3,000,00O

15,900,359 8,215,030 10,000,000 . 212,905 1,100,000 $198,427 $24,792

$63,295

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YERMONT. York, Connecticut, and Canada. In 1872, there were 675 miles of railway completed in the State. Rutland is the great railroad centre.

EDUCATION. The State makes a liberal provision for the education of the young. In 1870, there were 2750 public or district schools in operation, attended by 72,950 pupils, the average attendance being about 47,000. The number of teachers was 4239, and the amount spent for educational purposes was about $425,000. There are also three Normal schools in the State, one in each Congressional district, subject to the control of the State Board of Education. Two courses of study are taught in these schools Those who graduate in the first course receive a certificate, which is, by a law of the State, a licence to teach anywhere in Vermont for five years.

Graduates from the second course receive certificates licensing them to teach in the State for fifteen years. Besides the public schools, there were, in the year 1867, 348 private schools, attended by 9264 pupils, and 58 academies. The colleges are 3 in number, the University of Vermont, at Burlington, founded in 1791, Middlebury College, at Middlebury, founded in 1800, and Norwich University (partly military in its organization), founded in 1834. There were, in 1870, 47 newspapers published in the State, 3 daily, 43 weekly, and one monthly. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Vermont are the Insane Asylum, the Reform School, and the State Prison. The Insane Asylun is located at Brattleboro’. It is surrounded by a large farm, and has ample buildings, which were burned in 1862, but are now being replaced. It is under the supervision of the Commissioner of the Insane, who is appointed by the Legislature annually for the purpose of inspecting and reporting upon the affairs of the asylum. In 1867, there were 646 inmates of the asylum. The institution is in a large measure sustained by the labor of its inmates. The Reform School, established in 1865, is located at Waterbury. It has a farm of 133
acres attached to it, and is provided with excellent workshops. It is in a flourishing condition. In September, ‘ 868, there were 57 inmates remaining. 237 0

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The State Prison was established in 1807, and is located at Windsor. It is governed by a Board consisting of a Superiatendent and three Directors, chosen annually by the Legislature. It is almost self-supporting. The labor of the convicts is let, by agreement, at 42 cents per head, per day, for a term of five years. The commutation system has been introduced with great success. In September, 1870, there were 94 convicts still in prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church propl)erty in Vermont was $3,713,530. The number of churches was 744. FINANCES. The funded debt of the State in 1874 was about $450,000. A balance is still due the State by the General Government on account of the war. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending in July, 1874, were $460,380, and the expenditures were $397,188.

In September, 1868, there were 40 National banks in Vermont, with an aggregate capital of $6,560,012. GOVERNMENT. Every male adult, either a native born or naturalized citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State one year, and can take the oath prescribed by the Constitution of Vermont, is entitled to vote in the State elections. The Government consists of a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, who is the President of the Senate, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, chosen annually by the people. The Senate consists of 30 and the House of 241 members. There is also a Secretary of State, a State Treasurer, and an Auditor of Accounts. The judiciary department of the Government consists of a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County Court in each county, a Probate Court in each probate district, and one or more justices of the peace in each town. “The Supreme Court has no original jurisdiction, except for divorce; but is a court of errors for the trial of questions at law, and a court of appeal in chancery suits. Each judge of the Supreme Court is a Chancellor, and holds his court at the same time as the County Court, 238

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VERMONT. which is held in each county by one of the Supreme Judges and two Assistant Judges. The County Courts have original jurisdiction in all civil actions for over $200, or in relation to real estate, except trespass, where the damages claimed exceed $20; also in actions for replevin for amounts over $20. All actions out of the original jurisdiction of the County and Chancery Courts, except for divorce, must be brought before a justice of the peace.” The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Judge and five Assistant Judges. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. The seat of Government is established at Montpelier. HISTORY. Vermont was first discovered and partly explored by Samuel Champlain, a French officer, in 1609. It was first settled by the English, who founded Fort Dummer, on the present site of Brattleboro’, in 1724. The territory was then believed to be a part of Massachusetts. By the year 1768, 138 townships had been settled. These settlements were made under the authority of the Governor of New Hampshire, who claimed the territory as a part of his province by virtue of the original charter of New Hampshire. In 1763, a controversy arose between New York and New Hampshire, the former laying claim to the territory. An,appeal was made to the king, in 1764, who granted to New York j urisdiction to the Connecticut River. New Hampshire acquiesced in this decision, and the authorities of New York “attempted to eject and dispossess the settlers from their lands, and through venal judges decided every case against them. This roused the spirit of the settlers to such a degree, that they commenced, under the leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, and other bold and fearless men, an armed resistance to the oppression of the New York Government; every officer who undertook to enforce a process of ejection was stripped, tied to a tree, and whipped with beechen rods without mercy. This application of the’beech seal,’ as it was called, was so effectual that no officers could be procured to serve writs.” The contest went on for ten years. Finally the Governor of New York issued a proclamation offering a reward for the capture of the Vermont leaders, who retorted by offering a reward for the capture of the Attorney General of New York. The Revolution began at this juncture, and suspended the controversy. The Vermont leaders (lid good service in the cause of the Colonies. Allen, with his ow 239

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. company of 83 men, surprised and captured the important post of Ticonderoga, in May, 1775. In the invasion of Canada, he behaved gallantly and was made prisoner, while the Vermont regiment, under Seth Warner, covered the retreat from Quebec, and compelled the surrender of the enemy’s garrison at St. John’s. The “Green Mountain Boys” made a brilliant name during the war, especially in the battles on Lake Champlain, in which nothing but their heroic resistance saved the American force from total annihilation. Their victory at Bennington decided the fate of Burgoyne’s army. In 1776, Vermont petitioned the Cdntinental Congress for admission into the Confederacy of the States, but her petition was rejected at the instance of New York. The next year, Vermont declared her independence, and in July made a second effort to secure admission into the Confederacy. Congress evaded a direct reply. The British now made stronig overtures to Vermont to renew her allegiance to the Crown, but the Green Mountain leaders put the royal agents off with a vague reply, which was meant to encourage them to an extent sufficient to save the province from invasion by them till the answer of Congress should be known. In 1781, Congress offered to admit Vermont if she would consent to a curtailment of her territory, but she refused the offer. For eight years, she continued to occupy her anomalous position. In 1790, New York, wishing to settle the old dispute with her, revived her claim to the territory but offered to compromise it on payment of $30,000. The offer was finally accepted, and the long difficulty settled. On the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont was admitted into the Union as a State making the fourteenth member of the Confederacy, and the first admitted under the Constitution. In 1814, the State contributed a portion of the army which won the battle of Plattsburg. In 1837, (luring the Canadian Rebellion, considerable sympathy vas shown for the rebels by the people of Vermont, and some 600 men went into Canada, to take part in the struggle. Upon the approach of a British force sent against them, they withdrew into their own State and surrendered their arms to the United States authorities. During the late war, on the 19th of October, 1863, a descent was made upon the town of St. Albans by a party of Confederates from Canada, who seized the funds in the bank, amounting to $211,150, and committed some depredations upon the town. They were pursued by the citizens, and the whole party finally captured by the pursuers or by the Canadian authorities. 240

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VERMONT. MONTPELIER. State contributed to the army of the Union, during the war, amounting to 34,655 men. Of these 5128 were killed, r number were discharged, and others were permanently a brced a similar disabled. CITIES

AND TOWNS. The principal towns and cities of the State are Montpelier, the capital, Burlington, Brattleboro’, Rutland, St. Albans, and Ben nington.

MONTPEL1ER, The capital of Vermont, is delightfully situated on the banks of the Onion River, near the centre of the State, about 200 miles northwest of Boston. It is a pretty little city, well built, and conducts an active and valuable trade with the surrounding country. It is on the main line of travel between Boston and Montreal, in Canada, and is thus immediately connected with the great railroad system of the country 241

– Sc _”

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It became the capital of the State in 1805, and now contains a popuilation of over 3000. The State House fronts on State street, and is a splendid edifice of native granite. It is in the form of a cross, has a fine portico supported by massive columns, and is surmounted by a dome the apex of which is 100 feet from the ground.

Montpelier contains several flourishing schools, 2 banks, and 5 churches.

Six newspapers are published here. BURLINGTON, In Chittenden county, is the largest city in the State. It is situated on the east shore of Lake Champlain, 40 miles northwest of Mont pelier, and about midway down the lake. The surrounding country abounds in magnificent scenery. “Splendor of landscape,” says Dr. Dwight, “is the peculiar boast of Burlington’ Lake Chanmplain, here 16 miles wide, extends 50 miles northward, and 40
southward, before it reaches Crown Point, and throughout a great part of this magnificent expansion is visible at Burlington. In its bosom are encircled many beatitifil islands; 3 of them, North and South Hero, and La Motte, sufficiently large to contain, the first and last, 1 township each, the other 2; forming, together with the township of Alburgh, oil the point between the bay of Misciscotii and the river St. John, the county of Grand Isle. A numerous train of these islands is here in full view. In the interior, among the other interesting objects, the range of the Green Mountains, with its train of lofty summits, commences in the south with the ut most stretch of the eye; and limiting, on the east, one-third of the horizon, declines far northward, until it becomes apparently blended with the surface. On the west, beyond the immense field of glass, formed by the waters of the lake, extends the opposite shore from its first appearance at the south, until it vanishes from the eye in the northwest, at the distance of 40 miles. Twelve or 15 miles from this shore ascends the first range of western mountains; about 15 or 20 miles flirther, the second range; and at about the same distance the third. The two former commence a few miles south of the head of Lake George; one on the eastern, and the other on the western side of this water. Where the third commnences, I am ignorant. The termination of all these ranges is not far from the latitude of Plattsburg. The prospect of these mountains is superlatively noble. The rise of the first range from the lake, the ascent of the second far above j 242

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VERMONT. it, and the still loftier elevation of the third, diffuse a magnificence over the whole, which mocks description. Three of the summits, hitherto without a name, are peculiarly distinguished for their sublimity. Among those of the Green Mountains there are two, in the fullest view from this spot, superior even to these. One of them, named the Camel’s Rump, the Camel’s Back, and the Camel; the other the Mountain of Mansfield. The latter of these was by the following expedient proved, not long since, to be higher than the former. A hunter, who had ascended to its highest point, put into his piece a small ball; and pointing it to the apex of the Camel, the ball rolled( out. Both of them are, however, very lofty; higher, as I believe, than Killington Peak, notwithstanding the deference with which I reg,ard the estimates of Doctor WIilliams. The peculiar form of the Camel’s Back invests this mountain with a sublimity entirely superior to any other in the State.” The city is built on rising ground, which becomes more elevated as it recedes from the lake, being quite low. immediately at the water. The harbor has been deepened and enlarged by the General Government, and a breakwater constructed for its protection. Two railroads centre here, and afford direct communication with Montreal, Boston, New York City, and Albany. An important trade is carried on upon the lake. About 7000 tons of shipping and several steamers are owned here. The city is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. The streets intersect each other at right angles, extend back from the lake for more than a mile, and are well shaded. A handsome public square occupies the centre of the city, and upon this front the court house, the principal hotels, and the most prominent stores. Nearly all the houses have tasteful yards attached to them. Many have extensive grounds, planted with handsome shrubbery. The city contains 4 banks, a number of churches, and 3 newspaper offices. The population is abl)out 14387. The University of VTermont occupies a commanding eminence at the eastern end of the city.

It was founded in 1791, and is liberally endowed. It occupies four spacious and handsome buildings, and front the dome of the central edifice a view of unsurpassed beauty may be obtained. RUTLAND, In Rutland( county, in the southwest part of the State, is the second (city in Vermont. It is situateq on Otter Creek, 55 miles southwest 243

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RUTLAND. of MIontpelier, and 67 miles southeast of Burlington. It is an important railroad centre, four lines converging here, and leading to all parts of the country. It is beautifully situated in the midst of a picturesque region, Killington Peak forming the leading feature of the landscape. The city is well laid out, and neatly built. It contains several churches, a number of schools, public and private, 2 banks, and 3 newspaper offices. It possesses an important trade with the surrounding country, and contains several manufacturing establishments. The population is 9834. Rutland is growing with marked rapidity, and will soon be one of the most important cities in New England. BENNINGTON, In the county of the same name, in the extreme southwest part of the State, is a thriving town of 2500 inhabitants. It is famous as being the scene of the battle of Bennington, fought August 16th, 1777, when a detachment of Burgoyne’s army, under 244

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VERMONT. Colonel Baume, was terribly beaten by the ” Green Mountain Boys,”

led by General Stark. The following account of the engagement is taken from a popular publication: John Stark, the hero of Bennington, was a native of New Hampshire. At an early age he enlisted in a company of rangers, participated in several conflicts with the savages, and at last fell into their hands, a prisoner of war. Redeemed by his firiends for $103, he joined Rogers’ rangers, and served with distinction through the French and Indian difficulty. When the news came to his quiet home, that American blood had been spilt upon the green at Lexington, he rallied his countrymen, and hurried on to Boston with 800 brave mountaineers. Ho presented himself before the American commander on the eve of the battle of Bunker Hill, and receiving a colonel’s commission, instantly hurried to the intrenchlmenits. Throughlout the battle of Bunker Hill, Stark and lbs New Hampshire men nobly sustained the honor of the patriot cause, and no troops exceeded in bravery the militia regiment of Colonel John Stark. In the spring of 1776, he went to Canada, and at the battle of Trenton he commanded the right wing of Washington’s army. Hle was at Princeton, Bennington, and several other severe battles, always sustaining his reputation, as a brave, honorable, sterling patriot, and an able general.

He was a great favorite of General Washington, and very popular in the army. On the 8th of May, 1822, aged 93 years, he “was gathered to his fathers,” and his remains repose upon the banks of the beautiful Merrimac, beneath a monument of granite, which bears the inscription-“

MIAJOR-GENERAL STARK.” Having given a very brief sketch of the celebrated officer who led our patriot militia upon the field of Bennington, we will proceed with the account of that b)attle. The magnificent army of General Burgoyne, which invaded the States in 1777, having become straitened for provisions and stores, the royal commander ordered a halt, and sent Colonel Baume, a Hessian officer, to scour the country for supplies. Baume took a strong force of British infantry, two pieces of artillery, and a squadron of heavy German dragoons. A great body of Indians, hired and armed by the British, followed his force, or acted as scouts and flanking parties. Stark, on the intelligence of Burgoyne’s invasion, was offered the command of one of two regiments of troops which were raised in New Hampshire, through the exertions, chiefly, of John Langdon, Speaker of the General Assembly.’ Stark had served for a long period as General, but at that time was at home, a private citizen. But at the call of his countrymen he again took the field. The two regiments were soon raised, and with them, as senior officer, Stark hastened to oppose the British army. At that time the Vermont militia were enrolled into an organization, called the “Berkshire Regiment,” under Colonel Warner. On arriving near Bennington, Stark sent forward Colonel Gregg, with a small force to reconnoitre, but that officer soon returned with the information that a strong force of British, Hessians and Indians was rapidly approaching.

Upon this intelligence, Stark resolved to stand his ground and give battle. Messengers were sent at once to the Berkshire militia to hurry on, and the patriots were directed to see that their weapons were in good order. This was on the 14th of August, 1777. I)uring the day, Baume and his army appeared, and learning -hat the militia were collecting in front of his route, the commander Ordered “ia 19

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES irmy to halt, and throw up intrenchments. An express was also sent sto General Burgoyne for reinforcements. The 1.5th was dull and rainy. Both armies continued their preparations, while waiting for reinforcements. Skirmishing was kept up all day and night, between the ipilitia and the Indians, and the latter suffered so severely, that a great portion of tile savage force left the fieldl, saying that “the woods were full of Yankees.” About 12 o’clock on the night of the 15th, a party of Berkshire militia came into the American camp. At the head of one company, was the Reverend Mr. Allen, of Pittsfield, and that worthy gentleman appeared full of zeal to meet the enemy. Sometime before daylight, hlie called on General Stark, and said: “General, the people of Berkshire county have often been called out, without being allowed to fight, and if you don’t give them a chance, they have resolved never to turn out again.” ” Very well,” replied Stark, “do you want to go at it now, while it is dark and rainy?” “No, not just at this moment,” said the warlike minister. “Tlhen,” said the General, “if the Lord shall once more give us sunshine, and I do not give you filghting enough, I’ll never ask you to come out again!” This satisfied the preacher, and he went out to cheer up his flock with the good news. Day dawned, bright and warm, on the 16th. All nature, invigorated by the mild August rain, glared with beauty and freshness. Before sunrise, the Americans were in motion, while from the British intrenchments, the sound of bugles and the roll of drums, told that Baume’s forces were ready for action, Stark early arranged his plan of attack. Colonel Nichols, with 300 men, was sent out to attack the Britislh rear; Colonel Herrick, with 300 men, marched against the right flank, but was ordered to join Nichols before making his assault general.

With about 300 men, Colonels Hubbard and Stickney were sent against the entrenched front, while Stark, with a small reserve, waited to operate whenever occasion offered. It must be remembered that the American forces were militia, while Baume’s army was made up of well-disciplined, well-armed, and experienced soldiers. Many of the patriots were armed with fowling-pieces, and there were whole companies without a bayonet. They had no artillery. General Stark waited impatiently until the roar of musketry proclaimed that the different detachments had commenced their attack, and then forming his small battalion, he made his memorable speech: “Boys!

there’s the enemy, and twe rust beat 1them, or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night-Forward!” His sol(tiers, with enthusiastic shouts, rushed forward upon the Hessian defences, and the battle became general. The Hessian dragoons, dismounted, met the Americans with stern. bravery. The two cannons, loaded with grape and canister, swept the hillside with dreadful effect. Stark’s white horse fell in less than ten minutes after hisgallantrider came under fire, but on foot, with his hat in one hand, and his sabre in the other, he kept at the head of his men, who, without flinching a single foot, urged their way ap the little hill, Brave Parson Allen, with a clubbed musket, was seen amid the smoke, fighting in the front platoon of his company. The whole field was a volcano of fire.

Stark, in his official report, says that the two forces were within a few yards of each other, and” the roaring of their guns was like a continuous clap of thunder-l” The Hessian and British regulars, accustomed to hard-fought fields, held their ground stubbornly and bravely. For more than two hburs the batte.hung -in even.scale.- At length, Baume ordered a charge; at; that,instat he feal, mortally wounded,, and his men:charging: forward, He tenk~ in 246

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VERMONT. Auch a manner, that the Americans succeeded, after a fierce hand to hand fight, in entering the intrenchments. Stark shouted to his men, “Forward, boys, charge them home!” and his troops, maddened by the conflict, swept the hill with irresistible valor. They pushled forward without discipline or order, seized thy artillery, and gave chase to the flying enemy. The field being won, plunder became the object of the militia The guns, sabres, stores and equipments of the defeated foe were being gathered up, when Colonel Breyman, with 500 men, suddenly appeared upon the field. He had been sent by Burgoyne to reinforce Baume, but the heavy rain had prevented his men from marching at a rapid rate. The flying troops instantly rallied and joined the new array, which speedily assumed an order of battle, and began to press the scattered forces of the patriots. This was a critical period. Stark put forth every effort to rally his men, but they were exhausted, scattered, and nearly out of ammunition. It seemed as if the fortune of the day was in the royal hands, when from the edge of a strip of forest, half a mile off, came a loud and genuine American cheer. Stark turned, and beheld emerging from’the wood, the Berkshire regiment, under Colonel Warner. This body of men, also delayed by the rain, after a forced march, had just reached the battle field, panting for a share in the affray:. General Stark hastened to the captaini of the fotemost company, and ordered him to lead his men to the charge at once. But the captain coolly asked, “Where’s the colonel? I want to see Colonel Warner before I move.” The colonel was sent for, and the redoubtable captain, drawing himself up, said, with a nasal twang peculiar to the puritans of old, “Naow, Kernal, what d’ye want me tut dew?” ” Drive those red-coats from the hill yonder,” was the answer. “Wall, it shall be done,” said the captain, and issuing the necessary orders, he led his men to the charge without a moment’s hesitation. Said an eyewitness, afterwards, “The last we saw of Warner’s regiment for half an hour, was when they entered the smoke and fire about half way up the hill.” Stark with a portion of his rallied troops stipported the Berkshire men, and the royal forces were defeated after a close contest. A portion of them escaped, but 700 men and officers were taken prisoners, among the latter Colonel Baume, who soon died of his wound. The British lost 207 men killed, and a large number wounded. Of the Am’ericans, about 100 were killed and the same number wounded.‘The spoils consisted of four pieces of cannon, several hundred stand of excellent muskets, 250 dragoon swords, 8
brass drums, and 4 wagons’]aden with stores, elothing and ammunitioi., This victory severely crippled Burgoyne, and discouraged his army, while it enlivened the Americans from one extent: of the country to the other.

It taught the British troops to respect the American militia,’ and it was a brilliant precursor to the victories of Saratoga and Bemis’ Heights.

Con’gress” voted’ thanks to General Stark and his brave troops for their great victory, and took measures to push on the war with renewed energy and hope. MISCELLANY. THE TAKING OF TICONDEROGA Inasmunh” the-capture of the foetress of Ticonderoga was the Work of the’aGreen Mountain Boysh, itseemstbut t jst to appendihb 247

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OUR COUNTRY AND ]ITS RESOURCES. account of their exploits to the description we have given of their State. The following narrative is taken from “Williams’ History of Vermont:” The first steps for this object seem to have been taken by some gentlemen in Connecticut; and Messrs. Deane, Wooster, Parsons, and others engaged in the affair. The success depended on the secrecy with which the affair could be manatged. Their first object was to obtain a sum of money to bear the necessary ex)enses. They procured this to the amount of about $1800, from the general tasseimbly of Connecticut, by way of loan. Several of the militia captains pushed oriward to Salisbury, the northwestern town in that colony; and after a little consultation concluded not to spend any time in raising men, but to procure a ,tuantity of powder and ball, and set off immediately for Bennington, and engage Iltlian Allen in the business. With his usual spirit of activity and enterprise, Allen undertook the management of the scheme; and set off to the northward, to raise and collect all the men that he could find. The Connecticut gentlemen having procured a small quantity of provisions, went on to Castleton; and were there joined by Allen, with the men that hlie had raised from the new settlements. The whole number that were assembled amounted to 270, of which 230 were raised ,an the New Hampshire grants, distinguished at that time by the name of Green Mountain Boys; so called from the Green Mountains, among which they resided. Sentries were immediately placed on all the roads, and the necessary measures taken to procure intelligence of the state of the works and garrison at Ticondecroga. While Allen and his associates were collecting at Castleton, Colonel Arnold arrived, attended only by a servant. This officer belonged to New Haven, in Connecticut. As soon as the news arrived at that place that hostilities had commenced at Lexington, Arnold, then a captain, set out at the head of a volunteer company, and marched with the greatest expedition to Cambridge. The day after his arrival, he attended the Massachusetts committee of safety, and reported to them that the fort at Ticonderoga was in a ruinous condition; that it was garrisoned by about 40 men, and contained a large quantity of artillery and military stores; and might easily be captured. The committee wished to avail themselves of his information and activity; and on the 3d of May appointed him a colonel, and gave him directions to enlist 400 men, and march for the reduction of Ticonderoga. Under these orders, and with this design, hlie joined the men that were assemnbling at Castleton; but was unknown to any of them but a Mr. Blagden, one of the Connecticut officers. His commission being examined, it was agreed in a council that hlie should be admitted to join and act with them; but that Allen should also have the commission of a colonel, and have the command; and that Arnold should be considered as his assistant. .To procure intelligence, Captain Noah Phelps, one of the gentlemen from Connecticut, disguised himself in the habit of one of the poor settlers, and went into the fort, pretending hlie wanted to be shaved, and inquired for a barber. Affectimg an awkward appearance, and asking many simple questions, he passed unsuspected, and had an opportunity to observe tho state of everything within the walls. Returning to his party, he gave them the necessary information, and the same night they began their march to the fort. With so much ek.pedition and -secrecy had the-enterprise been conducted, ithat Colonel Allen arrived at Orwell, opposite to Ticonderoga, on the 9th of.

May& at 248

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VERMNIONT. ,lght, with his 230 Green Mountain Boys, without any intelligence or apprehension on the part of the garrison. It was witlh difficulty that boats could be procured to pass the lake; a few, however, being collected, Allen and Arnold passed over, with 83 men, and landed near the works. Arnold now wished to assume the command, to lead on the men, and swore that he would go in himself tli(e first. Allen swore that hlie should not, but that hlie himself would be the first mali that should enter. The dispute beginning to run high, some of the gentlemen that were present interposed, and it was agreed that both should go in together, Allen on the right hand and Arnold on the left. On the 10th of May, in the gray of the morning, they both entered the port leading to the fort, followed by their men. The sentry snapped his fusee at Allen, and retreated through the covered way. The Americans followed the sentry, and immediately drew up or the parade. Captain De la Place commanded, but he was so little apprehensive of any danger or hostility, that he was surprised in his bed. As soon as he appeared, lie was ordered to surrender the fort. “Upon what authority do you require it?” said De la Place. “I demand it,” said Allen, “in the naime of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Surrounded by the Americans, who were already in possession of the works, it was not in the power of the British captain to make any opposition, and hlie surrendered his garrison prisoners of war, without knowing by what authority Allen was acting, or that hostilities had commenced between Britain and the Colonies. After Allen had landed with his party, the boats were sent back for Colonel Seth Warner with the remainder of the men, who had been left under his command. Warner did not arrive till after the place had surrendered, but he took the command of a party who set off for Crown Point. At that place there were only a sergeant and 12 men to perform garrison duty. They surrendered upon the first summons, and Warner took possession of Crown Point on the same day that Ticonderoga was given up. Another party surprised Skeensborough, made a prisoner of Major Skeen, the son, took possession of a strong stone house which lie had built, secured his dependents and domestics, and made themselves masters of that important harbor. By these enterprises the Americans had captured a British captain, lieutenant, and 44 privates. In the forts they found above 200 pieces of cannon, some mortars, howitzers, and large quantities of ammunition and military stores; and a warehouse full of materials for carrying on the business of building boats. Hliaving succeeded in their attempts against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, it was still necessary, in order to secure the command of Lake Champlain, to get possession of anll armed sloop which lay at St. John’s, at the north end of the lake. To effect this purpose, it was determined to man and arm a schooner, which lay at South Bay. Arnold had the command of the schooner, and Allen took the command of a number of batteaux, and both sailed for St. John’s. The wind(i being fresh at the south, Arnold soon passed the lake, surprised and captured the armed sloop in the harbor of St. Johln’s: in about an hour after he had taken her, the wind suddenly shifted to the north, and Arnold made sail with his prize, and Inet Allen with his batteaux at some distance from St. John’s. 249 I

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MAS SAC H-U S E TT S. Area,………..7800 Square Miles Population in 1860……. 1,231,066 Population iia 1870,……. 1,457,351 THE State of Massachusetts is situated (including its islands) between 41~ 10’ and 42~

53’ N. latitude, and between 69~ 50’ and 73~ 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New Hampshire and Vermont, on the east 1)y the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic, and the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the west by New York. It is very irregular in shape, its southeastern extremity extending far out into the ocean, and curving so as to almost enclose Cape Cod Bay. Its greatest length from east to west is about 145 miles. The eastern side is about 90 miles wide from north to mouth, and its western end about 48 miles broad. TOPOGRAPHY.

,The’ State has a considerable extent of sea coast, and possesses a number of excellent harbors. Massaehusettz Bay and Cape Cod Bay are really one and thesame sheet of water, and comprise a large gulf, which indents the eastern coast of the State for about 25 miles in a southwest and 65 miles in a southeast direction. The upper, or northern part of this gulf is called Massachusetts Bay, and the lower part Cape Cod -Bay. The latter is famous as having been the harbor in which the Mayflower cast anchor after her long and weary voyage from England, in 1620. The extreme eastern part of the State extends around Cape Cod Bay, enclosing it in a kind of semicircle. Plymouth is situated on the northwest side of this bay. Boston lies on the west side of Massachusetts Bay. 250 i X:S

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MASSACHUSETTS. Buzzard‘8 Bay, in the southeastern part of the State, extends inland in a northward direction for about 30 miles, and is a)bout 7 mile wide. The harbors of New Bedford, Fair Haven, and Rochester lie along this bay, which is separated from Vineyard Sound by the Elizabeth Islands. Martha’s Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands lie in the Atlantic to the south of Barnstable county, and together form Duke’s county.

Martha’s Vineyard is separated from Barnstable county, on the main land, by Vineyard Sound, a sheet of water from 3 to 7 miles wide. The island is 21 miles lone,, and from 3 to 9 lmilcs wide. Edgarton is the chief town.

The E,liza beth Islands, 16 in number, lie between Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound. Only 2 or 3 are inhabited. The people of Duke’s county are engaged principally in fishing and navigation.. Nantucket is the name given to a large island in the Atlantic, about 30 miles south of Barnstable county. It is about 15 miles long, and from 3 to 4 mniles wide.

Several small islands lie immediately on icts northern coast, and with it form the county of Nantucket. The chief town is Nantucket, oni the northern part of the main island. This towvn was founded in 1659, and is one of the most thriving in the State. It is compactly and neatly built, has a library of several thousand volumes, 8 or 9 churches, a bank with a capital of $200,000, and several handsome buildings. The inhabitants are actively engaged in the fisheries, and, until the discovery of petroleum rendered thy traffic of comparatively little importance, Nantucket was one of the principal depots of the whale trade. In 1863, 4407 tons of shipping were owned on the island. Steam communication is maintained with the mainland. In 1860, the population of the town was 5000, of the county 6064. In 1870, it was 4134. During the Revolution and the war of 1812-15, Nantucket sent out numerous privateers against the British commerce, and a Nantucket ship was the first to show the “Stars and Stripes” in the river Thames, after the recognition of our independence by Great Britain. The surface of Massachusetts is generally uneven, and in the wes ern part is broken into mountain ranges of a moderate elevation. The southeastern part is level and sandy, and the eastern and middle parts are broken and rugged. The Green Mountains pass across the western part of the State, from Vermont, and extend into Connecticti% They are about 20 or 30 miles west of the Connecticut River, and pursue a course parallel with it.

Besides this range, there are several ~261

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES isolated peaks in the State, the principal of which are Wachusetts Mountain, 2018 feet; in the northcentral part of the State, Mount Tom, 1200 feet; and Mount Holyoke, 910 feet, near Northampton. These are considered outliers of the White Mountain range, of New allanpshlire. The Green Mountains are divided into two ridges in Massachusetts. The eastern is the lowest, and is called the Hoosic Ridge; and the western is the most elevated, and is called the Tang kannic Range.

Its highest peak is Mount Washington, 2264 feet, in the southwest corner of the State. The Connecticut is the principal river of the State, flowing across it from north to south, and into the State of Connecticut. It is rendered navigable by means of canals, and furnishes excellent waterpower. The MIerrimac, which has already been described in the chapter on New vHampshire, turns the mills of Lowell and Lawrence. The tribu taries of the former stream in this State are Miller’s, the Chicoopee, Deerfield, and Westfield rivers; those of the latter, the Nashua and Concord. Taunton River furnishes excellent waterpower, and sup plies the factories of the cities of Taunton and Fall River. Charles River rises in the interior, and flows into Massachusetts Bay. “Massachusetts abounds in picturesque scenery. This observation is especially true of the western part of the State, and the view of the Connecticut River and Valley from Mount Holyoke has long been celebrated. Though rather less than 1000 feet in height, the views it commands, and its easy ascent, being traversed to its summit by a good carriage road, have invited hither many tourists in the season for travelling. Tile spectator has below him the beautiful meandering Connecticut wending its way through’the meadows and among the villages, while to the southwest, and at no great distance, is Mount Tom; and still farther in the same direction, Bald or Washington Mount, and in the northwest Saddle Mountain, the highest ground in the State; and turning to the east and northeast he has the peaks of Wachusetts in Massachusetts, and Monadnock in New Hampshire; the intermediate parts of the scene being filled up with a great variety of landscape, villages, hills, rivulets, and low mountains. There is a good hotel on the top of Mount Holyoke, and in the vicinity the beautiful village of Northampton, at which the tourist may take up his quarters and make his excursion from thence over the mountain. A yet more extensive view is obtained from Saddle Mountain, but it has hitherto lain more out of the line of travel, and been less visited, though of thrice the eleivation of Mount Tom. It commands a view of the 252

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MASSACHUSETTS. surrounding country for 40 or 50 miles, extending to the Catskills on the west, overlooking the Green Mountains on the north, south, and east, and on the northeast reaching to Monadnock Mountain, in New Hampshire. This mountain is fertile to the summit, near which is a small lake or pond. Goodrich describes a phenomenon as having occurred here in 1784, called by the inhabitants the bu)rsting of a cloud. About dawn of a certain morning, the tenants of a house on the banks of the Hoosic, on the western slope, were aroused by tlec roaring of the torrent, and had barely time to escape before their dwelling was swept away by the flood. The torrent wore a gully in the mountain 20 feet deep, and swept away the timber entirely from about 10 acres of land. Berkshire county abounds in sublime and picturesque scenery, and has become a favorite resort not only for tourists, but for citizens seeking pleasant summer residences. Hawthorne, Miss Sedgwick, Fanny Kemble, James, and others, have rendered their tribute to the charms of Berkshire scenery, by taking up their abode there for considerable periods. The Ice Hole, a narrow and deep ravine of great wildness, in Stockbridge, where the ice remains the year round; a fall of about 70 feet descent, amid wild scenery, in the Housatonic, in Dalton; the Natural Bridge, onl Hudson’s Brook, in Adams, where a fissure of from 30 to 60 feet deep, and about 500 feet long, has been worn through the limestone rock, forming a bridge 50 feet above the water; a rock of 30 or 40 tons, in New Marlboro’, so nicely balanced that a finger can move it; and Hanging Mountain, on the Farmington River, in Sandisfield, rising in a perpendicular wall above the river to the height of more than 300 feet; are, after the mountains already named, the most remarkable natural objects in Berkshire. Blue Hill, 11 miles southwest of Boston, which commands a fine view of Boston Harbor and the ocean, is 635
feet high, being the most elevated land in Eastern Massachusetts. On the side of Mount Toby, a hill of sandstone, elevated about 1000 feet above the Connecticut, is a cavern about 150 feet in length and 60 in depth.

Nahant, a rocky promontory on the north shore of Boston Bay, extending 4
miles into the sea, is the most noted wateringplace in Massachusetts. It is about 9 miles northeast of Boston, and commands a fine view of the ocean, and of the shipping entering and departing from the harbor. In addition to its good beach, Nahant has the charm of wildness given to it by the rugged rocks which form the promontory, and into the caves and recesses of which the sea surges at times with great violence. The mineral springs of this State have 025

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. not acquired any great celebrity beyond her owvn limits; the principal are, one in the town of Hopkinton, impregnated with carbonic acid, and carbonates of lime and iron; one in Shlutesbury, containing muriate of lime; and a chalybeate sulphur spring in Winchenden.

The Quincy granite quarries, 6 or 8 miles south of Boston, in a range of hills 200 feet high, are worthy of a visit.” * MINERALS. Granite abounds and is shipped to all parts of the Union for building purposes. The gray granite of the Quincy Hills is famous. Marble is found in Berkshire county. The new wings of the Capitol at Washington, and Girard College at Philadelphia are constructed of marble from this county. Small deposits of anthracite coal are found in Hampshire county. Iron is found in great abundance west of the Connecticut River, and in limited quantities in Plymouth and Bristol counties, while lead mines have been worked in Hampshire county (at Northampton), since 1765. The other minerals are gneiss, quartz, mica, limestone, hornblende, serpentine, asbestus, and slate. CLIMATE. The climate of Massachusetts is very severe in the winter.

The writer has seen the thermometer indicate 28~ below zero at 8 o’clock A. M. in Boston. The summers are short, and would be pleasant on the coast were it not for the sudden changes from extreme heat to cold by which they are marked. The spring is rendered disagreeable by severe northeast winds, which are a fruitful source of pulmonary complaints. In the western part of the State, the climate is steadier. The winter sets in early in all sections, and lasts long, but the spring, though late, is rapid, The early fruit trees are in full bloom by the middle of April. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The soil of Massachusetts is not naturally fertile, but has been rendered productive by the industry of its people. The best lands are in the central and western counties, especially in the valleys of the Connecticut, Housatonic, and other streams. The farmers of Massa, chusetts compare favorably with those of any other part of the Union * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 115& 264

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MASSACHUSE STT; 2S in intelligence, and there is perhaps no State which devotes more scientific skill to the production of its crops. The population is the densest in the Union, and the amount of grain produced is not adeqlate to the demands of the community. There are about 2,155,512
acres of improved land in Massachusetts, and 1,183,212 acres of unimproved land. The following statement shows the remainder of the agricultural wealth of the State at the present time: Cash value of farms,……. -…

$123,255,948 Value of farming implements and iachinery, $3,894,998 Number of horses……….. 49,450) ” asses and mules……. 189 milch cows,………. 160,220 ” other cattle…………. 140,340
sheep,…………… -119,560 ” swine,…………….98,540 Value of domestic animals,……..$9,737,744 Bushels of wheat,………… 167,000
rye,………………..462,000, Indian corn………1,950,000 “
oats,……………. 1,525,000 Irish potatoes,……….. 4,300,000 “
barley,…………144,000 ” buckwheat……….. 85,000 Pounds of wool,……………… 377,267 butter, **’……… 8,297,936 ” cheese, 5,294,090 ” hops……………..111,301 ” maple sugar,…………

1,006,078 ” beeswax and honey…….62,414 Tons of hay,……………..

850,000 Value of orchard products………$925,519 ” market garden products,…….. $1,397,623 ” homemade manufactures,….. $245,886 “
slaughtered animals,……. $2,915,045 COMMERCE. In the extent and value of her commerce, Massachusetts stands next to New York. The total tonnage of the State in 1874 was 458,373, of which a part was engaged in the whale fisheries. In 1855, the total value of the product of the whale fisheries was $6,766,996. In the same year the product of the cod and mackerel fisheries was $2,902,796. In 1861, the total exports of Massachusetts wex e16,532,736,.and the total imports, $45,399,844. 9i5w

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS -RESOURCES. MANUFACTURES. Massachusetts is the third State in the Union in manufactures, and the first as regards her cotton and woollen manufactures. By the census of 1870 there were 13,212
establishments in the State, devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $231,677,862 and 279,380 hands, and yielding an annual product of $553,912,568. There were 194 cotton mills, employing 13,713 male and 24,128 female hands and a capital of $44,822,395. They consumed raw material worth $37,545,686; paid $13,612,925 for labor; and yielded an annual product of $59,979,153. There were 182 woollen mills, employing 10,754 male, and 7437 female hands, and a capital of $20,622,400. They consumed raw material worth $24,866,118, paid $7,296,752 for labor, and returned an annual product of $39,489,242.

The value of leather produced was $33,658,475; of boots and shoes, $88,399,583; of pig iron, $722,225; of rolled iron, $6,699,907; of steam engines and machinery, $16,426,842; of agricultural implements, $1,033,590; of sawed and planed lumber, $8,651,690; of malt liquors, $1,542,487; of spirituous liquors, $774,821; of furniture, $4,124,822; the value of paper manufactured was $12,687,481. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In proportion to its size and population, Massachusetts is the most important State in the Union as regards its railroads. In 1871, there were 1975
miles of single track in the State. These were constructed and equipped at a cost of $72,175,091, and during the year 1865, their net earnings amounted to $6,173,157. Boston is the great railroad centre. Three continuous lines extend from that city into New York, two of them passing through the principal towns of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Two lines extend from Boston to Portland, passing through the intervening towns.

Lines extend fromn the former city to all parts of the State, into New Hampshire, Vermont, and Canada, and by means of the Boston and Troy (N.Y.) Railroad, there is now unbroken railroad communication between Boston and all parts of the west and the Pacific Ocean. EDUCATION. :The Stat provides liberally for the cause of education. “The Board of Education, which consists of the Governor, Lieutenant :.6

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257 MASSACHUSETTS. HARVARD UJNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. Governor and eight members appointed by the Governor and Count nil, has the general oversight of the Normal Schools, Public Schools, and of Educational Statistics. The officers, trustees, or persons in charge of every institution of learning, whether literary, scientific, or professional, public or private, and of all reform schools or almshouses, are required by law to report to the Board on or before the 1st day of June in each year, giving such statistics as the Board shall prescribe. The Board appoints a Secretary, who is its chief executive officer, and who gives his whole time to the supervision and improvement of common schools. Each town elects a School Committee of three persons, or a number which is a multiple of three, who examine :teachers, visit schools, and have a general oversight of the schools of the town. In the cities and some of the larger towns, the School Committee appoints a superintendent, who has the immediate charge of the schools. The number of school districts is annually diminishing, there being 323 less in 1867 than in 1866, and 672
less than in 1861. Where the districts are abolished, the schools are managed entirely by the towns. Each town having 500 or more families is by law required to maintain a public high school.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS,RESOURCES “Provision for the special education of teachers is main four State Normal Schools, two of which are for both sexes, and two for female teachers only. A Girls’ High and Normal School, and an efficient Training School, are also maintained by the city of Boston, for preparing teachers for primary schools. Teachers’ Institutes are held annually under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Education.” The public schools are supported by direct taxes. In 1870, the amount expended for these schools, exclusive of the cost of erecting and repairing buildings, was $3,125,053. In 1870 there were in the State 5100
public schools, presided over by 8977 teachers. The attendance was as follows: 242,155 pupils; 121,572 being males, and 120,573 females. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest college in the Union, and ranks among the first in standing and usefilness. Besides the regular collegiate course, it has schools of divinity, medicine, law, science, and philosophy. Its museum of Scientific Zoology is the best in the country.

Its faculty has included some of the most eminent men of the land, and many of our greatest statesmen, jurists, and men of science are numbered amongst its alumni. Williams College, at Williamstown, Amherst, at Amherst, Holy Cross, at Worcester, and Tufts, at Medford, are the other colleges of the State. All are well attended, and are prosperous. In 1871, there were 55 incorporated academies, with an average attendance of, 3696
pupils; and 553 private schools of all grades, the estimated,average attendance of which was 14,41.7… In 1870,. there were in the State 3169
libraries, containing 3,017,813 volumes. Of these, about 1500 were public.

In Massachrusetts, as well as in the other New England States, there is a public library in nearly every town. In 1870, there were 259 periodicals published in the State-I 29 political, 31 religious, 54 literary and miscellaneous. Of these, 21 were daily, l triweekly, 14 semiweekly, 153
weekly, 48 monthly, 6;quarterly, and} 1 annual. Their aggregate annual circulation w.as 129,691,266. copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. ,’ T/.

ate..ir8o is located at Charlestown. Itwas. f,unda in i8Q0Q, Thewcommutation system is in successful operation. Prisoers are confined in separate cells, and are required to perform their 258

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MASSACHUSETTS. work in silence. On the 30th of September;, 1869, there were 593 prisoners confined in this establishment. The profits of the labor performed by the convicts amounted, during the year 1868-69, to $26,781 over the expenses of conducting the establishment. In the old graveyard adjoining the prison is the monument to John Harvard, erected to his memory in 1828, by the students of Harvard University. There are ill Massachusetts 20 jails, 16 houses of correction, and 1 House of Industry.

The Board of State Charities has charge of all the charitable institutions of the State. These are the lunatic asylums, the almshouses, and reform schools. There are three State Lunatic Hospitals, located respectively at Worcester, Taunton, and Northampton. All these receive State, town, and private patients. The State patients at the Northampton Hospital consist of incurables transferred from the other institutions. The State Almshouses are three in number, and are located respectively at Tewksbury, Monsoni and Bridgewater. The..Tewksbury Almshouse is a receptacle for aged, helpless, harmless, and insane paupers; that at Monson is provided with a primary school, and is devoted to children old enough to receive education; while the Bridgewater Almshouse is a place of confinement for persons sentenced to a workhouse. There are three Reform Schools,-the State Industrial -School for girls, at Lancaster, where a most excellent influence is exerted for the purpose of reclaiming young girls from vicious lives; the e Reform Sehool for boys, at Westborough, where a similar course of treatment is pursued for boys; and the Massachusetts Nautical School, established on two ships, at Boston and New Bedford, in which boys of bad character( are placed for reformation. In this school the boys are trained for the U.S. Navy and the whaling service. These institutions are all: in a flourishing condition. The Stateialso supports wholly, or in part, the School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth, at South Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylumn for: the Blind; the Massachusetts F eral Hospital; the Eye and Ear Infirmary; the Washingtonian Home; the Discharged Soldiers’ Home,; the Temporary Asylum for Discharged Female Prisoners; the Home for, the Friendless; the-New England”Mot4 Reform: Society; and’the Agency for Discharged Convict&

Pupils are maintained at the expense of the. State it the 250

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCF. ” Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb,” at Hartford, Conn., and at the Clarke Institution for Deaf Mutes, at Northampton, Mass. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. :In 1870, the value of church property in Massachusetts was $24,488,285. In the same year there were 1764 churches in the State. FINANCES. On the 1st of January, 1875, the total State debt was $29,465,204. In the same year, the sinking fund for the redemption of this debt amounted to over $10,989,595. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 207 National Banks in the State, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $80,032,000. GOVERNMENT. The right of suffrage in this State is denied to paupers and persons under guardianship, but is extended to each male adult, able to read the Constitution of the State in the English language and to write his name, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of his election district for six months. The State Government is vested in a Governor, assisted by an Executive Council of 8 members (one from each Council district of the State), a LieutenantGovernor, a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members) and a House of Representatives (of 240 members), together styled “The General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts,”

a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, and an Attorney General, all chosen annually by the people, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. They enter upon their duties on the first Wednesday in January. The Judiciary comprises a Supreme Judicial Court, a Superior Court, a Probate Court in each county, and municipal and police courts in the cities and towns. The Supreme Judicial Court consists of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. It has exclusive cognizance of all capital crimes, and “exclusive chancery jurisdiction so far as chancery powers are conferred by statute, and concurrent original jurisdiction of all civil cases where the amount in dispute exceeds $4000 in Suffolk county aid $1000 in all other counties.” 260

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MASSACHUSETTS. The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice, and nine Associate Justices. It has jurisdiction in all criminal cases, except capital cases, and in all civil cases where the amount in dispute is over $20. The Governor of the State, by and with the advice and consent of his Council, appoints the Judges of both Courts, who hold office during good behavior. The seat of Government is established at Boston. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. HISTORY.

According to the icelandic legend, Massachusetts was first discovered by Biorn, in the year 906; but, as we have elsewhere intimated, this legend is vague and devoid of substantial proof, and the credit of the first discovery must be given to John Cabot, who visited the coast in 1497, under the orders of Henry VII. of England; and five years after the first voyage of Columbus. He failed to discover any inhabitants,‘but at a later period, his son, Sebastian, while endeavoring to discover a northwest passage to China, visited the waters of New England, found that the country was inhabited, and took three of the natives with him to England.

The Spaniards subsequently made some landings on the coast, and carried off a number of the natives, whom they sold in Europe as slaves. No attempt at settlement was made until 1602, when Bartholomew Gosnold, with a colony of 32 persons, made a lodgement on one of the Elizabeth Islands.

The settlement was abandoned in a few weeks, however, in consequence of internal dissensions, and the expedition returned to England. This attempt had the effect of bringing the new country into prominent notice in England, and the Plymouth Company was organized, several years later, under the leadership of Sir John Popham and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the first the Chief Justice of the King’s Bench, and the other the Governor of Plymouth. This company was given almost sovereign powelrs over the territory assigned it. In 1614, Captain John Smith published a map of New England, together with a description of the country along the coast, which greatly increased the interest felt in the matter. The company sent out one or two trading expeditions, which were successful; but the first permanent settlement was made in 1620, at Plymouth, by a band of English Puritans, who were fleeing from religious persecution in their own country, and whose attempt was made without the sanction or authority of the Plymouth Company. They held a patent from the Virginia Company, whose 17’ 261

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. territory lay south of the Hudson, and the king would do no more than promise not to molest them. Soon after landing at Plymouth, this colony made a treaty of friendship with the Indians, which was not broken for a long period. The settlers endured many privations and hardships, but bore them all bravely until they had placed their settlement beyond all danger of failure, and were joined by other emigrants from England. Other lodgements were made along the coast during the next twenty years, at Salem, Boston, Charlestown, Roxbury, Watertown, Dorchester, Mystic and Saugus (Lynn), and other places. In 1629, Charles I. granted the Plymouth Colony a charter, and the government of the province was divided between the colonies of Plymouth and MassaChusetts Bay, which were united under one administration in 1692. The Bay colony was much annoyed by the interference of the home Government, which became jealous of its rapid growth and prosperity, and after an aggravating contest, which at one time bade fair to result in blows,.the matter was settled. The king refused to yield what he claimed as his right to interfere in the domestic affairs of the colony, whose officials, however, adroitly managed to prevent the exercise of such authority.on his part. In 1637, the war against the Pequots broke out, and the settlements towards Connecticut, upon which colony fell the principal shock of the war, suffered considerably -In 1675, King Philip’s war began. This struggle was a bloody one, and lasted for more than a year. During its continuance, 12
or 13 towns were destroyed, more than 600 men were killed, and about 600
houses burned by the savages. The war cost the colony half a million of dollars, and rendered onetw-entieth of the number of families homeless.

Masachusetts at this time claimed jurisdiction over New Hampsllire and Maine, but was deprived of it by the home Government in 1684. This act was followed by the appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of New England. Andros and his Council were guilty of the most infamous tyranny.

They made laws and levied taxes in the most outrageous manner, and rendered themselves so odious to the colony, that as soon as news was received of the landing of William and Mary in England, the people of Boston rose in arms, inprisoned Andros and his companions, reinstated the former magistrates, and declared for the new king and queen. They were sustained in this action by the rest of the province. :: In 1690, in the war with France, Massachusetts sent out an expe

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MASSACHUSETTS. lition under Sir William Phipps, which took and plundered Port Royal. When the fleet returned, the Province was not able to pay the men engaged in the expedition, and treasury notes were issued foi that purpose. This was the first paper money seen in the colony. In 1692, the colonies of Plymouthl and Massachusetts Bay were united by the Crown under one Government. Massachusetts at this time was divided into the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, and Hampshire. It contained 55 towns, and had a total population of about 40,000. Plymouth was divided into the counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Barnstable. It contained 17 towns, and had a population of 7000. Sir William Phipps was appointed the first Governor under the new charter. In 1692, a remarkable delusion broke out in the colony on the subject of witchcraft, beginning at and centering in Salem. In 1703, great suffering prevailed along the western border in consequence of the outrages of the French and Indians. During this war, Deerfield was burned a second time, having been first destroyed during King Philip’s war. The struggle lasted several years, but the colony continued to grow and prosper in spite of it. In 1722, war was resumed with the Indians, and continued for three years. It was prosecuted with such vigor on the part of the province, that the power of the savages was broken forever, and the long contest with them which had lasted for forty years was finally and triumphantly closed. In 1744, war again broke out with France, and the forces of the province distinguished themselves in the capture of Louisburg. Peace was restored in 1748, but did not long continue. The colony bore a fair share in all the struggles against the power of France in America, and responded liberally to every call for men and money. The 1e sons learned in these contests were of infinite value in the great struggle for freedom which followed them. At the commencement of the troubles with the mother country, the province was well settled in all its parts, and had a total population of about 250,000 souls. In spite of the efforts of Great Britain to prevent it, it had built up a flourishing commerce, was largely engaged in the fisheries, and was to some extent interested in manufactures. Its enterprise and energy, and above all, the native independence of its people, made it the chief mark of the aggressions of the Crown, which were met by it with spirit and firmness.

Massachusetts was the first to inaugurate an organized effort to secure justice from the Crown, which example was followed by her sister provinces. The .263

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. events which preceded the Revolution having been narrated in another chapter, it is not necessary to return to them here. Massachusetts, being the principal object of British injustice, was forced into the miost prominent position, which she maintained with dignity and credit. The other colonies made common cause with her, and the war began in the encounter between the Royal troops and the people at Lexington. The conflict at Concord followed, and the people of the province flew to arms with a rapidity which proved how thoroughly and carefully they had prepared themselves for the maintenance of their rights. During the war which ensued, Massachusetts sustained her reputation for patriotism, bravery, and self-sacrifice. In 1780 a State Constitution was adopted, and John Hancock was elected Governor of the Commonwealth. In 1786, the people of the western counties feeling themselves too poor to pay the heavy taxes levied for the purpose of defraying the State debt, took up arms against the authorities of the Commonwealth. The insurrection was settled after a sharp conflict with the insurgents, who were forced to submit. The outbreak is known as “Shays’s Rebellion,” in con, sequence of the insurgents having been led by one Daniel Shays. The Constitution of the United States was ratified by )Iassachusetts in 1788. Although the State opposed the second war with England, the seamen of Massachusetts were true to the country, and formed a considerable part of the crews of those famous vessels which won the glorious naval victories of the war. The people of the State, as a wholes however, sustained their authorities in opposing the war, in which they had a deeper interest than they were willing to admit, and throughout the struggle hampered the Federal Government by a most unwise and unpatriotic opposition. The State bore a prominent part in the Hartford Convention, in 1814. In 1820 the Constitution of the Commonwealth was amended, and again in 1857. In 1820 the State consented to the separation of the province of Maine, which was in the same year erected into an independent establishment, and admitted into the Union as a State. ~During the late Rebellion, Massachusetts furnished 159,165 men to the army and-navy of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal-cities and towns are: Camnbridge, Lowell, Lynn, Lawrence, Charlestown, Salem, New Bedford, Newburyport, Nantucket, G16ucester, Marblehead, Plymouth, Provincetown, Worcester, 264

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MASSACHUSETTS. Springfield, Fall River, Chelsea, Taunton, Chicopee, Danvers, Andover, and IHaverhill. BOSTON, The capital of the State, and the largest city in New England, is situated on Massachusetts Bay, 464
miles northeast of Washington, and 236 miles northeast of New York.

Latitude 420 21’ 22” N.; longitude 71~ 4’ 9” W. It is decidedly one of the most interesting cities in the Union, apart from its being the metropolis of New England and the second commercial city of the Republic. It is divided into 3 sections, Boston proper, East, and South Boston. Boston proper, or the old city, is built upon a peninsula originally covering about 700 acres, but now much enlarged by the addition of ” made land.”

The surface of this peninsula is broken by 3 hills, which caused the first settlers to call the place Tremont, or Trimountain. The city was originally very narrow at its southern end, but the “Back Bay,” as the shoal water surrounding it is called, is now being filled up with gravel brought from Needham, to an average height of 18 feet above the surface of the water. This “made land” will eventually double the size of the old city. It is graded as it is fortned, and is laid off regularly with broad streets and handsome parks. It is already well built up, and constitutes the handsomnest part of Boston. It will ultimately be one of the most splendid cities in America. The old city was originally joined to the main land by a strip of land called ” The Neck,” so narrow and low that it afforded scarcely room for a single vehicle to pass on firm ground. Now it has been raised and widened, and 4 fine avenues traverse it and connect Boston and Roxbury. South Boston formed a part of Dorchester until 1804, when it was added to Boston. It extends along the south side of the harbor for 2 miles, between Fort Independence and the city proper. It is devoted principally to the residences of the middle classes. This part of the city contains the famous “Dorchester Heights,” the occupation of which by Washington, during the Revolution, compelled the British commander to evacuate Boston. East Boston occupies an island in the harbor, formerly known as Noddle’s Island. It is about 650 yards distant from’the city proper, with which it is connected by a steam ferry. It contains a number of residences of the middle classes, and is the seat of an important manufacturing. interest. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the Grand Junction Railroad terminates here. 265

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Boston proper may be divided into the old and the new city. The old city still pIreserves its ancient characteristics. The houses are mostly in the style of a century ago; the streets are narrow and crooked, and have a prim, formal air. Wandering through them, one can scarcely help watching to see some old-time Puritan step out from the quaint doorways. The new city is regularly laid out. The streets are broad and straight; they cross each other at right angles, and are lined with magnificent edifices. Everything is modern. Near the southern end of the old city is one of the finest parkls in America, known as “Boston Common.” It covers an area of about 50 acres, and is beautifully ornamented. Adjoining it is a handsome enclosure of 25 acres, used as a botanic garden, and known as the “Public Garden.” Both the “Garden” and “Conmmnon” are sur rounded by tasteful iron fences. The fence enclosing the “Common” is nearly a mile and an eighth in length. The centre of the grounds is occupied by a pretty little pond, from which a fountain sends a fine jet of water into the air. Not far from the pond is an old elmn, supported by metallic bands and enclosed with an iron railing. It is the oldest tree in America, having attained its full growth in 1722. From the pond the grounds rise abruptly to the State House, which is situated on Beacon hill, just outside the enclosure. From this point they slope gently to Charles River, which washes the western shore of the city. Several small but handsome parks lie in various parts of the city.

The residences of Boston exhibit considerable taste, and much wealth, but are marked by a sameness peculiar to American cities, and the stores and public buildings are among the finest in the country. The State House, on Beacon street and Beacon hill, is a handsome, old-style structure, surmounted by a fine dome. It occupies the highest ground in the city, and is the most prominent feature of any view of Boston. Its foundation, is 110 feet above the level of the sea. It was commenced in 1795, and completed in 1798, at a cost of $133,330. In 1855 it was enlarged, $243,204 being expended upon it for that purpose. From the dome, a magnificent view of the city, the harbor, and the surrounding country may be had. More than a dozen cities and towns can be seen from it, and in fair weather, the White Mountains of New Hampshire may be dimly discerned.

The State Library is located in this building, and contains more than 25,009) volumes. In the rotunda is a collection of flags taken from the Southern forces 266 t

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MASSACHUSETTS. STATE INOUSE, BOSTON. durilLg the late war, and two cannon captured from the British during the war of 1812-15. In the Doric Hall, on the entrance floor, is Chantrey’s statue of Washington. Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann ornament the steps facing the “Common.” - The Chambers of the Senate and HoQuse of Delegates are handsome apart inents.

The Old State House, at the head of State street, is a venerable and interesting building. The General Court sat here until the completion of the new State House, and in the square just below it occurred the famous “Boston Massacre.” The Court House, onI Court street, the Merchants’

Excliange and Post Office on State street, and the Custom House, at thIe foot of State street, are fine granite buildings, and among the principal ornaments ,f the city. The City Hall, on School street, is a magnificent edifice, of light New Hampshire granite. It contains the offices of the City Government but is badly located, and is almost hidden by the surrounding houses. Just opposite it stands a fine white marble hotel, called the “Parker House.” The Horticultural Hall and the Masonic t:

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OUR COUNTRY.. AND ITS RESOURCES. FANLEUIL HALL. Temnple, on Tremont street, opposite the Common, are amongst the handsomest buildings in the city. They are exhibited to strangers by the Bostonians with a pardonable pride. The former is built of white marble, and the latter of a fine granite. li’aneuitl Hall, in Faneuil Hall Square, is decidedly the most interesting building in Boston. It is a large oldfashioned building. The lower part is used as a market, and the upper part as a public hall. It is 133 years old, and was built in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, who presented it to the city for a town hall. It was destroyed by fire ill 1761, rebuilt iin 1763, and enlarged to its present dimensions in 1805. It is often called “The Cradle of Liberty,” since the public meetiligs of the patriots were held here in the exciting days which preceded the Revolution. To the east of the Hall is a fine granite building called the Quincy Market. The upper part comprises one of the largest halls in the Union. The Music Hall, fronting on Winter street and Bumstead place, is one of the best halls in the country, and contains the great organ, one I70

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MASSACHUSETTS. of the most powerful and excellent instruments ever constructed. It was built at Ludwigslust, in Germany. It contains about 6000 pipes and 89 stops. It is 60 feet high, 48 feet broad, and 24 feet deep. It cost $60,000. The literary and scientific institutions of Boston are amongst the best in the country. The Athenceum, situated on Beacon street, is one of the wealthiest organizations in the world. It occupies a splendid freestone building, and possesses a library of 90,000 volumes, besides pamphlets and manuscripts, and fine galleries of paintings and statuary. The Public Library occupies a handsome brick building on Boylston street, erected at a cost of $250,000. It is on.c of the noblest institutions in the world. Its collection is free to all tax-payers upon certain liberal conditions. It contains nearly 200,000 volumes. The Mercantile Library, on Summer street, contains over 20,000 volumes. The -iassachusetts Historical Society possesses one of the best American libraries in the world. It numbers about 13,000 volumes, besides many valuable maps, charts, papers, manuscripts, and other documents. The Young Yfen’s Christian Association has also a good library. That of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences numbers over 20,000 volumes. The others are the State Library, Social Law Library, and General Theoloyical Library.

Besides these, the city will compare favorably with any in the country, with respect to its private libraries. The other institutions of a literary and scientific character are, the Lowell Institute, the Institute of 1echnologqy, the Natural History Society, the American Statistical Society, the Musical, Educational, and Handel and Haydn Societies, and the Boston Academy of lMusic. The public schools of Boston are amongst the best in the world. There are 254 primary, 20 grammar, and 3 high schools in the city. The school houses alone have cost the city about $2,980,000, and the annual suni expended for their support is about $800,000. Besides these, there are a large number of private schools in the city. The benevolent institutions are numerous and well endowed. The Massachusetts General Hospital, on Charles River, just opposite Charlestown, and the new Free City Ho.spital, at the “Sonth End,” are fine institutions. The buildings of the latter constitute one of the principal ornaments of the city. The McLean Asylum for the In8sane, a branch of the General Hospital, is located at Somerville, two miles northwest of Boston. The Boston Lunatic Asylum is situated in 271

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. South Boston, and the Perkins istitautiot and Massachusetts Asylum for.the Blind is in the same part of the city.

The Alms House, the House of Industry an(ld Beformation, and the Quarantine Hospital are on Deer Island. There are over 60 benevolent institutions in the city. We have not the space to name each one, and have given only the most important. About 125 newspapers and periodicals are issued in Boston, 6 of whlich are daily. Several of the leading literary and scientific journals of the country are published here. There are more than 115 churchles in the city, the largest number belonging to the Unitarians. Christ Church (Episcopal) in Salem street, was erected in 1722, Trinity Church (Episcopal) in 1734, and Kiilg’s Chapel in 1636. The graveyard attached to the last named church contains the remains of many of the Puritan settlers, and is one of the most interesting spots in the city. The Old South Church, on Washington street, was erected in 1730. The original edifice was of wood, and was built in 1670. It was one of the famous meeting places of the leaders of the Revolution, and during the occupation of the city by the British, was used as a riding-school. In the front of the tower of the Brattle Street Church, finished in 1773, may be seen a round shot fired from the American batteries at Canmbidge during the evacuation of Boston by the British. The church edifices of Boston, as a general rule, are not so handsome as those of the other large cities of the Union. The Cemeteries are Mount Auburn, Forest Hill, and Woodlawn.

They are very beautiful, Mount Auburn being one of the loveliest in the world. The city is well supplied with theatres and places of amusement.

The Boston Theatre is one of the largest and handsomest halls in the world. Boston is connected with the surrounding cities of Cambridge, Charlestown, and Chelsea, and with South Boston by seven fine bridges.

Nearly all are free, and all will eventually become so. A massive causeway unites it with Brookline, now a part of the city. Telegraph lines enter the city from all parts of the Union, and there is also a municipal fire alarm and police telegraph connecting the various sections of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with excellent water fromn Cochituate Lake, 20 miles distant. Lines of horse cars connect all parts of Boston with a common centre at the foot of Tremont street, and with/the surrounding towns and villages. 272

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MASSACHIUIYSETTS.” Seven lines of railroad terminate here, extending directly to the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western States, and into Canada. The principal hotels are the Parker, Tremont, and Revere Houses, and the American, St. James, and United States Hotels. The wharves are the finest in the United States, and among the best in the world. They would measure an aggregate length of 5 miles, and are lined with splendid warehouses, many of which are built of a rough granite, and are very handsome. The harbor opens to the sea between Point A(lerton, on Nantasket, and Point Shirley, in Chelsea. The distance across from point to point is about 4 miles. There are three entrances formed by several islands which lie in the lower part. The main channel lies between Castle and Governor’s Islands, and is so narrow that two ships can scarcely sail abreast through it. It is defended by Fort Independence and Fort Winthrop.

Fort Winthrop also protects the passage north of Governor’s Island, and Fort Warren, on George’s Island, guards the lower entrance. The harbor covers an area estimated at 75 square miles. It is free from sand-bars, is rarely closed by ice, is sheltered from the sea, and is easy of access.

About onehalf of it affords a sure anchorage for vessels of the largest class. It receives the waters of the Charles, Mystic, Neponset, and Manatiquot rivers. Boston is the second commercial city in the Union. In 1864, its total imports were valued at $30,751,595, and its exports at $21,142,834. There are about 45 banks in the city, with a capital of about $30,000,000. The population (including Roxbury and Dorchester) is 250,526.

Roxbury was, until a few years since, a distinct city of Norfolk county, but is now a part of the corporation of Boston. At the beginning of the present century it was situated 3 or 4 miles south of Boston, but the intervening distance has since been built up, and the two cities, for some time before their union, joined each other so closely that a stranger could not tell where one began or the other ended. It contains a number of manufactures of its own, but is occupied principally by the residences of persons doing business in Boston. The city abounds in picturesque views, and many of its localities are very beautiful. It contained a population of about 30,000 previous to its annexation to Boston. Dorchester, in Norfolk county, has been recently annexed to Boston. Like Roxbury, this city was chiefly occupied with residences. It contains a population of about 15,000. 273

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Boston, as we have said, was originally called Tremont. Its first white inhabitant was the Rev. John Blackstone, who lived here alone until the arrival of Governor Winthrop, in 1630, when a settlement was established here. By the year 1635, quite a thriving village had sprung up, and the Rev. Mr. Blackstone sold his claim to the peninsula for ~30. The first church was erected in 1632, and the first wharf in 1673. In 1677, the first postmaster was appointed, and in 1704, the first newspaper, called The Boston News Lettei, was issued. Boston was one of the first communities to resist the aggressions of the mother country, and was the scene of many of the most interesting of the events which preceded the Revolution. On the 5th of March, 1770, the “Boston Massacre” occurred; on the 31st of March, 1774, the harbor of Boston was closed; on the 17th of Junlie, 1775, the battle of Bunker Hill was fought; and in March, 1776, the town was evacuated by the British. Boston was incorporated as a city on the 23d of February, 1822. The following incidents in the early history of Boston will be found interesting by the reader: THE BOSTON MASSACRE. On the 2d of March, 1770, a fray took place in Boston, near Mr. Gray’s rope walk, between a private soldier of the 29th Regiment and an inhabitant. The former was supported by his comrades, the latter by the rope-makers, till several on both sides were involved in the consequences. On the 5th a more dreadful scene was presented. Thie soldiers-wlien under arms were pressed uponll, insulted, and pelted by a mob armed with clubs, sticks, and snow balls covering stones. They were also dared to fire. In this situation, one of the soldiers, who had received a blow, ill resentment fired at the supposed aggressor. This was followed by a single discharge from six others. Three of the inhabitants were killed, and five were dangerously wounded. The town was immediately in collmmotion. Such was the temper, force, and number of the inhabitants, that nothingl but an engagement to remove thle troops out of the town, togetlier with the advice of moderate men prevented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed were buried in one vault, and in a most respectful mianner, in order to express the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaughter of their brethren, by soldiers quartered among them, in violation of their civil liberties. Captain Preston, who commanded the party which fired on the inhabitants, was committed to jail, and afterwards tried. The captain, and six of the men, were acquitted. Two were brought in guilty of manslaughlter. It appeared, on the trial, that the soldiers were abused, insulted, threatened and pelted, before they fired. It was also proved, that only seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners. These circumstances induced the jury to make a favorable verdict. The result of the trial reflected great honor on John Adams (the late President of the United States) and Josiah Quincy, Esqrs. the counsel for the prisoners; and also on the integrity of the jury, who ventured to give an upright’verdict, in defiance of popular opinions. 274

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MASSACHUSETTS. The people, not dismayed by the blood of their neighbors thus wantonly shed, determined no longer to submilt to the insolence of military power. CoL Dalrymple, who commanded in Boston, was informed the day after the riot in King street, “that he must withdraw his troops from the town within a limited term, or hazard the consequences.” The inhabitants of the town assembled in Faneuil Hall, where the subject was discussed with becoming spirit, and the people unanimously resolved that no armed force should be suffered longer to reside in the capital; that if the king’s troops were not immediately withdrawn by their own officers, the Governor should be requested to give orders for their removal, and thereby prevent the necessity of more rigorous steps. A committee firom the body was deputed to wait on the Governor, and request him to exert that authority which the exigencies of the times required from the supreme magistrate. Mr. Samuel Adams, the chairman of the committee, with a pathos and address peculiar to himself, exposed the illegality of quartering troops in the town ill the midst of peace; he urged tlo apprehensions of the people, and the fatal consequences that might ensue if their removal was delayed. But no arguments could prevail on Mr. Hutchinson; who either from timidity, or some more censurable cause, evaded acting at all in the business, and grounded his refusal on a pretended want of authority. After whiLh, Col. Dalrymple, wishing to compromise the matter, consented that the 29thl Regiment, more culpable than any other in the late tumult, should be sent to Castle Island. This concession was by no means satisfactory; the people, inflexible in their demands, insisted that not one British soldier should be left within the town; their requisition was reluctantly complied with, and within four days the whole army decamped.

THiE DESTrRUCTION OF T’fiE TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. As we have stated in another part of this work, the cargoes of three of the tea ships sent over to Boston in 1773 were destroyed by the citizens, in consequence of the refusal of the Governor to permnit the vessels to return to England. The following narrative of the occureftce is b)y one of the actors in it Mr.

Hewes: The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other, at what was called at that time Griffin’s wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of War; the commanders of which had publicly declared, that it the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it on shore, under the cover oftheir cannon’s mouth. On the day preceding the 17th, there was a meeting of the citizens of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consulting on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty.

At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutchinson, and request him to inform them whether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting. To the first application of this committee, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o’clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor’s house, and on inquiry found he had gone to his country seat at Milton, a distance of about 275

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOIJRCES. six miles. When the committee returned and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a confused murmur among themembers, and the meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out, Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country; and there was a general huzza for Griffin’s wharf. It was now evening, and I immediately dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denominated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and hands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin’s wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street, after being thus disguised, I fell in with many’who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and who fell in with me, and marched in order to the place of our destination. When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number who assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding the three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned, was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew. We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly obeyed. The commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were on board the ship, appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain, and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging. We then were ordered by our commander to open the hatches, and take out all the chests of tea and throw them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders; first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water. In about three hours from the tilime( we went on board, we had thus broken and thrown overboard every tea-chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time.

We were surrounded by British armed ships, but no attempt was made to resist us. We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without hlaving any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates; nor do I recollect of our hlaving had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, who I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequences for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time, that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months. During the time Eve were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity, to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O’Conner, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him, and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to. take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, ~I tore it off but springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had 216

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MASSACHUSETTS. however to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf; each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke. The next day we nailed the skirt of his coat, which I had pulled off, to the whipping post in Charlestown, the place of his residence, with a label upon it, commemorative of the occasion which had thus subjected the proprietor to the popular indignation. Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo, by a tall aged man, who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had slightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him, and taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In consideration of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick. The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it was floating upon the surface of the water; and to prevent the possibility of any of it being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible,: and by beating it with oars and paddles, so thoroughly drenched it, as to-render its entire destruction inevitable. CHARLESTOWN, In Middlesex county, is situated on a peninsula immediately north of Boston, is separated from it by the Charles River, and is connected with it by several bridges. It is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. It contains a number of churches, several banks, a large hotel, and the State Prison. It is supplied with water from Mystic Lake, is lighted with gas, and traversed by several street railways. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, but is, after all, merely a suburb of Boston, the majority of its inhabitants pursuing their avocations in that city. It contains an important Navy Yard of the United States, which covers an area of 70 or 80
acres. This is, perhaps, the most complete establishment owned by the Government. The population of Charlestown is 28,323. In the centre of the city stands Breed’s Hill, or, as it is more commonly called, Bunker Hill, the scene of the battle of the 17th of June, 1775. The site of the old American redoubt is enclosed with a handsome iron railing, and marked by a magnificent shaft of granite 220 feet high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top. It is ascended by means of an inner winding stairway, which leads to a chamber immediately at the top. In this chamber are two old cannon, wlich, with two others, constituted all the artillery owned by the Americans at the beginning of the Revolution. The corner stone of this monument was laid by Lafayette, on the 17th of June, 1825, in presence of an immense concourse of citizens. 10 277.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. The following is a description of the struggle which the shaft com memorates: After the affair of Lexington and Concord, on the 19th of April, 1775, the people, animated by one common impulse, flew to arms in every direction. The husbandman changed his ploughshare for a musket; and about 15,000 men, 10,000 firom Massachlusetts, and the remainder from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assembled under General Ward in the environs ot’

Boston, then occupied by 10,000 highly disciplined and well equipped British troops, under the command of Generals Gage, Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne, Pigot and others. Fearing an intention, on the part of the British, to occupy the important heights at Charlestown and Dorchester, which would enable them to command the surrounding country, Colonel Prescott was detached, by his own desire, from the American camp at Cambridge, on the evening of the 16th of Junle, 1775, with about 1000
militia, mostly of Massachusetts, including 120 men of Putnam’s regiment from Connecticut, and one artillery company, to Bunker Hill, with a view to occupy and fortify that post. At this hill the detachment made a short halt. but concluded to advance still nearer the British, and accordingly took possession of Breed’s Hill, a position which commanded the whole inner harbor of Boston. Here, about midnight, they commenced throwing up a redoubt, which they completed, notwithstanding every possible effort from the British ships and batteries to prevent them, about noon the next day.

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MASSACHUSETTS. So silently had the operations been conducted through the night, that the British had not the most distant notice of the design of the Americans, until day l)reak presented to their view the half-formed battery and daring stand made against them. A dreadful cannonade, accompanied with shells, was immediately commenced from the British battery at Copps’ Hill, and the ships of war and floating batteries stationed in Charles River. The break of day, on the 17thi of June, 1775, presented a scene, which, for daring and firmness, could never be surpassed; 1000 unexperienced militia, in t.le attire of their various avocations, without discipline, almost without artillery and bayonets, scantily supplied with ammunition, and wholly destitute of provisions, defying the power of the formidable British fleet and army, determined to maintain the liberty of their soil, or moisten that soil with their blood.

Without aid, however, fromn the main body of the army, it seemed impossible to maintain their position; the men having been without sleep, toiling through the night, and destitute of the necessary food required by nature, had become nearly exhausted. Representations were repeatedly made, through the morning, to headquarters, of the necessity of reenforcements and supplies. Major Brooks, the late revered Governor of Massachusetts, who commanded a battalion of minute-mcn at Concord, set out for Cambridge about 9 o’clock on foot (it being impossible to procure a horse), soliciting succor; but as there were two other points exposed to the British, Roxbury and Cambridge, then the headquarters, at which place all the little stores of the army were collected, and the loss of which would I)e incalculable at that moment, great fears were entertained lest they should mnarch over the neck to Roxbury, and attack the camp there, or pass over the bay in boats (there being at that time no artificial avenue to connect Boston with the adjacent country), attack the headquarters, and destroy the stores: it was therefore deemed impossible to afford any reenforcement to Charlestown Heights, till the movements of the British rendered evidence of their intention certain. The fire from the Glasgow firigate and two floating batteries in Charles River, were wholly directed with a view to prevent any communication across the isthnius-that connects Charlestown with the mainland, which kept up a continued silower of missiles, and rendered the communication truly dangerous to those who should attempt it. When the intention of the British to attack the heights of Clharlestown became apparent, the remainder of Putnam’s regiment, Colonel Gardiner’s regiment (both of which, as to numbers, were very imperfect), and some New Hampshire militia, marched, notwithstanding the heavy fire, across the neck, for Charlestown Heights, where they arrived, much fatigued, just after the British had moved to the first attack. The British commenced crossing the troops from Boston about 12 o’clock, and landed at Morton’s Point, southeast from Breed’s Hill. At 2 o’clock, from the I)est accounts that can be obtained, tlhey landed between 3000 and 4000 men, un(ler the immediate command of General Howe, and formed, in apparently invincible order, at the base of the hill. Thile position of the Americans, at this time, was a redoubt on the summit of the height, of about 8 rods square, and a breastwork extending, on the left of it, about 70 feet down the eastern declivity of the hill. This redoubt and breastwork wvas commanded by Prescott in person, who had superintended its construction, and who occupied it with the Massachusetts militia of his detachment, and a part of Little’s regiment, which had arrived about 1
o’clock. They were dreadfully deficient in equipments and ammunition, had been toiling incessantly for many 18 279

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES hours, and, it is said by some accounts, even then were destitute of provisions. A little to the eastward of the redoubt, and northerly to the rear of it, was a rail fence, extending almost to Mystic River; to this fence another had been added during the night and forenoon, and some newly mown grass thrown against them, to afford something like a cover to the troops. At this fence the 120

Connecticut militia were posted. The movements of the British made it evident their intention was to march a strong column along the margin of the Mystic, and turn the redoubt on the north, while another column attacked it in front; accordingly, to prevent this design, a large force became necessary at the breastwork and rail fence. The whole of the reenforcements that arrived, amounting in all to 800 or 1000 men, were ordered to this point by General Putnam, who had been extremely active throughout the night and morning, and had accompanied the expedition. At this moment thousands of persons of both sexes had collected on the church steeples, Beacon Hill, house tops, and every place in Boston and its neighborhood, where a view of the battle ground could be obtained, viewing, with painful anxiety, the movements of the combatants; wondering, yet admiring the bold stand of the Americans, and trembling at the thoughts of the formidable army marshalled in array against them. Before 3
o’clock the British formed, in two columns, for the attack; one column, as had been anticipated, moved along the Mystic River, with the intention of taking the redoubt in the rear, while the other advanced up the ascent directly in front of the redoubt, where Prescott was ready to receive them. General Warren, President of the Provincial Congress and of the Committee of Safety, who had been appointed but a few days before a major-general of the Massachusetts troops, had volunteered on the occasion as a private soldier, and was in the redoubt with a musket, animating the men by his influence and example to the most daring determination. Orders were given to the Americans to reserve their fire till the enemy advanced sufficiently near to make their aim certain. Several volleys were fired by the British with but little success; and so long a time had elapsed, and the British allowed to advance so near the Americans without their fire being returned, that a doubt arose whether or not the latter intended to give battle; but the fatal moment soon arrived: when the British had advanced to within about 8 rods, a sheet of fire was poured upon them, and continued a short time with such deadly effect that hundreds of the assailants lay weltering in their blood, and the remainder retreated in dismay to the point where they had first landed. From daylight to the time of the British advancing on the works, an incessant fire had been kept up on the Americans from the ships and batteriesthis fire was now renewed with increased vigor. After a short time, the British officers had succeeded in rallying their men, and again advanced, in the same order as before, to the attack. Thinking to divert the attention of the Americans, the town of Charlestown, consisting of 500 wooden buildings, was now set on fire by the British; the roar of the flames, the crashing of falling timber, the awful appearance of desolation presented, the dreadful shrieks of the dying and wounded in the last attack, added to the knowledge.of the formidable force advancing against them, combined to form a scene apparently too much for men bred in the quiet retirement of domestic life to sustain. But the-stillness of death reigned within the American works, and nought could be seen but the deadly presented weapon, ready to hurl fresh destruction 280 i

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MASSACTIUSETTS. on the assailants. The fire of the Americans was again reserved till the British came still nearer than befobre, when the same unerring aim was taken, and the British shrunk, terrified, from before its fatal effects, flying, completely routed a second time, to the banks of the river, and leaving, as before, the field strewed with their wounded and their dead. Again the shlips and batteries renewed their fire, and kept a continual shower of balls on the works. Notwithstanding every exertion, the British officerls found it impossible to rally the men for a third attack; one-third of their comrades had fallen; and finally it was not till a reenforcement of more than 1000 fresh troops, with a strong park of artillery, had joined them from Boston, that they could be induced to form anew. In the mean time every effort was made on the part of the Americans to resist a third attack; General Putnam rode, notwithstanding the heavy fire of the ships and batteries, several times across the neck, to induce the militia to advance; but it was only a few of the resolute and brave who would encounter the storm. The British receiving ree/nforcements from their formidable main body-the town of Charlestown presenting one wide scene of destruction-the probability the Americans must shortly retreat-the shower of balls pouring over the neck-presented obstacles too appalling for raw troops to sustain, and embodied too much (ldanger to allow them to encounter. Yet, notwithstanding all this, the Americaps on the heights were elated with their success, and waited with coolness and determination the now formidable advance of the enemy. Once more the British, aided by their reenforeements, advanced to the attack, but with great skill and caution; their artillery was planted on the eastern declivity of the hill, between the rail fence and the breastwork, where it was directed along the line of the Americans, stationed at the latter place, and against the gateway on the northeastern corner of the redoubt; at the same time they attacked the redoubt on the southeastern and southwestern sides, and entered it with fixed bayonets. The slaughter on their advancing was great; but the Americans, not having bayonets to meet them on equal terms, and their powder being exhausted, now slowly retreated, opposing and extricating themselves from the British with the butts of their pieces. The column that advanced against the rail fence was received in the most dauntless manner. The Americans fought with spirit and heroism that could not be surpassed, and, had their ammunition held out, would have secured to themselves a third time the palm of victory; as it was, they effectually prevented the enemy from accomplishing his purpose, which was to turn their flank, and cut the whole of the Americans off; but having become perfectly exhausted, this body of the Americans also slowly retired, retreating in much better order than could possibly have been expected from undisciplined troops, and those in the redoubt having extricated themselves from the host of bayonets by which they had been surrounded. The British followed the Americans to Bunker Hill, but some fresh militia at this moment coming up to the aid of the latter, covered their retreat. The Americans crossed Charlestown neck about 7
o’clock, having in the last twenty hours performed deeds which seemed almost impossible. Some of them proceeded to Cambridge, and others posted themselves quietly on Winter and Prospect hills. From the most accurate statements that can be found, it appears the British must have had nearly 5000 soldiers in the battle; between 3000 and 4000 having 281

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. first landed,: and the reenforcement amounting to over 1000. The Americans, throughout the whole day, did not have 2000 men on the field. The slaughter on theside of the British was immense, having had nearly 1500 killed. and wounded, 1200 of whom were either killed or mortally wounded; the Americans about 400. Had the commanders at Charlestown Heights become terrified on being cut off from the main body and supplies, and surrendered their army, or even retreated before they did, from the terrific force that opposed them, where would now have been that ornament and example to the world, the Independence of the United States? When it was found that no reeinforcements were to be allowed them, the most sanguine man on that field could not have even indulged a hope of success, but all determined to deserve it; and although they did not obtain a victory, their example was the cause of a great many. The first attempt on the commencement of a war is held up, by one party or the other, as an examnple to those that succeed it, and a victory or defeat, though not, perhaps, of any great magnitude in itself, is most powerful and important in its effects. Had such conduct as was here exhibited been in any degree imitated by the immediate conmmander in the first military onset in the last war, how truly different a result would have been effected, from the fatal one that terminated that unfortunate expedition. From the immense superiority of the British, at this stage of the war, having a large army of highly disciplined and well equipped troops, and the Americans possessing but few other munitions or weapons of war, and but little more discipline, than what each man possessed when he threw aside his plough and took the gun that he had kept for pastime or for profit, but now to be employed for a different purpose, from off the hooks that held it,- perhaps it would have been in their power, by pursuing the Americans to Cambridge, and destroying the few stores that had been collected there, to inflict a blow which could never have been recovered from; but they were completely terrified. The awful lesson they had just received filled them with horror; and the blood of 1500 of their comnpan. ions, who fell on that day, presented to them a warning which they could never forget. From the battle of Bunker Hill sprung the protection and the vigor that nurtured the tree of liberty, and to it, in all probability, may be ascribed our independence and glory. The name of the first martyr that gave his life for the good of his country on that day, in the importance of the moment, was lost; else a monument, in connection with the gallant Warren, should be raised to his memory. The manner of his death was thus related by Colonel Prescott: “The first man who fell in the battle of Bunker Hill was killed by a cannon ball which struck his head. He was so near me that my clothes were besmeared with his blood and brains, which I wiped off, in some degree, with a handful of fresh earth. The sight was so shocking to many of the men, that they left their posts and ran to view him. I ordered them back, but in vain. I then ordered him to be buried instantly. A subaltern officer expressed surprise that I should allow liim to be buried without having prayers said; I replied, this is the first man that has been killed, and the only one that will be buried to-day.. I put hiun out of sight that the men may be kept in their places. God only knows who, or how many of us, will fall before it is over. To your post, my good fellow, an(l let each man do his duty.”

The name of the patriot who thus fell is supposed to have been POLLARD a young man belonging to Billerica. He was struck by a cannon ball, tlhroswn from the line-of-battle shi1) Somerset. 282 i

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MASSACH-USETTS. CAMBRIDGE, In Middlesex county, lies west-northwest of Boston, and is connected with it by two bridges. It is a beautiful city.

The streets are broad, and are shaded with lofty elms, and the houses are mostly of wood, and stand back amidst a profusion of tasteful shrubbery.

The corporate limits contain 24 churches, several banks, and an excellent hotel. There are a number of manufacturing establishments in the city, but it is principally occupied with private residences. The population is 39,634. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University, one of the oldest and most important institutions of learning in the country. It is about three miles from Boston, and was founded in 1638, by the Rev. John Harvard. The University embraces, besides its collegiate department, schools of law, medicine, and theology. The buildings are 15 in number, and are all located in Cambridge, except the Medical School, which is in Boston. They are very handsome edifices, and are surrounded by tasteful grounds.

LOWELL, In Middlesex county, is the second city in the State, and one of the most important manufacturing places in America. It is situated at the confluence of the Merrimac and Concord rivers, about 8 miles south of the New Hampshire line, and 25 miles northwest of Boston. The site is hilly, but the city is regularly laid out, and the streets are broad, are lighted with gas, and are traversed by a horse railway. Some of the buildings are handsome. The Court House is the principal edifice. The city contains 7
banks, 4 savings institutions, 22 churches, and 5 newspaper establishments. The population is 40,928. As a manufacturing city, Lowell has no rival. Early in the present century some Newburyport merchants built a canal at this place as a means of floating lumber around Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimac’ River. In 1821, a party of Boston merchants bought up this canal and the adjoining lands, for the purpose of utilizing the immense waterpower furnished by the falls. They enlarged the canal to a width of 60 feet and a depth of 8 feet, and constructed mill races and feeders. They then laid out the town, and offered mill sites and town lots for sale. Their venture met with such success, that in 1846 it became necessary-to construct an additional canal, 100 feet wide, 16 feet deep, and with sides of mason work. 2.t3

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCE To-day, the town projected by them has no superior in its speciality. In 1864, there were 13 manufacturing corporations in Lowell, with an aggregate capital of $13,850,000, engaged in operating 54 mills and factories. Previous to the war there were 12,384
operatives employed in these mills, divided as follows: males 3979, females 8405. Cotton and woollen goods, paper, cotton and paper machinery, locomotives, and machinists’ tools are the principal products. In 1862, the celebrated English writer, Anthony Trollope, visited Lowell and its mills. He gives the following as the result of his observations: That which most surprises an English visitor, on going through the mills at Lowell, is the personal appearance of the men and women who work at them.

As there are twice as many women as there are men, it is to them that the attention is chiefly called. They are not only better dressed, cleaner, and better mounted in every respect than the girls employed at manufactories in England, but they are so infinitely superior as to make a stranger immediately perceive that some very strong cause must have created the difference. We all know the class of young women whom we generally see serving behind counters in the shops of our larger cities.

They are neat, well dressed, careful, especially about their hair, composed in their manner, and sometimes a little supercilious in thle propriety of their demeanor. It is exactly the same class of young women that one sees in the factories at Lowell. They are not sallow, nor dirty, nor ragged, nor rough. They have about them no signs of want, or of low culture. Many of us also know the appearance of those girls who work in the factories in England; and I think it will be allowed that a second glance at them is not wanting to show that they are in every respect inferior to the young women who attend our shops. The matter, indeed, requires no argument. Any young woman at a shop would be insulted by being asked whether she had worked at a factory. The difference with regard to the men at Lowell is quite as strong, though not so striking. Workingmen do not show their status in the world by their outward appearance as readily as women; and, as I have said before, the number of the women greatly exceeded that of the men. One would of course be disposed to say that the superior condition of the workers must have been occasioned by superior wages; and this, to a certain extent, has been the cause. But the higher payment is not the chief cause. Women’s wages, including all that they receive at the Lowell factories, average about 14s. a week, which is, I take it, fully a third more than women can earn in Manchester, or did earn before the loss of the American cotton began to tell upon them. But if wages at Manchester were raised to the Lowell standard, the Manchester women would not be clothed, fed, cared for, and educated like the Lowell women. The fact is, that the workmen and the workwomen at Lowell are not exposed to the chances of an open labor market. They are taken in, as it were, to a philanthropical manufacturing college, and then looked after and regulated more as girls and lads at a great seminary, than as hands by whose industry profit is to be made out of capital. This is all very nice and pretty at Lowell, but I am afraid it could not be done at Manchester.

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MASSACHUSETTS. Thus Lowell is the realization of a commercial Utopia. Of all the statements made in the little book which I have quoted, I cannot point out one which is exaggerated, much less false. I should not call the place elegant; in other respects I am disposed to stand by the book.

Before I had made any inquiry into the cause of the apparent comfort, it struck me at once that some great effort at excellence was being made. I went into one of the discreet matrons’ residences; and, perhalps, may give but an indifferent idea of her discretion, when I say that she allowed me to go into the bed-rooms. If you want to ascertain the inner ways or habits of life of any man, woman, or child, see, if it be practicable to do so, his or her bed-room. You will learn more by a minute’s glance round that holy of holies, than by any conversation. Looking-glasses and such like, suspended dresses, and toilet-belongings, if taken without notice, cannot lie or even exaggerate. The discreet matron at first showed me rooms only prepared f6r use, for at the period of my visit Lowell was by no means full; but she soon became more intimate with me, and I went through the upper part of the house. My report must be altogether in her favor and in that of Lowell. Everything was cleanly, well ordered, and feminine. There was not a bed on which any woman need have hesitated to lay herself if occasion required it. I fear that this cannot be said of the lodgings of the manufacturing classes at Manchester. The boarders all take their meals together. As a rule, they have meat twice a day. ‘lot meat for dinner is with them as much a matter of course, or probably more so, than with any Englishman or woman who may read this book. For in the States of America regulations on this matter are much more rigid than with us. Cold meat is rarely seen, and to live a day without meat would be as great a privation as to pass a night without bed. The rules for the guidance of these boarding-houses are very rigid. The houses themselves belong to the corporations, or different manufacturing establishments, and the tenants are altogether in the power of the managers. None but operatives are to be taken in. The tenants are answerable for improper conduct. The doors are to be closed at ten o’clock. Any boarders who do not attend divine worship are to be reported to the managers. The yards and walks are to be kept clean, and snow removed at once; and the inmates must be vaccinated, etc., etc. It is expressly stated by the Hamilton Company-and I believe by all the companies-that no one shall be employed who is habitually absent from public worship on Sunday, or who is known to be guilty of immorality. It is stated that the average wages of the women are two dollars, or eight shillings, a week, besides their board. I found when I was there that from three dollars to three and a half a week were paid to the women, of which they paid one dollar and twentyfive cents for their board. As this would not fully cover the expense of their keep, twentyfive cents a week for each was also paid to the boairdinghouse keepers by the mill agents. This substantially came to the same thing, as it left the two dollars a week, or eight shillings, with the girls over and above their cost of living. The board included washing, lights, food, bed, and attend ance-leaving a surplus of eight shillings a week for clothes and saving. Now let me ask any one acquainted with Manchester and its operatives, whether that is not Utopia realized. Factory girls, for whom every comfort of life is secured, With 211. a year over for saving and dress! One sees the failing, however, at a moment. It is Utopia. Any Lady Bountiful can tutor three or four peasants and make them luxuriously comfortable. But no Lady Bountiful can give luxu rious comfort to lalf a dozen parishes. Lowell is now nearly 40 years old, and 285

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. contains but 40,000 inhabitants. From the very nature of its corporations it cannot spread itself. Chicago, which has grown out of nothing in a much shorter period, and which has no factories, has now 120,000 inhabitants. Lowell is a very wonderful place and shows what philanthropy can do; but I fear it also shows what philanthropy cannot do… One cannot but be greatly struck by the spirit of philanthropy in which the system of Lowell was at first instituted. It may be presumed that men who put their money into such an undertaking did so with the object of commercial profit to themselves; but in this case that was not their first object. I think it may be taken for granted that when Messrs. Jackson and Lowell went about their task, their grand idea was to place factory work upon a respectable footing to give employment in mills which should not be unhealthy, degrading, demoralizing, or hard in its circumstances. Throughout the Northern States of America the same feeling is to be seen. Good and thoughtful men have been active to spread education, to maintain health, to make work compatible with comfort and per sonal dignity, and to divest the ordinary lot of man of the sting of that curse which was supposed to be uttered when our first father was ordered to eat his bread in the sweat of his brow. One is driven to contrast this feeling, of which on all sides one sees such ample testimony, with that sharp desire for profit, that anxiety to do a stroke of trade at every turn, that acknowledged necessity of being smart, which we must own is quite as general as the nobler propensity. I believe that both phases of commercial activity may be attributed to the same characteristic. Men in trade in America are not more covetous than tradesmen in England, nor probably are they more generous or philanthropical. But that which they do, they are more anxious to do thoroughly and quickly. They desire that every turn taken shall be a great turn-or at any rate that it shall be as great as possible. They go ahead either for bad or good with all the energy they have. In the institutions at Lowell I think we may allow that the good has very much prevailed. I went over two of the mills, those of the Merrimac corporation and of the Massachusetts. At the former the printing establishment only was at work; the cotton mills were closed. I hardly know whether it will interest any one to learn that something under half a million yards of calico are here printed annually. At the Lowell Bleachlery fifteen million yards are dyed annually. The Merrimac Cotton Mills were stopped, and so had the other mills at Lowell been stopped, till some short time before my visit. Trade had been bad, and there had of course been a lack of cotton. I was assured that no severe suffering had been created by this stoppage. The greater number of hands had returned into tfle country-to the farms from Whence they had come; and though a discontinuance of work and wages had of course produced hardship, there had been no actual privation-no hunger and want.

Those of the work-people who had no homes out of Lowell to which to betake themselves, and no means at Lowell of living, had received relief before real suffering had begun. I was assured, with something of a smile of contempt at the question, that there had been nothing like hunger. But, as I said before, visitors always see a great deal of rose color, and should endeavor to allay the brilliancy of the tint with the proper amount of human shading. But do not let any visitor mix in the browns with too heavy a hand! 286 I

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MASSACHUSETTS. SPRINGFIELD, In Hampden county, on the banks of the Connecticut River, 98 miles southwest of Boston, and 26 miles north of Hartford, Conn., is the largest city in Western-Massachusetts. It is handsomely built, and is one of the most attractive cities in New England.

The principal thoroughfare, Main street, is nearly 3 miles long. The city contains many fine buildings, 12 or 13 churches, 8 or 9 banks, several go(l hotels, and 5 newspaper establishments. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. The Connecticut is navigable to this place during the season of navigation. Four lines of railway centre here, and have added very much to the prosperity of the city. The United States Arsenal is one of the principal features of the place, and the most important establishment belonging to the Government. About 2800 hands are employed in the various departments of the Arsenal. The buildings are principally of brick, and are arranged around a square of 20 acres. They are very handsome, and being situated on rising ground, command a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Springfield is actively engaged in manufictures. Paper, iron goods, locomotives, railroad cars, machinery, pistols, and woollen goods, are the principal articles. The population is 26,703. Taunton, in Bristol county, contains 18,629 inhabitants. Fall River, in the same county, contains 26,786 inhabitants. Both are important manufacturing cities. Salem, in Essex county, has a fine harbor, and is a city of some commercial importance. It has a population of 24,117, and is noted as the scene of the famous witchcraft delusion. Plymouth, in the county of the same name, is extensively engaged in manufactures and the fisheries. It is the oldest town in New England, and is the place where the Pilgrim Fathers first landed after their voyage from England.

MISCELLANIES. ARRIVAL OF THE PILGRIMS AT CAPE COD. On the 10thl of November, 1620, the Mayflower, with her precious freight of emigrants, reached the harbor of Cape Cod. The charter which they had brought with them from England, gave them permission to settle within the dominions of the South Virginia Company, and was worthless in the region in which they had arrived. In this situation they determined to take the matter into their own hands. A government was organized, a covenant drawn up and signed by all on board, and John Carver was elected Governor. 287

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Government having been thus regularly established, on a truly republican principle, sixteen armed men were sent on shore, as soon as the weather would permit, to fetch wood and make discoveries. They returned at night with a boat load of juniper wood, and made report “that they found the land to be a narrow neck, having the harbor on one side, and the ocean on the other; that the ground consisted of sandhills, like the Downs in Holland; that in some places the soil was black earth’ a spit’s depth;’ that the trees were oak, pine, sassafras, juniper, birch, holly, ash, and walnut; that the forest was open and without underwood; that no inhabitants, houses, nor fresh water were to be seen.” This account was as much as could be collected in one Saturday’s afternoon. The next day they rested. While they lay in this harbor, during the space of five weeks, they saw great flocks of seafowl and whales every day playing about them. The master and niate, who had been acquainted with the fisheries in the northern seas of Europe, supposed that they might in that time have made oil to the value of 3000 or 4000. It was too late in the season for cod; and, indeed, they caught none but small fish near the shore, and shellfish. The margin of the sea was so shallow, that they were obliged to wade aslhore, and the weather being severe, many of them took colds and coughs, which in the course of the winter proved mortal. On Monday, the 13th of November, the women went ashore under guard to wash their clothes, and the men were impatient for a farther discovery. The shlallop, which had been cut down and stowed between decks, needed repairing, in which 17 days were employed. While this was doing, they pr(oposed that excursions might be made on foot. Much caution was necessary in an enterprise of this kind, in a new and stavage country.

After consultation and preparation, 16 men were equipped with musket and ammunition, sword and corslet, under the command of Captain Miles Standish, who had William Bradford, Stephen Hopkins, and Edward Tilly for his council of war. After many instructions given, they were rather permitted than ordered to go, and the time of their absence was limited to two days. When they had travelled one mile by the shore, they discovered five or six of the natives, who, on sight of them, fled. They attempted to pursue, and, lighting on their tracks, followed them till night; but the thickets through which they had to pass, the weight of their armor, and the debility after a long voyage, made them an unequal match, in point of travelling, to these nimble sons of nature. They rested at length by a spring, which afforded them the first refreshing draught of American water. The discoveries made in this march were few, but novel and amusing.

In one place they found a deer trap, made by the bending of a young tree to the earth, wAith a noose under ground covered with acorns. Mr.

Bradford’s foot was caught in the trap, from which his companions disengaged him, and they were all entertained with the ingenuity of the device. In another place they canme to an Indian buryingground, and in one of the graves they found a mortar, an earthen pot, a )ow and arrows, and other implements, all which they very carefully replaced, because they would not be guilty of violating the repositories of the dead. But when they found a cellar, carefully lined with bark and covered with a heap of sand, in which about four bushels of seed-corn in ears were well secured, after reasoning on the morality of the action, they took as much of the corn as they could carry, intending, when they should find the owners, to pay them to their satisfaction On the third day they arrived, weary and welcome, where the ship 288 I

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MASSACHUSETTS. lay, and delivered their corn into the common store. The company resolved to keep it for seed, and to pay the natives the full value when they should have anL opportunity. When the shallop was repaired and rigged, 24 of the company ventured on’a second excursion to the same place, to make a farther discovery, having Captain Jones for their commander, with 10 of his seamen and the ship’s long-boat. The wind being high and the sea roughl, the shallop came to anchor under the land, while part of the company waded on shore from the long-boat, and travelled, as they supposed, six or seven miles, having directed the shallop to follow them the next morning. The weather was very cold, with snow, and the people, having no shelter, took such colds as afterwards proved fatal to many. THE FIRST SABBATH IN NEW ENGLAND. The 10th of December, 1620, was the first Christian Sabbath in New England. The “Mayflower,” a name now immortal, had crossed the ocean. It had borne its hundred passengers over the vast deep, and after a perilous voyage, it had reached the bleak shores of New England in the beginning of winter. The spot which was to furnish a home and a burial-place, was now to be selected. The slallop was unshipped, but needed repairs, and 16 weary days elapsed before it was ready for service. Amidst ice and snow, it was then sent out, with some half a dozen Pilg,rimns, to find a suitable place where to land. The spray of the sea, says the historian, froze on them, and made their clothes like coats of iron. Five days they wandered about, searching in vain for a suitable landing-place. A storm came on, the snow and rain fell; the sea swelled; the rudder broke; the mast and the sail fell overboard. In this storm and cold, without a tent, a house, or the shelter of a rock, the Christian Sabbath approached-the day which they regarded as holy unto God-a day on which they were not to “do any work.” What should be done? As the evening before the Sabbath drew on, they pushed over the surf, entered a fair sound, sheltered themselves under the lee of a riso of land, kindled a fire, and on that island they spent the day in the solemn worship of their Maker. On the next day their feet touched the rock now sacred as the place of the landing of the Pilgrims. Nothing more strikingly marks the character of this people, than this act. The whole scene-the cold winter-the raging sea-the driving storm-the houseless, homeless island-the families of wives and children in the distance, weary with their voyage and Impatient to land-and yet, the sacred observance of a day which they kept from prizcipld, and not from mere feeling, or because it was a form of religion, shows how deeply imbedded true religion is in the soul, and how little it is affected by surrounding difficulties.

THE FIRST CRIMES IN NEW ENGLAND. The first offence punished in the colony was that of John Billington, who was charged with contempt of the captain’s lawful commands, while on board the Mayflower. He was tried by the whole company, and was sentenced to have his neck and heels tied together; but on humbling himsell, and craving pardon, he was released.

This same Billington, however, in 1630, waylaid and murdered ono John Newcomeni, for some affront, and was tried and executed in October of that year. Governor Bradford says: “We took all due means about his trial; he waa 289

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. found guilty, both by grand and petit jury; and we took advice of Mr. Winthrop and others, the ablest gentlemen in the Massachusetts Bay, who all concurred with us, that he ought to die, and the land be purged from blood.” The first duel and second offence that took place in the colony was between two servants of Stephen Hopkins They fought with sword and dagger, and were both slightly wounded. They were arraigned for the offense, on the 18th June, 1621, before the Governor and company for trial, and were sentenced to have their heads and feet tied together, and to remain in that position for 24 hours. After an hour’s endurance of this novel punishment, these men of valor begged for a release, and the Governor set them at liberty. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. [From Governor Hutchinson’s History of Massachusetts.] The great noise which the New England witchcrafts made throughout the English dominions, proceeded snore from the general panic with which all sorts of persons were seized, and an expectation that the contagion would spread to all parts of the country, than from the number of persons who were executed, more having been put to death in a single county in England, in a short space of time, than have suffered in all New England from the first settlement until the present time. Fifteen years had passed, before we find any mention of witchcraft among the English colonists. The Indians were supposed to be worshippers of the Devil, and their powows to be wizards. The first suspicion of witchcraft, amniong the English, was about the year 1645; at Springfield, upon Connecticut River, several persons were supposed to be under an evil hand, and among the rest two of the minister’s children.

Great pains were taken to prove the facts upon several persons charged with the crime, but either the nature of the evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so no person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being a witch, after long examination was brought to confession of her guilt, but I do not find that she was executed. Whilst this inquiry was making, Margaret Jones was executed at Charlestown; and Mr.” Hale mentions a woman at Dorchester, and another at Cambridge about the same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon after, Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield and escaped death. In 1655, Mrs. Hibbins, the’assistant’s widow, was hanged at Boston. In 1662, at Hartford in Connecticut (about 30 miles from Springfield, upon the same river), one Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next door to a Dutch family, and, no doubt, had learned something of the language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes spake Dutchl and sometimes English, and sometimes a language which nobody understood, and( who held a conference with one another. Several ministers, who were present, took down the conference in writing, and the names of several persons, mentioned in the course of the conference, as actors or bearing parts in it; particularly a woman, then in prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon examination confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery. She owned that she and the others named had been familiar with a demon, who -had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a formal covenant, yet she had promised to be ready at his call, and was to have had a high frolic at Christma.s, When the agreement was to have been signed. Upon this confession she was (

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MASSACHUSETTS. executed, and two more of the company were condemned at the same tinme. In 1669, Susanna Martin, of Salisbury, was bound. over to the court, upon suspicion of witchcraft, but escaped at that time. In 1671, Elizabeth Knap, another vntriloqua, alarmed the people of Groton in miuch the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hartford; but her demon was not so cunning, for instead of confining himself to old women, he railed at the good minister of the town and other persons of good character, and the people could not then beprevailed on to believe him, but believed the girl, when she confessed she had been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of good persons; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud and imposture. In 1673, Eunice Cole of Hampton was tried, and the jury found her not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of familiarity with the devil. In 1679, William Morse’s house, at Newbury, was troubled with the throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a boy, of the family, was supposed to be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors. and in 1682, the house of George Walton, a quaker, at Portsmouth, and another house at Salmon-falls (both in New Hampshire), were attacked after the same manner. In 1683, the demons removed to Connecticut River again, where one Desborough’s house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire kindled, nobody knew how, whichl burnt up great part of his estate; and in 1684, Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military officer and a representative of the town of Hadley, upon the same river (a hypochondriac person), fancied himself under an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of his neighbors, and languished and pined away, and was generally supposed to be bewitched to death. While he lay ill, a number of brisk lads tried an experiment upon the old woman.

Having dragged her out of her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her down, rolled hler some time in the snow, and at last buried her in it and there left her, but it happened that she survived, and the melancholy man died. Notwithstanding these frequent instances of supposed witchcrafts, none had suffered for near 30 years, in the Massachusetts colony. The execution of thle assistant or councillor’s widow in 1655, was disapproved of by many principal persons, and it is not unlikely that her death saved the lives of many other inferior persons. But in 1685, a very circumstantial account of all or most of the cases I have mentioned, was published, and many arguments were brought to convince the country that they were no delusions or impostures, but the effects of a familiarity between the devil and such as he found fit for his instruments and in 1687
or 1688, began a more alarming instance than any which had preceded it.

Four of the children of John Goodwin, a grave man and a good liver, at the north part of Boston, were generally believed to be bewitched. I have often heard persons, who were in the neighborhood, speak of the great consternation it occasioned. The children were all remarkable for ingenuity of temper, had been religiously educated and were thought to be without guile. The eldest was a girl of 13 or 14 years. She had charged a laundress with taking away some of the family linen. The mother of the laundress was one of the wild Irish, of bad character, and gave the girl harsh language; soon after which she fell into fits, which were said to have something diabolical in them. One of her sisters and two brothers followed her example, and it is said, were tormented in tihe same part of their bodies at the same time, although kept in separate apartments, 29-i i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and ignorant of one another’s complaints.

One or two things were said to be very remarkable; all their complaints were in the day time, and they slept com fortably all night; they were struck dead at the sight of the Assembly’s Catechism, Cotton’s Milk for Babes, and some other good books, but could read in Oxford jests, popish and quaker books, and the common prayer, without any difficulty. Is it possible the mind of man should be capable of such strong prejudices as that a suspicion of fraud should not immediately arise? But attachments to modes and forms in religion had such force, that some of these circumstances seem rather to have confirmed the credit of the children.

Sometimes they would be deaf, then dumb, then blind; and sometimes all these disorders together would come upon them. Their tongues would be drawn down their throats, then pulled out upon their chins. Their jaws, necks, shoulders, elbows and all their joints would appear to be dislocated, and they would make most piteous outcries of burnings, of being cut with knives, beat, etc., and the marks of wounds were afterwards to be seen. The ministers of Boston and Charlestown kept a dlay of fasting and prayer at the troubled house; after which, the youngest child made no more complaints. The others persevered, and the magistrates then interposed, and the old woman was apprehended, but upon examination would neither confess nor deny, and appeared to be disordered in her senses.

Upon the report of physicians that she was compos mentis, she was executed, declaring at her death the children should not be relieved. The eldest, after this, was taken into S minister’s family, where, at first, she behaved orderly, but, after some time, suddenly fell into her fits.

The account of her affliction is in print; some things are mentioned as extraordinary, which tumblers are every day taught to perform; others seem more than natural, but it was a time of great credulity. The children returned to their ordinary behavior, lived to adult age, made profession of religion, and thie affliction they had been under they publicly declared to be one miotive to it. One of them I knew many years after. She had the character of a very sober virtuous woman, and never made any acknowledgment of fraud in this transaction. The printed account was published with a preface by Mr. IRaxter, who says, “the evidence is so convincing, that he must be a very obduratd Badducee who will not believe.” It obtained credit sufficient together with other preparatives, to dispose the whole country to be easily imposed upon by the more extensive and more tragical scene, which was presently after acted at Salem and other parts of the county of Essex. Not many years before, Glanvil published his witch stories in England; Perkins and other nonconformists were earlier; but the great authority was that of Sir Matthew Hale, revered in New England, not only for his knowledge in the law, but for his gravity and piety. The trial of the witches in Suffolk was published in 1684. All these books were in New England, and the conformity between the behavior of Goodwin’s children and most of the supposed bewitched at Salem, and the behavior of those in England, is so exact, as to leave no room to doubt the stories had been read by the New England per sons themselves, or had been told to them by others who had read them. Indeed, this conformity, instead of giving suspicion, was urged in confirmation of the truth of both; the Old England demons and the New being so much alike. The court justified themselves from books of law, and the authorities of Keble, Dalton and other lawyers, then of the first character, who lay down rules of conviction, as absurd and dangerous as any which were practised in New England. The trial of Richard Hatheway, the impostor, before Lord Chief Justice Holt, was 10 or 12 years after.

This was a great discouragement to prosecutions in England 292

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MASSACHUSETTS. for witchcraft, but an effectual stop was not put to them, until the Act of Parliament in the reign of his late Majesty. Even this has not wholly cured the common people, and we hear of old women ducked and cruelly murdered within these last twenty years. Reproach, then, for hanging witches, although it has been often cast upon the people of New England, by those of Old, yet it must have been done with an ill grace.

The people of New England were of a grave cast, and had long been disposed to give a serious solemn construction even to common events in providence; but in Old England, the reign of Charles II. was as remarkable for gaiety as any whatsoever, and for scepticism and infidelity, as any which preceded it. Sir William Phips, the governor, upon his arrival, fell in with the opinion prevailing. Mr. Stoughton, the lieutenant-governor, upon whose judgment great stress was laid, had taken up this notion, that although the devil might appear in the shape of a guilty person, yet he would never be permitted to assume the shape of an innocent person. This opinion, at first, was generally received. Some of the most religious women whlo were accused, when they saw the appearance of distress and torture in their accusers, and heard their solemn declarations, that they saw the shapes or spectres of the accused afflicting them, persuaded themselves they were witches, and that the devil, some how or other, although they could not remember how or when, had taken possession of their evil hearts and obtained some sort of assent to his afflicting in their shapes; and thereupon they thought they might be justified in co.ifessing themselves guilty. It seems, at this day, with some people, perhaps but few, to be the question whether the accused or the afflicted were under a preternatural or diabolical possession, rather than whether the afflicted were under bodily distempers, or altogether guilty of fraud and imposture. As many of the original examinations have fallen into my hands, it may be of service to represent this affair in a more full and impartial light than it has yet appeared to the world. In February, 1691-2, a daughter and a niece of Mr. Parris, the minister of Salemi village, girls of ten or eleven years of age, and two other girls in the neighborhood, made the same sort of complaints as Goodwin’s children had made, two or three years before. The physicians, having no other way of accounting for the disorder, pronounced them bewitched. An Indian woman, who was brought into the country from New Spain, and then living with MIr.

Parris, tried some experiments which she pretended to be used in her own country, in order to find out the witch. This coming to the children’s knowledge, they cried out upon the poor Indian as appearing to them, pinching, pricking, and tormenting them; and fell into fits. Tituba, the Indian, acknowledged that she had learned how to find out a witch, but denied that she was one herself. Several private fasts were kept at the minister’s house, and several, more public, by the whole village, and then a general fast through the colony, to seek to God to rebuke Satan, etc. So much notice taken of the children, together with the pity and compassion expressed by those who visited them, not only tended to confirm them in their design, but to draw others into the like. Accordingly, the number of the complainants soon increased, and among them there were two or three women, and some girls old enough for witnesses. These had their fits too, and, when in them, cried out, not only against Tituba, but against Sarah Osburn, a melancholy distracted old woman, and Sarah Good, another old woman who was bedrid. Tituba, at length, confessed herself a witch, and that the two old women 293

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. were her confederates; and they were all committed to prison; and Tituba, upon search, was found to have scars upon her back which were called the devil’s mark, but might as well have been supposed those of her Spanish master. This commitment was on the 1st of March. About three weeks after, two other women, of good characters and church members, Corey and Nurse, were complained of and brought upon their examination; when these children fell into fits, and the mother of one of them, and wife of Thomas Putnam, joined with the children and complained of Nurse as tormenting her; and made most terrible shrieks, to the amazement of all the neighborhood. The old women denied everything; but were sent to prison; and such was the infatuation, that a child of Sarah Good, about four or five years old, was committed also, being charged with biting some of the afflicted, who showed the print of small teeth on their arms. On April 3d Mr. Parris took for his text, “Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you i8 a devil.” Sarah Cloyse, supposing it to be occasioned by Nurse’s case, who was lier sister, went out of the meeting.

She was, presently after, complained of for a witch, examined, and committed. Elizabeth Procter was charged about the same time: her husband, as every good husband would have done, accompanied hier to her examination, but it cost the poor man his life. Some of the afflicted cried out upon him also, and they were both committed to prison. Instead of suspecting and sifting the witnesses, and suffering them to be crossexamined, the authority, to say no more, were imprudent in making use of leading questions, and thereby putting words into their mouths or suffering others to do it. Mr. Parris was over-officious; most of the examinations, although in the presence of one or more of the magistrates, were taken by him. Governor Hutchinson, in the second volume of his History, introduces an examination of several of the accused, which is certified by John Hawthorne and John Corwin, Assistants, but owing to prescribed limits they are here omitted: No wonder the whole country was in a consternation, when persons of sober lives and unblemished characters were committed to prison upon such sort of evidence. The most effectual way to prevent an accusation, was to become an accuser; and accordingly the number of the afflicted increased every day, and the number of the accused in proportion, who in general persisted in their innocency; but, being strongly urged to give glory to God by their confession, and intimation being given that this was the only way to save their lives, and their friends urging them to it, some were brought to own their guilt. The first conteBssion upon the files is of Deliverance Hobbs, May 11th, 1692, being in prison. She owned everything she was required to do. The confessions multiplied the witches; new companions were always mentioned, who were immediately sent for and examined. Thus more than a hundred women, many of them of fair characters and of the most reputable families, in the towns of Salem, Beverly, Andover, Billerica, etc., were apprehended, examined, and generally committed to prison. The confessions being much of the same tenor, one or two may serve for specimens: “The examination and confession (8 Sept. 92,) of Mary Osgood, wife of Captain Osgood of Andover, taken before John Hawthorne and other their Majesties justices. “She confesses, that about 11 years ago, when she was in a melancholy state and condition, she used to walk abroad in her orchard; and upon a certain time 294

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MASSACHUSETTS. she saw the appearance of a cat, at the end of the house, which yet she thought was a real cat. However, at that time, it diverted her fiom praying to God, and instead thereof she prayed to the devil; about which time she made a covenant with the devil, who, as a black man, came to her and presented her a book, upon which she laid her finger and that left a red spot: and that upon her signing, the devil told her hlie was her God, and that she should serve and worship him, and, she believes, she consented to it. She says further, that about two years agone, she was carried through the air, in company with deacon Frye’s wife, Ebenezer Baker’s wife, and Goody Tyler, to five-mile pond, where she was baptized by the devil, who dipped her face in the water and made her renounce her former baptism, and told her she must be his, soul and body, forever, and that she must serve him, which she promised to do. She says, the renouncing her first baptism was after her first dipping, and that she was transported back again through the air, in company with the forenamed persons, in the same manner as she went, and believes they were carried upon a pole. Q. How many persons were upon the pole? A. As I said before (viz., four persons and no more but whom she had named above). She confesses she has afflicted three persons, John Sawdy, Marthlia Sprague, and Rose Foster, and that she did it by pinching her bed clothes, and giving consent the devil should do it in her shape, and that the devil could not do it without her consent. She confesses the afflicting persons in the court, by the glance of her eye. She says, as shlie was coming down to Salemi to be examined, she and the rest of the company with her stopped at Mr. Phillips’ to refresh themselves, and the afflicted persons, being behind them upon the road, came up just as she was mounting again, and were then afflicted, and cried out upon her, so that she was forced to stay until they were all past, and said she only looked that way towards them. Q. Do you know the devil can take the shape of an innocent person and afflict? A. I believe hlie cannot. Q. Who taught you this way of witchcraft? A. Satan (and that hlie promised her abundance of satisfaction and quietness in her future state, but never performed anythiing; and that she has lived more miserably and more discontented since, than ever before). She confesses further, that she herself, in company with Goody Parker, Goody Tyler, and Goody Dean, had a meeting at Moses Tyler’s house, last Monday night, to afflict, and that she and Goody Dean carried the shape of Mr. Dean, the minister, between them, to make persons believe that Mr. Dean afflicted. Q. What hindered you from accomplishing whlat you intended? A. The Lord would not suffer it so to be, that the devil should afflict in an innocent person’s shape. Q. Have you been at any other witch meetings? A. I know nothing thereof, as I shall answer in the presence of God and his people; (but said, that the black man stood before her, and told her that what she had confessed was a lie; notwithstanding, she said that what she had confessed was true, and thereto put her hand). Her husband being present, was asked if he judged his wife to be any way discomposed. He answered, that having lived with her so long, hlie (loth not judge her to be any ways discomposed, but has cause to believe what she has said is true…. When lMistress Osgood was first called, she afflicted Martha Sprague and Rose Foster, by the glance of her eyes, and recovered them out of their fits by the touch of her hand. Mary Lacey, Betty Johnson, and Hannah Post saw Mistress Osgood afflicting Sprague and Foster. The said Hannah Post, and Mary Lacey, and Betty Johnson, jun., and Rose Foster and Mary Richardson were afflicted by Mistress Osgood, in the time of their examination, and recovered by her tcldhing of their hands.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “I underwritten, beinig a)pplointedl by authority, to take this examination, do testify upon oath, taken in court, that this is a true copy of the substance of it to the best of my knowledge, 5 Jan., 1692-3. The within Mary Osgood was examined before their Majesties justices of the peace in Salem. “Attest, JonI IIIGGINSON, Just. Peace.” A miserable negro woman, charged by some of the girls with afflicting them, confessed, but was cunning enough to bring the greatest share of the guilt upon her mistress: “Salem, Monday, July 4, 1692. The examination of Candy, a negro woman, before Bartholomew Gedney and John Hawthorne, Esqrs. Mr. Nicholas Nov(-s. also present “Q. Candy, are you a witch? A. Candy no witch in her country. Candy’s mother no witch. Candy no witch, Barbados. This country, mistress give Candy witch. Q. Did your mistress make you a witch in this country? A. Yes, in this country mistress give Candy witch. Q. What did your mistress do to make you a witch? A. Mistress bring book and pen and ink, make Cand(ly write in it.

Q. What did you write in it? A. She took a pen and ink, and upon a book or paper made a mark. Q. How did you afflict or hurt these folks, where are the puppets you did it with? She asked to go out of the room and she would show or tell; upon which she ha(l liberty, one going with her, and she presently broughlt in two clouts, one with two knots tied in it, the other one; which bcing seen by Mary Warren, Deliverance Hobbs, and Abigail Hobbs, they were greatly affrighted and fell into violent fits, and all of them said that the black man tnad Mrs. Hawkes, and the negro stood b)y the puppets or rags and pinched them, and then they were afflicted, and when the knots were untied yet they continued as aforesaid. A bit of one of the rags being set on fire, the afflicted all said they were burned, and cried out dreadfully. The rags being put into water, two of the forenamed persons were in dreadful fits, almost choked, and the other was violently running down to the river, but was stopped. “Attest, JOHN HAWTHORNE, Just.

Peace.” Mrs. Hawkes, the mistress, had no other way to save her life but to confecss also. The recantation of several persons in Andover will show in what manner they were brought to their confessions: “We, whose names are underwritten, inhabitants of Andover; when as that horrible and tremendous judgment beginning at Salem village in the year 1692, by some called witchcraft, first breaking forth at Mr. Parris’s house, several young persons, being seemingly afflicted, did accuse several persons for afflicting them, and many there believing it so to be, we being informed that if a person was sick, the afflicted person could tell what or who was the cause of that sickness: Joseph Ballard, of Andover, his wife being sick at the same time, he, either lfrom himself or by the advice of others, fetched two of the persons called the afflicted persons, from Salem village to Andlovcr, which was the beginning of that dreadful calamity that befell us in Andover, believing the said accusations to be true, sent for the said persons to come together to the meeting house in Andover, the afflicted persons being there. After Mr. Barnard had been at prayer, we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon the afflicted persons, they being in their fits and falling into their fits at our coming into their presence, as they 296

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MA SSA.C 1 USE,TTS. said; and some led us and laid our hands upon them, and then they said they were well, and that we were guilty of afflicting tlhem: whlereupon we were all seized as prisoners, by a warrant firomn the justice of the peace, and forthwith carried to Salem. And, by reason of that sudden surprisal, we knowing ourselves altogether innocent of that crime, we were all exceedingly astonished and amazed, and consternated and affrighlited even out of our reason; and our nearest and dearest relations, seeing us in that dreadful condition, and knowing our great danger, apprehended there was no other way to save our lives, as the case was then circumstanced, but by our confessing ourselves to be such and suclh persons as the afflicted represented us to be, they, out of tenderness and pity, persuaded us to confess what we did confess. And indeed that confession, thlat it is said we made, was no other than what was suggested to us by some gentlemnen, they telling us that we were witches, and they knew it, and we knew it, which made us think it was so; and our understandings, our reason, our faculties, almost gone, we were not capable of judging of our condition; as also the hard measures they used with us rendered us incapable of making our defence, but said anything and everything which they desired, and most of what we said was but, in effect, a consenting to what they said. Some time after, when we were better composed, they telling us what we had confessed, we did profess that we were innocent and ignorant of such things; and we hearing that Samuel War(ldwell had renounced his confession, and quickly after condemned and executed, some of us were told we were going after Wardwell.

IMARY OSGOOD, I)ELTAV1RANCE DANE, SARAH WILSON, MIARY TILER, ABIGAIL

BARKER, HANNAH TILER.” The testimonials to these persons’ characters, by the principal inhabitants of Andover, will outweigh the credulity of the justices who conimiitted them, or of the grand jury which found bills against them. Although the number of prisoners had been increasing, from February until the beginning of June, yet there had been no trials. The charter was expected from day to day, and the new constitution of government to take place. Soon after its arrival, commissioners of oyer and terminer were appointed for the tial of witchcrafts. By the charter, the general assembly are to constitute courts of justice, and the governor with the advice of the council is to nominiate and alpoint judges, commissioners of oyer and terminer, etc., but whether the governor, with advice of council, can constitute a court of oyer and terniner, without authority for that purpose derived from the general assembly, has been made a question; however, this, the most important court to the life of the subject whiclh ever was held in the province, was constituted in no other manner. It was opened at Salem, the first week in June. Only one of the accused, Bridget Bishop, alias Oliver, was then brought to trial. She had been charged with witchcraft twenty years before. The accuser, upon his death-bed, confessed his own guilt in the accusation; but an old woman, once charged with being a witch, is never afterwards wholly free from the accusation, and she being, besides, of a fractious temper, all the losses the neighbors met with in their cattle and poultry, and accidents in oversetting their carts, etc., were attributed to her spite against them, and now suffered to be testified against her. This evidence, together with the testimony of the afflicted, and of the confessors, what they had heard fronm the spectres and seen of her spectre, and an excrescence, called a teat, fonuul upon her body, were deemed by court and jury plenary proof, and she was eal 297

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. victed, and on the 10th of June executed.

The further trials were put off to the adjournment, the 30thi of June. At the first trial, there was no colony or provincial law against witchcraft in force. The statute of James the First must therefore have been considered as in force in the province, witchcraft not being an offence at common law. Before the adjournment, the old colony law, which makes witchcraft a capital offence, was revived, with the other local laws, as they were called, and made a law of the province. At the adjournment, June 30, five women were brought upon trial, Sarah Good, Rebekali Nurse, Susannalh Martin, Elizabeth How, and Sarah Wilder. There was no difficulty with any but Nurse. She was a member of the church and of a good character, and, as to her, the jury brought in their verdict not guilty; upon which the accusers made a great clamnor, and the court expressed their dissatisfaction with the verdict, which caused some of the jury to desire to go out again; and then they brought her in guilty. This was a hard case, and can scarcely be said to be the execution of the law and justice in mercy. In a capital case, the court often refuses a verdict of guilty, but rarely, if ever, sends a jury out again upon one of not guilty. It does not indeed appear that in this case the jury was ordered out again; but the dissatisfaction expressed by the court seems to have been in such a manner as to have the same effect. At the next adjournment, August 5thl, George Burroughs, John Procter, and Elizabeth his wile, John Willard, George Jacobs, and Marthla Carrier were all brought upon trial and condemned, and all executed upon the 19thl of August, except Elizabeth Procter, who escaped by pleading pregnancy. Burroughs had been a preacher, several years before this, at Salem village, where there had been some misunderstanding between him and the people. Aft(!rwards hlie became a preacher at Wells, in the province of Maine. We will be a little more particular in our account of his trial. The indictment was as follows: “Anno Regis et Reginae, etc., quarto. “Essex..s. The Jurors for our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, present, that George Burroughs, late of Falmouth, in the province of Massachusetts bay, clerk, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year of the reign of our sovereign Lord and Lady William and Mary, by the grace of God of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, King and Queen, defenders of the faith, etc., and divers other days and times, as well before as after, certain detestable arts called witclhcrafts and sorceries; wickedly and feloniously liath used, practised, and exercised, at and within the town of Salem, in the county of Essex abforesaid, in, ul)on, and against one Mary Walcot of Salem village, in the county of Essex, single woman; by which said wicked arts, the said Mary Walcot, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year above said, and divers other days and times, as well before as after, was and is tortured, afflicted, pined, consumed, wasted, and tormented(, against the peace of our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, and against the form of the statute in that case made and provided. Endorsed Billa vera.”

Three other bills were found against him for witcllherats upon other persons, to all which he pleaded not guilty, and put himself upon trial, etc. September the 9th, Martha Cory, M~ary Psty, Alice Parker, Ann Ptdeater, I)orcas Hloar,’-and( Mary Bradbury were triedl, aoid September 17thl, MIargaret Scott, IVilmot Read. Samnuel Wardwell, Mary Parker, Abigail Falkner, Rebekah 298

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MASSACHUSETTS. Eames, Mary Lacey, Ann Foster, and Abigail Hobbs, and all received sentence of death. Those in italics were executed the 22d following. Mary Esty, who was sister to Nurse, gave in to the court a petition; in which she says she does not ask her owlI life, although she is conscious of her innocence; but prays them, before they condemn any more, to examine the confessing witches more strictly; for she is sure they have belied themselves and others, which will appear in the world to which she is going, if it should not in this world. Those who were condemned and not executed, I suppose, all confessed their guilt. I have seen the confessions of several of them. Wardwell also confessed, but he recanted and suffered. His own wife, as well as his daughter,* accused him and saved themselves. There are many instances, among the examinations, of children accusing their parents, and some of parents accusing their children. This is the only instance of a wife or husband accusing one the othlier, and surely this instance ought not to have been suffered. I shudder while I am relating it. Besides this irregularity, there were others in the course of these trials. The facts laid in the indictments were, witchcrafts upon particular persons, there was no evidence of these facts, but what was called spectral evidence, which, in the opinion of the ministers, was insuffieient; some of the other evidence was of facts ten or twenty years before, which had no relation to those with which they were charged; and some of them no relation to the crime of witchcraft.

Evidence is not admitted, even against the general character of persons upon trial, unless to encounter other evidence brought in favor of it; much less ought their whole lives to be arraigned, without giving time sufficient for defence. Giles Cory was the only person, besides those already named, who suffered. He, seeing the fate of all who had put themselves upon trial, refused to plead; but the judges, who had not been careful enough in observing the law in favor of the prisoners, determined to do it against this unhappy man, and hlie had judgment of peine fort et dure for standing mute, and was pressed to death; the only instance which ever was, either before this time or since, in New England. In all ages of the world superstitious credulity has produced greater cruelty than is practised among the Hottentots, or other nations, whose belief of a deity is called in question. This court of oyer and terminer, happy for the country, sat no more. Nineteen persons had been executed, all asserting their innocence; but this was not enough to open the eyes of the people in general. The jail at Salem was filled with prisoners, and many had been removed to other jails: some were admitted to bail, all reserved for trial, a law having passed constituting a supreme standing court, with jurisdiction in capital, as well as all other criminal cases. The general court also showed their zeal against witchcraft, by a law passed in the words of the statute of James I., but this law was disallowed by the king.

The time, by law, for holding the court at Salcm, was not until JTnulary.

Tllii gave opportunity for consideration; an(] this alone mi,ght have been sufficient olr;t change of opinions and measures, but another reason has been given for it. O()iiinarily, persons of the lowest rank in lite have had the misfortune to be charged with witchcrafts; and although many such had suffered, yet there remained in prison a number of women, of as reputable families as any in the towns where they lived, * The daughter upon a second enquiry denied that she knew her father and mother to be witches; tile wife was not asked a second time 299

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and several persons, of still superior rank, were hinted at by the pretended bewitched, or by the confessing witches. Some had been publicly named. Dudley Bradstreet, a justice of the peace, who had been appointed one of president Dudley’s council, and who was son to the worthy old Governor, then living, found it necessary to abscond. Having been remiss in prosecuting, he had been charged by some of the afflicted as a confederate. His brother, John Bradstreet, was forced to fly also. Calef says it was intimated that Sir William Plips’s lady was among the accused. It is certain, that one who pretended to be bewitched at Boston, where the infection was beginning to spread, charged the secretary of the colony of Connecticut. At the court in January, the grand jury found bills against about 50 for witchcraft, one or two men, the rest women; but upon trial, they were all acquitted, except three of the worst characters, and those the Governor reprieved for the king’s mercy. All that were not brought upon trial he ordered to be discharged. Such a jail delivery was made in this court as has never been known at any other time in New England. PRIMITIVE EXTRAVAGANCE. Mr. Dudley was in favor of making Newtown, now Cambridge, the metropolis of the colony; and after consultation, Governor Winthrop, and the assistants, agreed to settle there, and streets and squares, and market places, were duily surveyed and laid out. In the spring of 1631, Mr. Dudley and others commenced building.

Governor Winthrop had set up the frame of a house, but soon after changed his mind, and removed it to Boston. Mr. Dudley finished his house, and moved into it with his family. The first houses were rude structures, the roofs covered with thatch, the fireplaces generally made of rough stones, and the chimneys of boards, plastered with clay. The settlers were publicly enjoined to avoid all superfluous expense, in order that their money might be reserved for any unforeseen necessities. Mr. Dudley having finished his house with a little more regard to domestic comfort, exposed himself to public censure. At a meeting of the Governor and assistants, he was told, that “he did not well to bestow such cost about wainscoting and adorning his house, in the beginning of a plantation, both in regard to the expense, and the example.” Dudley’s answer was, that it was for the warmth of his house, and the charge was little, “being but clapboards nailed to the wall in the form of wainscot.” THE MEN OF “SEVENTY-SIX.” In Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Mass., Deacon Cleveland and another leading member of the church had been selected, for their positions in the centre of the valley and of the village, to spread the note of alarm. The son of the deacon, a young man only 17 years of age at the time, gave to a friend of the writer a description of the reception of the news in that little village. One quiet Sabbath morning, when all was still, as it ever was in that peaceful valley on that holy day, he was suddenly startled by the report of a musket. On going out to ascertain what it meant, he saw his father in the back yard with the discharged piece in his hand. Before he bad time to express his wonder, another report broke the stillness of the Sabbath morning, and as the smoke curled up in the (lamp atmosphere, he saw in the neighboring yard one of the chief pillars of the cliurchl, standing with his musket in his hand. He paused astounded, not know 300 k

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MASSACHUSETTS. ing what awful phenomenon this strange event portended. He said that he thloughit that the judgment day had come. But in a few moments lie noticed men hurrying along the hitherto deserted street, with weapons in their hands. One by one they entered his father’s gate, and gathered on the low stoop. The flashling eye and flushed cheek told that something eventful had transpired-and thelre had. When the report of those two muskets echoed along the sweet valley of the Ilousatonic and up the adjacent slopes, the sturdy farmers knew what it meant. ‘I’lie father, just preparing for the duties of the sanctuary, heard it, and, flinging atside his Sabbath garments, hastily resumed his work-day dress, and taking down his musket, strained his wife and children in one long farewell embrace to his bosom, then turned from the home hlie might never see again. The young man buckled on his knapsack, and amid sobs and tears shut the little farm gate behind him, the fire in his eye drying up the tears as fast as they welled to the surface. Altiough the heart heaved with emotion, the step was firm and the brow knit and resolute. In a short time the little porch was crowded with men. A moment after, Dr. West, the pastor, was seen slowly descending the hill towards the same place of rendezvous. It was a cold, drizzly morning,, and as, with his umbrella over his head, and the Bible under his arm, he entered the dooryard, his benevolent face revealed the emotion that was struggling within. He, too, knew the meaning of those shots; they were the signals agreed upon to inform the minute-men of Stockbridge that their brethren in the East had closed with the foe in battle. He ascended the steps, and, opening the Bible, read a few appropriate passages, and then sent up a fervent prayer to heaven. When he ceased, the rattling of arms was heard. A short and solemn blessing closed the impressive scene, and before 12 o’clock twenty men, with knapsacks on their backs and( muskets on their shoulders, had started on foot for Boston, nearly 200 miles distant. Oh, how deep down in the consciences of men had the principles of that struggle sunk, when they made those Puritans forget the solemn duties of the sanetoary for the higher duties of the battlefield. They had been taught from the pI)ulpit that it was the cause of God, and they took it up in the full belief they had his blessing and his promise. Such scenes as these were enacted every where, and from the consecrating hand of the man of God went forth the thousand separtte bands that soon after met and stood shoulder to shoulder on the smoky heights of Bunker Hill. GREAT FIRE OF‘71. On the 9th and 10th of November, 1871, Boston experienced the greatest calamity that ever befell it. On the 9thll a fire broke out, and raged for two days. It resisted for a while every effort to stay its progress, and swept through the richest business quarter of the city. It began at about 7 o’clock in the evening of the 9th of November, at the corner of Summer and Kingston streets, and owing to the delay of the engines, consequent upon the prevalence of disease among the horses of the Fire Department, gained considerable headway before anything could be done to check it. Its course was steadily to the northward. It passed through, and laid in ruins, most of the district bounded by Summer, Washington, and State streets and the water line. This district embraced the heavy wholesale portion of the business quarter, and was built in the most solid and substantial manner, the buildings being chiefly of stone and iron. 301 I I k f

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RHODE ISLAND. Area,………………. 1,306 Square Miles Population in 1860………174,620 Population in 1870,…….. 217,356 THE State of Rhode Island is the smallest in the Union. It is situated between 41 18’

and 42~ N. latitude, and 71~ 8’ and 71~ 52’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Connecticut. Its greatest length, from north to south, is 47 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 37 miles.

TOPOGRAPHY. Narraganset Bay divides the State into two unequal portions.

It enters the extreme eastern part, and extends inland for 30 miles in a northerly direction. It is a beautiful sheet of water, and has a depth sufficient to accommodate the largest vessels. It abounds in good harbors, of which the harbor of Newport is the finest, and is unsurpassed by any in the world. The bay is about 12 miles wide, is thickly studded with the most picturesque islands. Different names are given its various parts. The upper part is called Providence Bay; the northeastern part, Bristol Bay; just east of whifch is Mount Hope Bay, separated from Providence and Bristol bays by a long, narrow peninsula which comprises Bristol county.

Providence, at the extreme northern end, and Newport at the southern end of Narraganset Bay, are the capitals of the State. Block Island, lying in the Atlantic Ocean, 10 miles south of the mainland, belongs to this State.

zhocde Isailad, lying near about the centre of Narraganset Bay, is the principal island belonging to the State, and has given its name 302 l

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RHODE ISLAND. to the whole Commonwealth. It is exceedingly beautiful in formnation; is delightfully situated, and covers an area of 37 square miles, being 15 miles long, and about 321 miles wide. It contains the city of Newport, and is one of the most fashionable summer resorts in the Union. Canonicut, Prudence, and several other small islands lie in the bay. The Rivers of Rhode Island are small. The principal are the Pawtucket and the Pawtuxet. The former flows into Narraganset Bay to the east of Providence, while the latter and its tributaries drain the southern and western parts of the State. The Pawtucket has a fall of 50 feet at the town of Pawtucket. Above this fall, it is called the Blackstone; and below it, the Seekonk. The Taun)ton River enters the southeastern part of the State, from Massachusetts. The.se streams all possess admirable waterpower. AloIng the Atlantic coast and the shores of Narraganset Bay, the surface of the State is level; but as it recedes westward and northwvard it becomes rolling, although there are no elevations in any part meriting the name of mountains. Mount Hope, in the eastern part, the Woonsocket Hills, in the northern part, and Hopkins’ Hill, about the centre of the State, are the principal elevations. MINERALS. Rhode Island possesses very few minerals. Anthracite coal has been found, but scarcely any attention has been paid to it. Iron), limestone, marble, and serpentine also exist to a limited extent. CLIMATE. The climate resembles that of Massachusetts, except that the immediate proximity of the sea does much to mitigate the extremes of col(l in the winter and of heat in the summer, with which the Bay State is afflicted; so that Rhode Island is, perhaps, in this respect, the most pleasant of all the New England States.

I SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In some places the soil is passably fertile, but in others it requires the most careful and laborious cultivation. On the islands it is richer than cn the mafinland. Dairy farming and grazing occupy the attention of the principal portion of the agricultural class.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1869, there were in the State 335,128
acres of improved land, and 186,096 acres of unimproved. The agricultural wealth of the State at the present time is as follows: Cash value of farms (estimated),…… $25,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated),………. Number of horses,…… asses and mules,.. mileli cows,….. other cattle,……. sheep,…….43 swine,……. Value of domestic animals,…. Bushels of wheat,…….60 rye,…….. ” Indian corn,…… oats……… ” Irish potatoes,…. ” barley……. Pounds of wool,……. ” butter,……. ” cheese,……. Tons of hay,……… Value of orchard products,…. ” market garden products, homemade manufactures, ” slaughtered animals,.. COMMERCE. Rhode Island is actively engaged in commerce, both foreign and ,lonestic. During the year 1861, the total value of its exports was $255,297, and of the imports $543,652. In 1862, the tonnage owned iii the State was 41,671, of which 11.,440 was registered tonnage, 30,231 enrolled licensed, of which 5064 was steam tonnage. MANUFACTURES. The State is extensively engaged in manufactures, its streams fur. nishing waterpower unsurpassed by any in New England.

The first cotton-mill ever erected in this country was built in Rhode Island. By the census of 1870, there were 1850 establishments in the State dlevoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They eml)oyed 49,417 hands, and a capital of $66,557,322, consumed raw material worth $73,154,109, and yielded an annual product of $111,418,354. There were 142
cotton factories, employing 5697 male and 8060 female hands, and a capital of $18,885,300, consuming raw 304 $850,000 9,120 20 23,180 . 21,420 34,320

21,960 $2,942,144 8,600 31,000 440,000 250,000 770,000 55,000 90,699

1,021,767 181,511 71,000 $83,691 $146,661 $7,824 $713,725

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RHODE ISLAND. material worth $13,325,938, and returning an annual product of $22,139,203. There were 65 woollen factories, employing 3354 male and 2198 female hands, and a capital of $8,167,500, consuming raw material worth $8,089,948, and yielding an annual product of $12,558,117. The other manufactures were as follows: Valuo of steam engines and machinery,.. “
agricultural implements,…. cc sawed and planed lumber,….. ” L
flour…………. sewing machines…….. “4 boots and shoes…….. “c furniture,………….. ” jewelry, silver ware, etc….. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENT In 1870, there were 152 miles of railroad completed in the State of Rhode Island, which had been constructed and equipped at a cost of $5,011,000. Providence and Newport have railway comnmuniication with Boston and New York, and the principal cities of the Union. Railroads also connect the principal towns of the State. EDUCATION. There is a permanent schrool fund which amounts to over $420,000. The public schools are uinder the general supervision of the State Superintendents of Public Instruction, and are immediately in charge of the local school committees, who perform the duties already explained in connection with the committees ofrthe other States. There was a Normal School in operation until 1865, but it was abolished in that year. Efforts are now being made to revive it, and in the meantime the State provides for the education of’teachers in certain Academies. There are about 487 public schools in the State. The atten’(lance is as follows: in the summer, 24,953 pupils; in the winter, 30,780; average summer attendance, 19,972; average winter atten(lance, 23,720. The only college in the State is Brown University, founded in 1764. It has schools of agriculture and science connected with it, and is in a flourishing condition. There are, also, a few academies in prosperous condition. In 1870, there were in Rhode Island 759 libraries, containing 693,387 volumes-over 300 being public libraries. 305 . $5,125,650 92,464

298,638 . 1,728,704 200,000 570,854 311,620 . 3,043,846 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. There were, in the same year, 5 daily, 1
semiweekly, 19 weel ly newspapers, and 1 monthly periodical, published in this State. Their aggregate annual circulation was 5,289,280 copies.

PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Providence. It is provided with a library, and religious services are held regularly in the chapel. The number of convicts in prison, in 1868, was 59. The Reform School at Providence, is not a State institutiol, though the Legislature makes a liberal donation to it for board of inmates sent there from localities outside of Providence. It receives both sexes; and after educating them, provides for their establishment in some useful trade.

Rhode Island has no public asylum for the insane. Patients are maintained at the expense of the State in the Butler Asylum, at Providence, and in the State Lunatic Asylums of Massachusetts and Vermont. Patients are also supported by Rhode Island in the Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Hartford, Conn., and in the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. The total. value of church property in 1870, was $4,117,200. There were 283 churches in the State, ill the same year.

FINANCES. The State debt, in 1874, amounted to $2,563,500. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1874 were $549,701, and the expenditures $282,854, leaving a balance of $266,947. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war. In 1868, there were 62 National Banks in Rhode Island, with an aggregate capital of $20,364,800. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen, who has resided in the State one year, and in the town six months, and who owns real estate worth $134, or rents $7 per annunl, and every native male citizen, twentyone years old, who has resided in the State two years, and six months in the town, who is duly registered, and has paid a tax of $1, or done militia duty within the year, is entitled to vote. 306 i t

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RHODE ISLAND. The Government of the State is confided to a Governor, Lieutenant(lovernor, a Legislature, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, lwho are chosen annually by the people on the first Wednes(lay of April, and hold office for one year, commencing from the last Tuesday in May. The Senate consists of the LieutenantGovernor and one member from each of the 34 towns of the State, and is presided over by the (Governor. The House of Representatives consists of 72 members. ‘rile Legislature meets regularly at Newport on the last Tuesday in May, and holds an adjourned session at Providence, the next January. The judiciary is comnprised of a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice, and three Associate Justices. It has exclusive power to try all indictments for crimes for which the penalty is imprisonnient for life. A Court of Common Pleas is held in each county, by one of the Justices of the Supreme Court, at stated times. The capitals of the State are Providence and Newport. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 5 counties. HISTORY.

Rhode Island was first settled in 1636, by Roger Williams and five associates, who had been driven out of Massachusetts for expressing opinions, upon political and religious matters, adverse to those entertailled by the magistrates of the Bay Colony. They fixed their abode at the head of Narraganset Bay, and called the name of their settlement Providence, “in grateful acknowledgment of God’s merciftil pro)vlelice to him (Williams) in his distress.” This colony was I)lanted upon the basis of entire freedom in religious opinions and utterances. In 1637, William Coddington and 18 others, having been banished fromnt Massachusetts, for their religious opinions, joined Williamns, and, by his advice, purchased the island of Aquetneck (Rhode Island) from the Indians, and settled upon it, founding Newport and Portsmouth. A third settlement was made at Warwick, in 1642, and all three settlements began and continued to receive fresh accessions from the Bay Colony. In 1642, Williams went to England, and the next year secured a patent for the United Government of Providence, Newvport, and Portsmouth, but the patent was not accepted until 1647. It continued in force until 1663, when the province was reorganized under a new charter, granted by Charles II., which formally established the colony of “Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.’ / 307

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. __ ~ __

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COAST FISHING. This charter continued to be the sole Constitution of Rhode Island until the year 1842, when the present Constitutionr was adopted.

The colony continued to grow and prosper, but suffered severely iat the hands of the savages during King Philip’s war, in which struggle Providence was burned, as were many houses in other parts of the province.

Philip’s principal stronghold was in this State, in the swamp near Mount Hope. He was killed there in August, 1676. The great battle which destroyed the Narragansets as a nation, took place in a swamp in the southern part of this State. Rhode Islan(d was opposed to the policy of exterminating the Indians, upon which Connecticut and Massachusetts had decided, and was not even coInsulted in regard to the war by those colonies. In 1686, Sir Edmund Andros was appointed Governor-General of New England. One of his first acts was to abrogate the charter of Rhode Island, and reduce the province to a mere county, which fie governed by his own creatures. Upon his downfall, the magistrates reorganized the colonial government under the charter. Rhode Island bore a prominent part in the various wars with the French in America. Her troops distinguished themselves in the attacks upon Iouisburg, Cape Breton, Crown Point, and Oswego, and 308 i i I t iI

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RHODE ISLAND. in the various expeditions against Canada. In 1756, there were 50 privateers, manned by over 1500 men, belonging to this colony, and at sea. They were employed along the coast and in the MTest Indies, where they inflicted considerable damage upon the commerce of The colony was warm in its resistance of the injustice of Great Britain, and gave a liberal support to the Revolution. Privateers were sent out from, and government cruisers equipped in the ports of this State, and a full complement of men was furnished to the cntinental army. General Greene, of the army, and Captains \VIiipplQ and Talbot, of the navy, were natives of Rhode Island. The harbors along the Narraganset Bay were of the greatest importance to the colonial cause at the outset of the struggle. In December, 1776, Sir Henry Cliuton, the British commander, occupied the island of Rhode Island, aI)d held Newport for several years, during which time he kept the greater part of the State in a continual terror. In the fall of 1778, an unsnccessfiil effort was made by an American army, aided by the French fleet under Count de Grasse, to drive the enemy away. Late in 1779, Clinton evacuated Newport, an(l concentrated his forces at New York, and the next year the fleet and army of Count de Roehambean reached Newport from France. Rho&le Island was the last of the 13 original States to ratify the Federal Constitution, and was not admitted into the Union until the 29th of May, 1790. The victory on Lake Erie in 1812, was won by a Rhode Island Commander (Oliver H. Perry), whose force was principally made up In 1842, a change in the Constitution of the State having become desirable, a I)ovtion of the people, kuown as the “suffrage party, illegally framed a new constitution, and proceeded to elect a legisla ture and Governor, and to make laws for the State. They were le(T by T1)omas W.

Dorr, their pretended governor, and endeavored t{ establish their authority by force of arms. They were dispersed by the State troops. The proper authorities then summoned a convention. It met in September, 1842, and adopted the present Colistitution of the State, which was ratified by the almost unanimous vote ofRoeIslnemn I During the late war, Rhode Island contributed 25,355 men to the military service of the Union. 309 f.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NARRAGANSET BAY. CITIES AND TOVNS. The cities and towns of importance, besides the capitals,. are, Smith. field, North Providence, Warwick, Bristol, South Kingston, Coventry, East Greenwich, arnd Pawtucket. PROVIDENCE, In Provilence county, is the largest city, and one of the capitals of the State. It is situated at the head of navigation on Narraganset Bay, 43 miles south-southwest of Boston.

“It is one of the most beautifuil cities in New England, and is surpassed only l)y Boston in wealth and population. It is pleasantly situated on the northern arm of the Narraganset Bay, called Providence River. It is an ancient town, dating as far back as 1636when its founder Roger Williams, driven from the domain of Massacliusetts, sought here that religious liberty which was denied him elsewhere. “This city’fnakes a charming picture seen from the approach by 310 i

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RHODE ISLAND. the beautiful waters of the Narraganset, which it encircles on the north by its business quarter, rising beyond and rather abruptly to a lofty terrace, where the quiet and gratefully shaded streets are filled with dainty cottages and handsome mansions. Providence was once a very important commercial depot, its rich ships crossing all seas, and at the present day the city is equally distinguished for its manufac turing and commercial enterprise. In the former department of hu man achievement it early took the lead, which it still keelps, the first cotton-mill which was built in America being still in use, in its sub urban village of Pawtucket, and some of the heaviest mills and print works of the Union being now in operation within its limits. It has also extensive manufactories of machinery and jewelry. The workshops of the American Screw Company are the best appointed of their kind in the country. The total capital invested here in manufactures is upwards of $16,000,000.

“Providence is the seat of Brown University, one of the best educational establishments in America. It was founded in Warren, Rhode Island, in 1764, and removed to Providence in 1770. Its library is very large and valuable, and is remarkably rich in rare and costly works. “Rhode Island Hospital, now progressing towards completion in the southwestern suburb, will be one of the finest structures in the State. The entire cost, including grounds, will exceed a quarter million of dollars. “4The Athenaeum has a fine reading-room, and a collection of 29,000 books. The Providence Historical Society, incorporated 1822, has a library of 4000
volumes. The Butler Hospital for the Insane, upon the banks of Seekonk River, is an admirable institution, occupying large and imposing edifices.

In the same part of the city, and lying also upon the Seekonk River, is the Swan Point Cemetery, a spot of great rural beauty. There are upwards of 60 public schools in Providence, in which instruction is given to between eight and nine thousand pupils. The Dexter Asylum for the Poor stands upon an elevated range of land east of the river. In the same vicinage is the yearly meeting boarding-school, belonging to the Society of Friends. The Reform School occupies the large mansion, in the southeast part of the city, formerly known as the Tockwotton House. The Home for Aged Women and the Children’s Friend Society are worthy a visit. The Custom-House (Post-Office, and United States Courts) is a handsome granite structure; and one of the principal architectural ornaments of 20 311

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the city. The railroad depot, some of the banks, and many of tlhe churches of Providence, are imposing structures.

The railways di verging from Providence, are the Providence and Worcester, 43 miles, to Worcester, Mass.; Hartford, Providence and Fishkill, 123
miles, to Waterbury, Conn.; Boston and Providence, and Stonington and Providence, 62 miles, to New London; and the Providence, Warren and Bristol. Upon the irnmmediate edge of the city, onl the shore of a charming bay in the Seekonk River, stands the famous What Cheer Rock, where the founder of the city, Roger Williams, landed from the Massachiusetts side, to make the first settlement here. “At Hunt’s Mill, 3
or 4 miles distant, is a beautiful brook with a picturesque little cascade, a drive to which is among the morning or evening pleasures of the Providence people and their guests. Vue de l’Eau is the namne of a picturesque and spacious summer hotel, perched upon a high terrace 4 miles below the city, overlooking the bay and its beauties for many miles around. “Gaspee Point, below, upon the opposite shore of the Narraganset, was the scene of an exploit during the Revolution. Some citizens of Providence, after adroitly beguiling an obnoxious British revenue (raft upon the treacherous bar, stole down by boats in the night andl settled her business by burning her to the water’s edge.” * Providence contains many handsome buildings, both public and private. There are 54 churches, 35 banks, 27 public schools, and 7 or 8 newspaper establishments in the city. It is supplied with water, and lighted with gas. Street railways connect the prominent points. Providence is the centre of an important commerce with the Atlantic coast of the Union, and with foreign countries.

Manufactures are also extensively carried on here. Jewelry is made in great quantities, sometimes amounting to $3,000,000 per annum. Cotton and woollen goods, furniture and wooden ware, iron goods, machinery of various kinds, paper, boots and shoes, carriages, and locomotives, are the principal articles. In 1864, the value of the manufactures of Providence was $30,638,177. The population of the city is 68,906, which makes it the second city in New England. NEWPORT, In Newport county, 28 miles southeast of Providence, is one of the capitals of the State. It is situated on the west shore of the islan(l * Hand-Book of American Travel. k\ 812 i

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RIHODE ISLAND. NEWPORT.. of Rhode Island, about 5 miles from the sea. The town is locate(] on the slope of a slight hill facing the harbor, and is, in the main, handsomely built, containing a number of fine public buildings and private residences. The principal buildings are the State House, the Custom House, Market House, and the Redwood Library, a fine Doric building containing about 1500 volumes, and a number of valuable busts and paintings. There are about 16 churches, 7 banks, 2 newspaper offices, and a nutmber of manufacturing establishments in Newport. The city is well laid off, and is lighted with gas. It has a population of 12,521. The hotels are its principal attraction. There are several firstclass establishments, capable of accommodating several thousand visitors. Its admirable climate and situation have made Newport one of the most popular seaside resorts in the UTnion. The whole southern part of the island is now dotted with cottages and villas, many of them very handsome, belonging to wealthy citizens of various parts of the country, who pass the summer mnonths hlere. “The facilities for surf-bathling at Newport are not excelled by any place in this country There are three fine beaches, called Easton’s, Sachuest’s, and Smith’s. Easton’s is the one generally used by the majority; and it is so situated that there is no danger to the bathers 313 I I I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. from under-currents, while the breakers follow each other in majestic succession. This beach is about half a mile from the principal hotels, and public conveyances ply regularly to and flo. “The drives about Newport are excellent. In 1867, a new one was made by the city authorities, commencing at Bellevue avenue, near the Ocean House, and continuing south 2 miles; thence west 3 miles, along the shore; thence north 1 mile; and thence northeast to Bellevue avenue, 3 miles. The entire drive is 10 miles long, 80 feet wide, and is macadamized. It is pronounced the best one in the country, and some of the finest residences in the city are located on it. An unobstructed view of the Atlantic Ocean is afforded for nearly the entire length of this road. “Near Sachuest Beach, at the northern extremity of the Bluff, is a (lark chasm called Purgatory. By actual measurement, the chasm is 160 feet in length; fro:n 8
to 14 feet wide at the top; from 2 to 24 feet wide at the bottom; 50 feet deep at the outer edge; and 10 feet of water at low tide. Near by are the Hanging Rocks, within whose shadow it is said that Bishop Berkeley wrote his “Minute Philosopher.” ‘lThe Glen and the Spouting Cave are charming places to ride to, when the weather invites. Lily Pond, the largest sheet of spring water on the island, is easily reached from Spouting Cave. The waters of the pond swarm with perch. ” The city of Newport is so ancient, and once so prominent a town, that it would be of interest to the visitor, wholly apart from its present fashionable relations. Indeed, Newport may be said properly to be two places-an old metropolis, and a wateringplace; and, like QueI)ec reversed, it has its upper, or new town, and its lower, or old town. The harbor is one of the best and deepest in the world. The entrance to it is 2 miles in width, 29 fathoms in depth, and in only one instance has it been closed by ice since the first settlement. As late as 1769, the city exceeded New York in the extent of her foreign and domestic commerce. In the Revolution, the British long held possession of the place, during which time (till 1797) the population decreased from 12,000
to 4000. Among the interesting relics to be found in the town, are: Franklin’s printing-press, imported by James Franklin in 1720. It is in the office of the Newport Mercury, established in 1758. Upon this press the first newspaper issued (1732) was printed. The Chair of State, in which Benedict Arnold sat at the reception of the charter in 1~63, is in the possession of the Gould family. The first Baptist Church, founded in 1638, and claimed as the oldest church in Rhode Island, is worthy a visit.

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RHODE ISLAND. “‘Newport was the birthplace of the gifted miniature painter Malbone, and Gilbert Stuart’s place of nativity may be seen in Narraganset, across the bay. Stuart made two copies of his great Washington picture for Rhode Island, one of which may be seen in the State House at Newport, and the other in that at Providence. “The old Stone Mill, in Touro Park, opposite the Atlantic House, is a curiosity, and is tenderly cared for by the city authorities. It is sometimnes called the Round Tower. The origin and early history of this’old mill’ is a mystery, and has led to many fruitless conjectures. Some antiquarians claim for it the honor of having afforded a secure shelter to the Norsemen, who, they say, built it as a lookout and a tower of defence; but the modern observers deny it this enlviable renown, and maintain that it was built by Governor Benedict Arnold, the first charter governor of the colony, who owned the property at the time of his death, and calls it in his will’my stone-built windmill.’ Redwood Library, near the opera-house, established by Abraham Redwood in 1750, contains one of the very best collections of paintings, choice books, and statuary in the country. The Jewish Synagogue, on Touro street, was built in 1672, and up to the Revolutionary war was regularly opened for worship, and was the only place in New England where Hebrew was chanted and read weekly. There were many families of wealthy and influential Jews in Newport at that time; now there are none. Abraham Touro left $20,000 ill charge of the town authorities, the interest to be expended in keeping the synagogue and grounds, and street leading to it, in repair; and the wishes of the donor have been carefully complied with. Besides these places, the visitor should see the Perry Monument, Commodore Perry’s house, built in 1763, and long known as the’Granary;’ the fortifications in the harbor, Fort Adams, Fort Wolcott, Fort Brown, and the Dumplings. Fort Adams, on Brenton Point, is one of the largest works in the United States, mounting 460 guns.” * Newport was occupied by the British during several years of the Revolution. They quartered 8000 troops uponl the town, destroyed 480 houses, robbed the library, which was then the finest in America, and carried off the town records. In the spring of 1776, Admiral Wallace was driven out of the harbor of Newport, by a vigorous attack, assisted by the Providence troops. But in December of the same year arrived the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. It sailed up the West Passage, crossed from the north point of Conanicut, and landed an army of 8000 or 10,000O English and Hessians, commanded by General Clintoi and Lord Percy, in Middletown, about five miles from Newport. The army immediately began to plunder, and was quartered upon the inhabitants until May, 315 I I I f

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 1777, when Clinton and Percy, with a large party left for New York,. and General Prescott succeeded to the command.

-lie made himself obnoxious by petty tyranny, but Major Barton revenged the injuries of the island by a feat of memorable ingenuity and valor.

Barton was on duty with the Rhode Islandti line, and after the capture of General Lee, in November, 1776, hlie considered how he might retort upon the enemy, and resolved to capture Prescott. When the English landed, Major Barton was stationed at Tiverton, upon the mainland, not far from the shore of Rhode Island. He waited for several months, but f(iund no fit opportunity, until a British deserter was brought into his quarters.

Barton ascertained from him the situation of Prescott’s headquarters, and all the necessary details, and prepared to put his plan immediately into execution. He and his men were new to the service, and failure was permanent disgrace, as he well knew; but without a moment’s hesitation he selected his companions from the officers, told them the scope of the und(lertaking, and en,aged their confidence and sympathy. Five whale-boats were procured and fitted. At the last moment Barton addressed his soldiers, and said that he wished the voluntary assistance of about 40
meni. The whole regiment advanced, and declared itself ready to accompany him. On the 4th of July, 1777, the party left Tiverton, and crossed to the western shore of the bay. At 9 o’clock on the evening of the 9thl of July, they left Warwick Neck in the whlale-boats. That of Major Barton went in fiont, and was distinguished from the others by a handkerchief tied to a pole in the stern. The little fleet dropped silently downi the bay, between the islands of Patience and Prudence. In the stillness of tlhe night they heard the drowsy call of “All’s well,” from the sentinels on the English ships, and as they touched the shore of Rhode Island a sound as of running horses was heard. It was too late to be alarmed, and the party landed iii silence, Major Barton detailing one man to remain in each boat. They land(ed( about a mile from the headquarters of General Prescott, and crept toward it in five divisions. There were three doors to the house-on the south, the east, and the west. One division was to advance upon each door, the fourth was to guard the road, and the fifth to act as a reserve. As they reached the house they were challenged by the sentinel. “Friends,” said Barton. “Advance and give the countersign,” was the reply. “D-n you, we have no countersign. Have you seen any deserters to-night?” said Barton, advancing upon the sentry, seizing his musket, telling him he was a prisoner, and threatening him with instant death if he betrayed them by making a noise. The sentry said that the general was in the house. Each division liadl now reached its station the doors were forced, and the soldiers rushed up stairs to the chamber of the host. He was speechless with fright, and pointed to the room below as that of the general. Making sure of the host, they returned into the entry, where Barton ordered them to fire the house at the four corners, as he meant to have the general, alive or dead. But at this moment, aroused by tlhe noise, Prescott called to know what was the matter. The soldiers ran dowii stairs and entered his room, where Barton saw a man sitting on the side of the bed. ” Are you General Prescott?” demanded Barton. “I am, sir,”

replied the officer. “You are my prisoner,” returned Barton. “I acknowledge it, sir,” said the general. 316 i i 4 t I

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RHODE ISLAND. “‘Newport was the birthplace of the gifted miniature painter Malbone, and Gilbert Stuart’s place of nativity may be seen in Narraganset, across the bay. Stuart made two copies of his great Washington picture for Rhode Island, one of which may be seen in the State House at Newport, and the other in that at Providence. “The old Stone Mill, in Touro Park, opposite the Atlantic House, is a curiosity, and is tenderly cared for by the city authorities. It is sometimes called the Round Tower. The origin and early history of this’old mill’ is a mystery, and has led to many fruitless conijectures. Some antiquarians claim for it the honor of having afforded a secure shelter to the Norsemen, who, they say, built it as a lookout and a tower of defence; but the modern observers deny it this enlviable renown, and maintain that it was built by Governor Benedict Arnold, the first charter governor of the colony, who owned the property at the time of his death, and calls it in his will’my stone-built windmill.’ Redwood Library, near the opera-house, established by Abraham Redwood in 1750, contains one of the very best collections of paintings, choice books, and statuary in the country. The Jewish Synagogue, on Touro street, was built in 1672, and up to the Revolutionary war was regularly opened for worship, and was the only place in New England where Hebrew was chanted and read weekly. There were many families of wealthy and influential Jews in Newport at that time; now there are none. Abraham Touro left $20,000 ill charge of the town authorities, the interest to be expended in keeping the synagogue and grounds, and street leading to it, in repair; and the wishes of the donor have been carefully complied with. Besides these places, the visitor should see the Perry Monument, Commodore Perry’s house, built in 1763, and long known as the’Granary;’ the fortifications in the harbor, Fort Adams, Fort Wolcott, Fort Brown, and the Dumplings. Fort Adams, on Brenton Point, is one of the largest works in the United States, mounting 460 guns.” * Newport was occupied by the British during several years of the Revolution. They quartered 8000 troops uponl the town, destroyed 480 houses, robbed the library, which was then the finest in America, and carried off the town records. In the spring of 1776, Admiral Wallace was driven out of the harbor of Newport, by a vigorous attack, assisted by the Providence troops. But in December of the same year arrived the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. It sailed up the West Passage, crossed from the north point of Conanicut, and landed an army of 8000 or 10,000 English and Hessians, commanded by General Clintoi and Lord Percy, in Middletown, about five miles from Newport. The army immediately began to plunder, and was quartered upon the inhabitants until May, 315 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 1777, when Clinton and Percy, with a large party left for New York,. and General Prescott succeeded to the command.

He made himseltf obnoxious by petty tyranny, but Major Barton revenged the injuries of the island by a feat of memorable ingenuity and valor. Barton was on duty with the Rhode Island line, and after the capture of General Lee, in November, 1776, hlie considered how he might retort upon the enemy, and resolved to capture Prescott. When the Englisli landed, Major Barton was stationed at Tiverton, upon the mainland, not far from the shore of Rhode Island. He waited for several months, but f(ound no fit opportunity, until a British deserter was brought into his quarters.

Barton ascertained from him the situation of Prescott’s headquarters, and all the necessary details, and prepared to put his plan immediately into execution. He and his men were new to the service, and failure was permanent disgrace, as he well knew; but without a moment’s hesitation he selected his companions from the officers, told them the scope of tile undertaking, and engaged their confidence and sympathy. Five whale-boats were procured and fitted. At the last moment Barton addressed his soldiers, and said that he wished the voluntary assistance of about 40
nmen. The whole regiment advanced, and declared itself ready to accompany him. On the 4th of July, 1777, the party left Tiverton, and crossed to the western shore of the bay. At 9 o’clock on the evening of the 9th of July, they left Warwick Neck in the whale-boats. That of Major Barton went in fiont, and was distinguished from the others by a handkerchief tied to a pole in the stern. The little fleet dropped silently dowii the bay, between the islands of Patience and Prudence. In the stillness of the night they heard the drowsy call of “All’s well,” from the sentinels on the English ships, and( as they touched the shore of Rhode Island a sound as of running horses was heard. It was too late to be alarmed, and the party landed in silence, Major Barton detailing one man to remain in each boat. They landed( about a mile from the headquarters of General Prescott, and crept toward it in five divisions. There were three doors to the house-on the south, the east, and the west. One division was to advance upon each door, the fourth was to guard the road, and the fifth to act as a reserve. As they reached the house they were challenged by the sentinel.

“Friends,” said Barton. “Advance and give the countersign,” was the reply.

“D-n you, we have no countersign. Have you seen any deserters to-night?”

said Barton, advancing upon the sentry, seizing hIlis musket, telling him he was a prisoner, and threatening him with instant death if he betrayed them by making a noise. The sentry said that the general was in the house.

Each division liadl now reached its station the doors were forced. and the soldiers rushed up stairs to the chamber of the host. He was speechless with fright, and pointed to the room below as that of the general. Making sure of the host, they returned into the entry, where Barton ordered them to fire the house at the four corners, as he meant to have the general, alive or dead. But at this moment, aroused by the noise, Prescott called to know what was the matter. The soldiers ran down stairs and entered his room, where Barton saw a man sitting on the side of the bed. ” Are you General Prescott?” demanded Barton. “I am, sir,” replied the officer. “

You are mfny prisoner,” returned Barton. “I acknowledge it, sir,” said the general. I 316 i i i I I.

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CONNECTICUT. Area,………….. 4,674 Square Miles. Population in 1860………460,147 Population in 1870………537,454 THE State of Connecticut lies between latitude 41~ and 42~ 3’ N., and l]()i,itude 71~

55’ and 73~ 50’ W.; and is bounded on the north by Massacliusetts, on the east by Rhode Island, on the south by Long Island Sound, and on the west by New York. Its extreme length from east to west is about 93 miles, and its greatest width from north to south 68 mniles. It is, next to Rhode Island and Delaware, the smallest State in the Union. TOPOGRAPHY. The country bordering Long Island Sound is level, but a great part of the State is rugged and mountainous, though the mountains, as they are called, are little more than high hills. In the eastern part, between the Connecticut River and the Rhode Island line, is a ridge, supposed to be the extreme prolongation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The western part is crossed by an extension of the Green Mountains of Vermront, which reach almost to the shore of the Sound. This range consists of a series of detached peaks. The Talcet or Greenwood Range passes across the State from the Massachusetts line to the immediate vicinity of New Haven. East of this range are thie Middletown Mountains, which extend southward from Hartford to North Branford, east of New Haven, running parallel with the Greenwood Range. In the northern part of the State there is a small range between the Green and the Greenwood Mountains. Though of a moderate elevation, these ranges are exceedingly picturesque, and give a peculiar charm to the scenery of the State. “Most of the ridges are 320 I It k.I

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CONNECTICUT. ~~~~~~~~~~~____ I Th VIEW FROM MOUNT HOLYOKE. parallel, and their western parts generally precipitous, so that in many places the country seems divided by stupendous walls. Immense masses of ruins are collected at their feet. These consist sometimes of entire cliffs and pillars of many tons weight, which are thrown off by the freezing of water in the gullies, and often fall with a mighty conetission into the valleys.

On the opposite side there is generally a slope covered with trees……

In Meriden is a natural icehouse, in a narrow defile, between ridges of greenstone. The defile is choked ui with the ruins of the rocks which have fallen from the N 321 I I I I i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ridges, and form a series of cavities overgrown with trees, and strewn with thick beds of leaves. The ice is formed in the cavities of these rocks, and remains the whole year. A portion of it melts during summer, causing a stream of cold water perpetually to flow from the spot. The space between the mountains is called Cat Hollow, and presents the most wild and picturesque scenery in the State.” The principal peaks are Mount Tom, near Litchfield, and Bald Mountain in the extrenle northern part of the State. The entire southern border is washed by Long Island Sound, into which flow the principal rivers of the State. There are several good harbors along the Sound, of which New London is the best, though New Haven Bay is the largest. The Connecticut River enters the State from Massachusetts, and flows through it into Long Island Sound, dividing it into two unequal parts. It is navigable for a distance of 50 miles for vessels drawing eight feet of water, and much higher for steamers. The scenery of the valley of this stream is very beautiful in many places; Hartford, Middletown, and Haddam are the principal places on its banks. The ]ousatonic River flows through the western part of the State into the Sound. It is navigable for 12 miles for small vessels. It rises in the northern part of Berkshire county, Mass., and in its course through Connecticut receives a number of small tributaries, which drain the little lakes or ponds, which are quite numerous in Litchfield county. The whole region through which it flows is noted for the beauty of its scenery, and the healthfulness of its climate.

It is a region of bold hills and lovely valleys, through which the merry little streams come leaping to join the main river. The falls of the HIousatonic, 67 miles from its mouth, are 60 feet in hleight, and are among the most beautiful in America. The Thames River is formed by the junction of the Quinebaug, Shetucket, and Yantic rivers, near Norwich, in New London county, and is about 14 miles long. It flows southward into the Sound. At its mouth it widens into the fine harbor of New London, whichl is the best in the State. It is navigable for its entire length. Norwich and New London are its principal towns. Nearly all the rivers of the State furnish excellent waterpower. MINERALS. Connecticut is..very rich in mineral deposits. Granite abounds, and marble of an excellent quality is found. The chrysoberyl and the 322 i I i I I t

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CONNECTICUT. precious beryl are found near Haddam, and the columbite near Middletown. Dr. Frankfort, of Middletown, thus sums up the mineral resources of the State: “The State of Connecticut may be geologically divided into two large fields, the first of which is composed of the unstratified and metamorphic rocks, and the other of those secondary strata which, under the name of’freestone,’ are so extensively quarried in different parts of the State for building purposes, and constitute the new red sa(ndstone of Lyell. The best place to study this peculiar formation is Hlear Portland, in Middlesex county. In the vicinity of the new red sandstone, are to be found in nearly every part of the State, large dykes of trap, which protrude and traverse it, as for example, at Meriden. This gives Connecticut a great analogy to the Lake Superior copper region, in which large veins of native copper, unequalled as yet in any other part of the world, are found nearly always at the junction of these trapdykes with the red sandstone. From this fact we might expect that in Connecticut, also similar deposits of copper would exist. In several instances indeed, the vestiges of the presence of such have been found; as, for example, near New Haven, where a large mass of native copper was discovered; and also near Meriden, where ancient excavations made in search of copper may be seen. The State is very rich in lnining resources, as veins of the different metals have been discovered, and more will undoubtedly be found.

In every part of the world, such veins are chiefly known to exist where the metamorphic strata are ill junction with the secondary; and the mineral veins of Connecticut are near these junctions, of which a great many may be found throughout the State. The following is a brief statement of the differeut localities in wlhich valuable minerals are known to exist in veins or deposits. Gold( las been found in small quantities in Middle Haddam, Middlesex county; silver, in the argentiferous lead ore of the Middletownl mines, now extensively worked. One of the richest copper mines in the United States has been worked in Bristol, Hartford county, for ten years. The ores found here are chiefly sulphurets. Copper deposits also exist near Litchfield, Simsbury, Plymouth, Granby, Farmington and Middletown. Lead occurs, as galena, at the mines near Middletown; also near Wilton and Brookfield, and near Monroe, Fairfield county. Iron is mined at Salisbury, where large furnaces are supplied with’brown hematite,’ the ore chiefly found at the mines. Roxbury furnishes an excellent ore, from which theivery best of steel could be manufactured, if the large deposits of pure spathio f\ 323 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. iron, known to exist there, should be worked. Bismuth is found at dlifferent places in the town of Monroe. The only vein containing these valuable metals (cobalt and nickel) in abundance in the United States is in the town of Chatham, where at present extensive mining operations for their extraction are carried on.”*

CLIMATE. The climate is severe in winter, but pleasant in summer, owing to the cool sea breeze which mitigates the heat. The spring comes earlier than in the other New England States, but is accompanied by keen northeast winds, which are neither pleasant nor healthful. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS.

Except in the valleys of the principal rivers, the soil of Connecticut is not remarkable for fertility. In the river valleys the lands are very good, especially along the Connecticut River. The northwestern part of the State is devoted to dairy farming and grazing. Agriculture receives great attention in this State, and the soil is skilfully and in(Ilistriously tilled. In 1869, there were 1,830,808 acres of improved, and 673,457 acres of unimproved land in Connecticut. The other agricultural products were stated as follows for the same year: Cash value of farms,…… -. Value of farniiiig fmplements and machine Number of horses,……… asses aud mules milch cows,. ” other cattle,. sheep,… ” swine,… Value of domestic anima..ls Bushels of wheat,.. rye,…. “Indian corn, ” oats,…

Irish potatoes, ” barley… ” buckwheat, Pounds of tobacco, ” wool,…

$125,000,000 3,500,000 40,150 110 99,350 112,680 118,300 90,450

$17,311,009 75,000 837,000 1,950,000 2,100,000 2,500,000 25,000 270,000

6,000,000 350,000 …….. …….. _ ______;~ * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 489. I 324 i I

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CUNNECTICUT. Pounds of butter,.. ” cheese,.. ” Imaple sufgar, ” beeswax and(I Gallons of wine,.. Tons of hay,….. COMMERCE. Connecticut possesses little or no foreign coiuinerce of her own, her trade with other countries, except that with the West Indies, being conducted almost entirely through the ports of New York and Boston. An active trade is maintained with the principal ports of the American coast, especially witli New Yoirk. In 1863, the total tonnage owned in the State was 110,033. In 1861, the total exports of Connecticut amounted to $421,320, and the imports to $753,309. MANUFACTURES. Connecticut is extensively engaged in manufactures, and contains, perhaps, more small establishments conducted by persons of moderate capital than any of the New England States. The products of these little factories make up an imposing sum total, which compares favorably with that of the States containing larger establishments. The wooden clocks of this State (to say nothing of its ”’

wooden nutmegs “) are famous, and of late years have even been exported to Europe. “Nearly all the inhabitants are directly or indirectly interested in some kind of mnanufacctures. It is the genius of the people to attend to a multiplicity of pursuits, and consequently, while all are busy, undertakings on a large scale are sel(lom nmade. More recently, however, combined capital, aided by m(en of means from other States, has much enlarged manufacturing operationis. Much of the machinery used is the fruit of the inventiotns and improvements by the manufactuirers themselves, among whom we need mention but the names of Whitney, Goodyear and Colt. The people are always contriving and (!ithusiastic in whatever they undertake. The most extensive manufaetures are those of iron, clocks, carriages and india-rubber goods; iron of all possible varieties, from the heaviest castings to the finest cutlery, including anchors and boilers, firearms, edge-tools, wire, etc. Connecticut has almost engrossed the manufacture of clocks for our whole country,. and for a large part of the civilized world…. The :{niuts of G(oodyear and of his co-laborers, has given greater variety to 325 7,620,912 3,898,411 44,269 67,101 46,783

750,000 … Holley, …….. 0 i I i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the manufactures of India rubber than of almost any other known substance. In the manufacture of carriages, Connecticut is second to no State in the Union.” * In 1870, there were in the State 5128 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 89,523 hands, and a capital of $95,281,278, using raw material worth $86,419,517, and yielding an annual product of $191,065,474. There were 111 cotton mills, employing 4734 male and 2909
female hands, and a capital of $12,710,700, consuming raw material worth $8,818,651; paying $3,246,783 for labor; and yielding an annual product of $14,026,334. There were 103 woollen mills, employing 7285 male and 4247
female hands, and a capital of $12,490,400; consuming raw material worth $11,016,925; paying $2,800,120 for labor; and yielding an annual product of $17,365,148. The other manufactures are stated as follows in the same year: Value of agricultural implements,… pig iron,……… rolled iron,…….. ” steam engines and machinery,. sewing machines,…. sawed and planed lumber,21 flour,………. leather,……… boots and shoes,….. furni ture,…….. jewelry, silverware, etc.,… INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. In the year 1868, there were 637 miles of railroad in operation in Connecticut, the total cost of which was $24,370,000. Lines cross the State in every direction, connecting its principal towns with each other, and with New York and Boston. A continuous line skirts the shore of Long Island Sound, from which several routes diverge, at various points, to the northward. An important “Air Line” between New York and Boston is now in construction across the State. There is but one canal in the State, and that a short one around Enfield Falls, in the Connecticut River. * Appleton’s Cyclopeedia, vol. v. p. 617. i 326 0 $1,183,947

979,125 1,191,140 4,910,389 3,619,000 2,123,118 3,966,328 1,307,030

2,319,596 1,103,690 4,150,000 t

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CONNECTICUT. EDUCATION. This State has always been noted for the excellence of its public school system. There is a permanent school fund, which, in 1870, amounted to $2,044,058. The interest of this sum is applied to the support of the schools, and the remainder of the amountt needed for their maintenance is raised by taxation. In 1868 there were 1645 public schools. The attendance was as follows: in’the winter, 80,148, average attendance 57,117, in the summer, 73,863, average attendance 52,299. The proportion of children attending school is less than in any other New England State, and truancy prevails to such all alarming extent that the authorities of the State are urged by the Board of Education to take decisive measures to put a stop to the evil. They assert that less than one half the children of the State are found on an average in the public schools. The school system is under the control of the State Board of Education, which consists of the Governor and LieutenantGovernor, ex officio, and one person appointed by the Legislature from each of the four Congressional districts, for a term of four years. The principal executive officer is the Secretary, who is chosen by the Board, and manages its affairs, and supervises the public schools under its direction. The State is divided into 1620 educational districts, each of which is immediately in charge of a School Committee, elected by the people of the district. In order to be entitled to the benefits of the school fund, each common school must be conducted for at least six months in the year by a regularly licensed teacher. There is a State Normal School, for the education of teachers, at New Britain, and Teachers’ Institutes are held in various parts of the State under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Education. The Commonwealth makes an appropriation of $3000 per annum to defray their expenses. Seven cities, and several of the large towns, support public high schools. There are 35 incorporated academies, and a number of flourishing private schools in the State. Connecticut contains three colleges, Yale College, at New Haven, Trinity College, at Hartford, and Wesleyan University, at AIiddletown. The first is a Congregationalist, the second an Episcopal, and the third a MAethodist institution. Yale College’was originally located at Killingworth, and was founded in 1700. It was removed to Saybrool ill 1707, arid to New 21 327
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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. Haven in 1716. It embraces five schools, the academical, theological, medical, law school, and the school of science and the arts. Eael-cI of these has its own faculty. It is one of the best institutions of its kind(I in the Union, but is considerably hampered in its usefulness by a lack of means.

Recently, however, it has received some assistance from the State and from private individuals. Trinity College was founded in 1823, is located at Hartford, and is under the direction of the Episcopal Church. The college is in a prosperous condition, and ranks high amongst the institutions of its kind in the Union. The Wesleyan University, at Middletown, is a flourishing institution under the direction of the Methodists. The course is similar to that of other firstclass colleges. In 1867 there were 490
libraries in the State (of which 194 were )ublic), containing 404,206
volumes. In the same year there were jy 3o)28 1, I I

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CONNECTICUT. 55 periodicals published in the State-45 political, 3
religious, 5 literary, and 2 miscellaneous. Of these, 14 were daily, 1
semiweekly, 37 weekly, 1 monthly, and 2 quarterly. Their aggregate annual circulation was 9,555,672 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Wethersfiel(l. The inmates work in silence during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. Their labor is let out to contractors, and in 1868 the earnings of the institution were slightly in excess of its expenses. The commutation system is carried out here with great success, and concerts and other healthful entertainments are occasionally given in the prison by benevolent citizens. In March, 1870, there were 219 convicts confined here. The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest as well as one of the best institutions of its kind in America. It was incorporated in 1816, and opened the next year. In 1819 it received from Congress an endowment of 23,000 acres of land, and the Legislatures of several of the States made liberal provisions for it, upon the condition that they should each have the privilege of placing a certain number of pupils under its care. This arrangement is still in operation. “In the earlier periods of instruction much use was made of the system of methodical signs, so carefully elaborated by Dr. L’Epee and Sicard, in which each word had a definite and fixed sign, and could be given in the proper order in the sentence. These signs were greatly simplified and improved by Mr. Gallaudet and his early associates. His successors continued to introduce such modifications and improveme.nts as the experience of intelligent teachers suggested. The methods now pursued have the same general ends in view as at first, that is, to enable the pupils to hold communication with society by means of written language, but they secure this result earlier and more satisfactorily by leading the pupil sooner to use forms of connected language. Special attention has )ben given from the first to the religious and moral culture of the pupils.” The average annual attendance at this institution is about 250. Nearly 1500 pupils have attended it since its establishment. The Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, is supported in part by the State, and was incorporated in 1822. A General Hospital for the Insane has been established by the State at Middletown, on the 329

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. banks of the Connecticut River, and is now in operation. In 1868 the number of patients at the Hartford Retreat was 413. Patients are mailntained here by some of the other Eastern States.

The State Reform School, at West Meriden, was opened in 1854. Boys between ten and sixteen years of age, convicted of offences, other than those for which the penalty is imprisonment for life, niay be sent to this school, and parents and guardians may indenture unruly youths to the school by paying a sutn of $3 a week while they continue their connection with it.

The boys are required to be in the school-roonm four hours each day, where they are thoroughly taught in the various branches of a plain, practical education, and for several’hours are enga(lged in the workshop and on the farm. The receipts of their labor ill 1870 were as follows: from the farm, $1087; from the workshop, $20,887. In March, 1870, there were 267 boys in the school. The State supports in part a School for Imbeciles, at Lakeville, and three Homes for Soldiers’ Orphans, located at Darien, Cromwell, and Mansfield, and makes an annual appropriation for the support of patients at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the total value of church property in Connecticut, was $13,428,109. The number of churches was 902. FINANCES. In 1874, the public debt, over and above the assets of the State, was $5,014,500, having been reduced onehalf since the close of the civil war. There is no floating debt. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending March 31st, 1874, were $1,762,427. In 1868, there were 88 banks in the State (6 of which were State banks), with an aggregate capital of $25,994,220. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Connecticut was adopted in 1818. Every male white citizen 21 years old and able to read any article of the Constitution, who shall have resided in the State one year and in the town six months, may vote, upon taking the oath required by law. The Government of the State is conducted by a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of not less than 18 nor more ~\ 330 (I I

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CONNECTICUT. than 24 members), and a House of Representatives (of 237
members), all chosen annually l)y the people, oll the first Monday in April. They enter upon their offices on the first Wednesday in Mav. Tile Legislature holds annual sessions at Hartford, the capital of the State.

There is a Supreme Court of Errors, composed of one Chief Judge and three Associate Judges. Appeals from the lower courts are hleard and decided in this body. Its jtudg(mnent is final and conclusive. TAhe Superior Court consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are judg(l,es of the Supreme Court, a(nd has cognizance of all cases, civil or criminal. In crinminal cases, where death is the penalty of the crime for whichl the prisoner is on trial, the court is required by law to be composed of two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the Supreme Court. The judges of these courts are elected on joint ballot by the Legislature, and hold office for a period of eilght years. Upon reachling the ag,e of 70 years, they are disqualified by the Constitution from holding Dffice. Hartford(
is tihe capital of Connecticut. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 8, counties HISTORY. In 1633, the Dutch built a trading house at Hartford, and defended it by a fort. As early as 1631, however, Se(uin, the chief of the Indians who owned the lands along the Connecticut River, had sent messengers to Governor Winthrop, at Boston, and Governor Winslow, at Plymouth, inviting them to come an(l settle his country. His invitation was accepted, and the present town of Windsor, above Hartford, was founded in 1633, by a company fromt Plymouth, who built a trading house there.

This is regarded as the first permanent settlement of the State, although the Dutch trading post was in existence at the time. The first town which was built, however, was Wethersfield, which was established by a company of emigrants from Massachusetts, in 1634. By 1633, three towns, Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford, were established, with an aggregate population of 750 inhabitants. In 1638, New Haven was settled b)y emigrants from England, and continued to form an establishment distinct from that of Hartford until 1662, when Charles II. united the two colonies under one government. 331 i f I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1637, the settlers of the Hartford or Connecticut colony were greatly harassed by the Pequot Indians. The authorities resolved to put an effectual stop to their depredations, and a levy of 90 men, half the number of ablebodied males in the colony, was ordered. This force was well armed, and placed under the orders of Captain John Mason, who at once made a descent upon the main stronghold of the Pequots, and inflicted upon them a blow that completely destroyed them as a tribe. The locality where this encounter took place is known as Mystic.

The effect of this decisive action was most happy as regarded the other tribes. In 1639, the colony of Connecticut adopted its first Constitution; and in 1662, Governor John Winthrop obtained from Charles II. a charter uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven under one government, the name of the former being given to the whole province. New Haven at first opposed the measure, but at length consented to it in 1665, when the union was finally accomplished. “The charter granted the colony jurisdiction over the lands within its limits; provided for the election of a governor, deputy-governor, and 12 assistants, and 2 deputies from each town-substantially the same as provided for under the previous Constitution; allowed the free transportation of colonists and merchandize from England to the colony; guaranteed to the colonists the rights of English citizens; provided for the making of laws and organization of courts by the general assembly, and the appointment of all necessary officers for the public good; the or. ganization of a soldiery, providing for the public defence, etc. This charter was of so general a character, and conferred so large powers, that no change was necessary when Connecticut took her stand as one of the independent States of the Union, on the declaration of indlependence in 1776; but it was continued, without alteration, as the Constitution of the State until 1818, when the present Constitution was formed. Until 1670, at the general election, all the freemen assembled at Hartford, and personally voted for the State officers and assistants. Thereafter they voted by proxy, or sent up their votes. In July, 1685, a writ of quo warranto was issued by the King’s Bench, and served on the governor and company, with the design of taking away the charter and uniting the New England colonies in one government under a royal governor. Sir Edmund Andros arrived in Boston, December 19th, 1686, with his commission as governor. In October, 1687, he came to Hartford, while the assembly was sitting, and demanded the charter. It was produced and laid upon the table. 332 i

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CONNECTICUT. The discussion was protracted into the evening. Suddenly the lights were extinguished, and Captain Joseph Wadsworth seized and carried a\%ay the charter and hid it in the famous charter-oak. Andros seized the government, which he administered, or rather it was administered under him, in a very oppressive manner. On the dethronement of James II., and the consequent deposition of Andros, the government, onl Mlay 9th, 1689, resumed its functions, as if the period since the usurpation of Andros to that.time, were annihilated; and as the charter had not in the Kinig’s Court been declared forfeit, it was, after a struggle, allowed to continue in force, the freest Constitution ever granted by royal favor.” During the wars with the French and Indians, the colony bore. liberal share of the burdens, and warmly supported the cause of American independence during the Revolution, in which struggle the shores of Long Island Sound suffered severely from the depredations of the British. New Haven was captured, and its inhabitants barb)arously treated, and New London and Groton were taken and burned by a force under Benedict Arnold. In 1814, the famous New England Convention met at Hartford, atnd during this and the preceding year New London was closely blockaded by the British fleet. During the recent Rebellion, Connecticut contributed 54,468 nmei to the military service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The important cities and towns are, New London, Norwich, Middletown, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Stonington, Guilford, Danbury, Greenwich, Sharon, Meriden, Windsor Locks, Bristol, Falls Village, New Hartford, Norfolk, Greenville, Deep River, and New Milford. NEW HAVEN, The largest and much the most important city in the State, is situated on a harbor of considerable size, 4 miles distant from Long Island Sound. It is in New Haven county, and is 76 miles northeast of New York, and 160 miles southwest of Boston. It is on the line of direct communication between those two cities, and from it railways diverge to all parts of New England. ” The country round New Haven is very picturesque. Behind the town, at a distance of about two miles, is an amphitheatre of rugged hills, not unlike some of our Scottish scenery; in front is an inlet fromn 333 i i t i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NEW IIAVEN. Long Island Sound, affording a safe and commodious harbor; to the right and left, a richly cultivated country, relieved by patches of forest; and, inl wide expanse l)efore it, the blue waves of the sea rolling in magnificence. Two large precipices, called East and West Rock, 400 feet high, and about two miles apart, form part of the semicircular range. They are prominent features in the landscape; and events in the annals of our native country, with whichl they are associated, impart to them that traditional charm which is so often wanting in American scenery. In the fastnesses of these rocks, some of the regicid(les of Charles I. found shelter from their pursuers, when the agents of his profligate son hunted theIn for their lives.” * Several small streanms flow into New Haven Bay, as the harbl)or is called. Several bridges span them, and connect the city with the opposite shores. New Haven extends back about 2 miles from the harbor, and is about 3 mniles broad from east to west. It is regularly laid out, and is one of the haniidsomest cities in America. The streets are unusually broad, and are shaded with the most magnificent elms in the New World. Temple street, and some other thoroughfares, are so thickly shaded that the rays of the sun rarely penetrate the thick foliage overhead. The abundance of these trees 4 * Duncan’s Travels. 334 I I

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CONNECTICUT. has gained for New Haven the sobriquet of “The City of Ellns.” There are several fine public squares within the corporate limits, and also one or two very beautiful cemeteries. The residences are surrounded by large grounds lhandsomely ornamented and planted with a luxuriant shrubbery. The principal public buildings are the State House, a stluccl(oe(l edifice, modelled after the Parthenon; and the City Hall, facing thed green, a handsome Gothic edifice of Portland and Nova Scotiai stone. The tower, 84 feet high, is surmounted by a spire 66 feet liirlgh, which contains an observatory and an alarm bell. The clhurch(les, 32 in number, are very handsome, and form conspicuous and attiLtetive features in the general appearance of the city. New Haven contains several excellent institutions of learning, besides Yale College, and has one of the best free school syst(nls in the world. It has a good public library, 5 or 6 banks, and( is lighted with gas, supplied with water, and traversed by street railways. Nine newspapers and three magazines are published here. The I)o)iulation is 50,840. The city carries on an active trade with all parts of the country by means of its railroads. It has steamboat communication witll New York and the towns on the Connecticut River. The harbl)or, though extensive and admirably sheltered, is too shallow to adiit vessels of a large size. It is rapidly filling up. The General Governlinellt has made several attempts to deepen it, but it is feared that notliing, can resist the course of nature, Wlvich seems to be rendering the harbor too shallow to be fit for use. A wharf, 3493 feet-the longest in the United States has been built out into the bay to accoimmodate vessels, but the water surrounding it is becoming very shallowv. In spite of these disadvantages, however, the city possesses some foreign commerce, and an active coasting trade. New Haven is extensively engaged in manufactures, and it is estimated that fiilly one-fourth of the entire population is so em)ployed. The principal wares produced are carriages, india-rubber goods, iron ware of various kinds, boots and shoes, and clocks. “The chief ornament and attraction of New Haven remains to be noticed,-its college, the rival of Harvard University in literary respectability, and honorably distipguished from it by the orthodoxy of its religious character. The buildings of Yale College make a conspicuous appearance, when entering the town eastward; and the effect is considerably heightened by three churches, which stand at a little 335 I II I I I I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. distance in front, in a parallel line. The ground between the college and the churches is neatly divided and enclosed, and ornamented with trees. Including passageways, the principal edifices present a front of upwards of 800 feet. The buildings are chiefly constructed of brick, and consist of five spacious edifices, each four stories high, 104 feet by 40, containing 32 studies; a chapel for religious worship and ordinary public exhibitions; a Lyceum, containing the library amd recitation rooms; an Atheneum; a Chemical Laboratory; an extensive stone Dining Hall, containing also in the upper story, apartments for the mineralogical cabinet; a separate Dining Hall for Theological Students; a dwelling house for the President; a large stone building occupied by the medical department; and the Trumbull Gallery, a neat and appropriate building erected as a repository for the valuable historical and other paintings of Col. Trumbull. “Yale College was originally established at Saybrook, in the year 1700, and was incorporated by the colonial legislature in the following year. The project of establishing a college in Connecticut appears to have been seriously entertained fifty years before; but it was checked, Dr. Dwight informs us, by well founded circumstances, by the people of Massachusetts, who justly urged that the whole population of New England was scarcely sufficient to support one institution of this nature, and that the establishment of a second would endanger the prosperity of both; these objections put a stop to the design for the time; it was not, however, lost sight of. In 1718, the infant Institution was removed by the Trustees to New Haven. It was originally intended simply for the education of young men for the ministry: but, as it gathered strength from individual liberality and public patronuage, the range of its plan of study was gradually extended, until it now embraces the more essential parts of a complete literary, scientific, and medical education. “The college received its name, in commemoration of the beneficence of the Honorable Elihu Yale, a son of one of the first settlers, nwho went to England in early life, and thence to India, where he became governor to Madras; and on his return to England, he was elected governor of the East India Company. From this gentleman the college received donations at various times, between 1714 and 1718, to the amount of ~500 sterling; and a short time before his death, hlie directed another benefaction to the same amount to be transulitted, but it was never received. Another of its early benefactors was the celebrated Dean Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne, who k 336 i I I I1.

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CONNECTICUT came to America in ] 732, for the purpose of establishing a college in the island of Bermuda; a project to which he nobly sacrificed considerable property, as well as time and labor. His efforts being frustrated by the failure of the promised support from Government, he presented to this Institution a farm which he had purchased in Rhode Island, and afterwards transmitted to it from England a very valuable collection of books-‘the finest that ever came together at one time into America.’ Sir Isaac Newton, and many other distinguished men, presented their works to the library. “Although founded under the sanction of the colonial legislature, and partly endowed by it, the college was for a long time indebted for its support chiefly to individual patronage: the whole amount bestowed l)y the colonial legislature, during the first 90 years of its existence, did not much exceed ~4500 sterling. But when the Federal Government was consolidated, a grant was made, in 1792, to Yale College, out of a fund created by uncollected arrears of war taxes, by which ultimately $60,000 were realized. “The library of the college has recently been much enlarged by the, addition of many valuable volumes, selected by Professor Kingsley, who visited Europe with reference to that selection.

The libraries of the different societies receive frequent additions. At present the libraries belonging to the institution form anl aggregate of from 30,000 to 40,000 volumes. The college possesses the richest mineralogical cabinet on the continent.” * The city was founded as a separate colony, in 1638, by a company of emigrants from London. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. During the Revolution, it was captured by the British. This occurrence took place on the 5th of July, 1779, and is thus described in the Connecticut Journal, of July 7th-two days later: About two o’clock on the morning of the 5th instant, a fleet consisting of the Camilla and Scorpion men-of-war, with tenders, transports, etc., to the number of 48, commanded by Commodore Sir George Collier, anchored off West Haven. They had on board about 3000 land forces, commanded by Major-General Tryon; about 1500 of whom, under Brigadier-General Garth, landed about sunrise on West Haven point. Thle town being alarmed, all the preparation which the confusion and distress of the inhabitants, and a necessary care of their families would permit, was made for resistance.

The West Bridge on Milford road was taken up, and several fieldpieces were carried thither, and some slight works thrown up for the defence of that pass. Thile division under General Garth being landed, immediately began their march toward the town. The first opposition was made * The Land We Live In, pp. 153-154. 337

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. by al)otlt 25 of the inhabitants, to an advanced party of the enemy of two com panics of light inftnitry. These, thoughl advallcing on the hlei,ght ot’ iltli)rd hill, were atttckeldt with great spirit by the lhandful of our people, and driven back almost to WVest -laven, and one of tlhem was taken prisonler. The enemiy then advancedl in their main body, with strong flanking, parties, and two fieldl)ieces; and finding a simart fire kept up from our fieldpieces at the bridge aforesaid(l, chose not to lorce 21in entrance to the town by that, the usual road, but to make a cir cuitous marcll of nine miles, in order to enter by the Derby road. In this mllarch our snall 1)iity on Milford lhill, now increased to perhaps 150, promiscuously col lected(
l-oin sev(eral companies of the militia, had a small encounter with the enemy’s flank lcear thle Mlilford road, in which was killed their adjutant, Campbell, thlle loss of whom they lamented witlh much apparent sensibility. Our people on the hill, being oblig,ed by superior numbers, to give way, kept up a continual fire on the enenly, and g,alled them much, through all their marcl to Tholson’s bridge on the Dei rly road. In the mean time, those whlo were posted at the West bridge, perceiviiig tllhe movements of the enemy, and also that another large body of them had lind(le(d at the South End, on the east side of the harbor, quitted the bridge and miiiclcied thlence to oppose the enemy at Tllomson’s bridge.

But by the time they had reached the bank of the river, the enemy were in possession of the bridge, iand tCle places at which the river is here fordable: yet hlaving received a smali -iccession of strength by the coining in of the militial, they gave the enemy a smart fi:e from two fieldpieces and small arms, whichl continued with little abatement, till the enemy were in possession of the town, or through the town across the Neck biridge. The enemy entered the town between 12 and 1 o’clock. Inll the mean time, thle division of the enemy, belore-mentioned to have landed at the South End, whichl was under the immediate command of General Tryon, was bravely resisted by a small party of men, withl one fieldpiece, who, besides other execution, killed an officer of the enemy, in one of the b)oats at their landing. This division mi:trcelied up by land, and attacked the fort at Black Rock; at the same time, t’heir shipping drew up, and attacked it from the harbor. The fort had only 19 men, and three pieces of artilery, yet was defended as long as reason or v.l()‘r dlictated(l, and then the men made good their retreat. The town beiig now in full possession of the enemy, it was delivered up, except a few instances of protection, to promiscuous plunder; in which, besides robbi.ig the inhabitants of their watches, money, plate, buckles, clothing, bedding, and provisions, they broke and destroyed their household furniture to a very great amount. Some lamilies lost every thing their lhouses contained: many hlave now neither food, nor clothes to shift. A lbody of militia sufficient to penetrate the town, could not be collected that eveniiI,: we were obliged therefore to content ourselves witl giving the enemy every na,inoy,tece in our power, whlichl was done with great spirit for most of the afteirnoon at aind about the Ditchl corner. E:trly on Tuesday morning, the enemy tinexpectedly and with the utmost stillness tn(l d(esl)a.tcll, called in their guards, and retreated to their boats, carrying with them a number of the inhabitants captive, most, if not all of whom, were taken without arms, and a few who chose to accompany them. Part of them went on board thleir flect, and part crossed over to General Tryon at East lhaven. On Tuesday afternoon, the militia collected in suchl numbers, and crowded so close upon Gneraie.l Tiyon, that he thought best to retreat on board his fleet, and set sail to the westward. 4: 338 i. i

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CONNECTICUT. The loss of the enemy is unknown; but for many reasons it is supposed to be considerable, and includes some officers whom they lament, l)esi(les Adjutant Campl)ell. Ours, by the best infirmation we can obtain, is 27 killed, and 19 wounded. As many of our dead Ul)ponl examination appeared to hlave been wounded with shot, but not mortally, and afterwards to have been killed withl bayonets, this demonstrated the true reason why the number of the d(lea(l exceeded that of the wounded to be, that being wounded and falling into the enemy’s hands, they were afterwards killed. A further confirmation of this charge is, that we have full and direct testimony, which affirms that General Garthl declared to one of our militia, who was wounded and taken, that “he was sorry his men had not klilled him, instead of taking him; and that he would not have his men give quarter to one militia man, taken in arms.” Althloughl in this expedition, it must be confessed to the credit of the Britons that they have not done all the mnischief in their power, yet, the brutal ravishment of women, the wanton and malicious destruction of property, the burning of the stores upon the whlartf, and eilght houses in East -laven; the beating, stabbing, and insulting, of tlhe Rev. Dr. Daggett, after he was made a prisoner, the mortally wounding of M[r. Beers, senior, in his own door, and otherways abusing him the murdering of the very aged and helpless MIr. English in his own house, and the beating and finally cutting out the tong,ue of and then killing a distracted man, arc sufficient proofs that they were really Britons. HIIARTFORD, Now the capital, and the second city in the State, is situated on the right bank of the Connecticut River, 36 miles northeast of New Haven, 124 miles southwest of Boston, and 112 miles northeast of New York. On the opposite side of the river lies East Hartfor(I, with which it is connected by a long covered bridge 1000 feet long. The city is about 2 miles long by 1
miles broad, and extends lengtlhwise along the banks of the river. It is laid off regularly in some places, and irregularly in others. Main street, the principal thorouglhfare, is broad and well built up, and contains the majority of the prominent buildings. The houses are mostly of brick or freestone, and render the general appearance of the place very handsome.

Tllh( (-ity contains about 25 churches, several fine libraries, 12 or 13
banks, and is supplied with water from the Connecticut River, and is lighted( with gas. A street railway connects its various points. The public schools are numierous and are of a high character. There are als) several fine institutions of learning in the city, the principal of which is Trinity College, founded in 1823. It has three handsome edifices of freestone, a fine library, apparatus, and cabinet, and ranks high amongst the educational institutions of the land. The Asylum for the Deaf and I)umb, the Retreat for the Insane, and the Hartford Hospital are noble institutions, and are amongst the most prominent 339 i. i I i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ornaments of the city. The old Charter Oak was until 1856, when it was blown down by a storm, one of the attractions of the city. There are 12 banks in Hartford, which is also the central point of a number of insurance companies, possessing a capital of between fifteen and twenty millions of dollars. A number of large book publishing houses are located here. In 1868 the gross amount employed in this business amounted to several millions of dollars. The principal public buildings are the City Hall and the State House. The former is a handsome building, the lower part of which is used as a market-house. The State House is the finest building in the State. It is surmounted with a cupola, and is 50 feet in width 50 in height, and 130 in length. Hartford has railroad communication with all parts of the Union, and, except in the severe season of winter, when it is closed by ice, the Connecticut is navigable for steamers. The city is extensively engaged in manufactures.

The capital employed in them is over $10,000,000. Firearms and hardware of various kinds constitute the prin(‘ipal articles produced. The celebrated manufactory of the late Colonel Colt, the inventor of the “Colt Revolver,” is located here. There are 12 newspapers published in the city.

The popula tion is 37,180, and is increasing. Hartford was permanently settled by the English in 1635. The following is an abstract from some of the first laws of the town: 1635.-lt is ordered, that there shall be a guard of… men, to attend with their arms fixed, and two shot of powder and slhot, at least,… every public meeting for religious use, with two sergeants to oversee the same, and to keep out one of them sentinel….

and the said guard to be freed from boarding, and to have seats provided near the meeting house door, and the ser geants repair to the magistrates for a warrant for the due execution thereof. It is ordered, that every inhabitant which hath not freedom from the whole to be absent, shall make his personal appearance at every general meeting of the whole town, having sufficient warning; and whosoever fails to appear at the time and place appointed, shall pay sixpence for every such default; but if hlie shall have lawful excuse, it shall be repaid him again; or whosoever departs away from the meeting before it be ended, without liberty froIn the whole, shall pay the likewise. It is ordered, that whosoever borrows the town chain, shall pay two pence a day, for every day they keep the same, and pay for mending, if it be broken in their use. It is ordered, that there shall be a set meeting of all the townsmen together the first Thursday of every month, by nine o’clock in the forenoon, so that if any in habitant have any business with them, lie may repair unto them; and whosoever of them do not iheet at the time and place set, to forfeit two shillings and sixpence for every default. 340 l I

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CONNECTICUT. The 17th September, 1640.-It is ordered, that…. Woodward shall spend his time about killing of wolves, and for his encouragement hlie shall have four shillings and sixpence for his board, in case he kill not a wolf, or a deer in the week; but if he kill a wolf or a deer, he is to pay for his board himself; and if he kill…. to have it for two pence a pound. This order is made for a month before he begins. It is further ordered, that if any person hlath lost any thing that he desireth should be cried in a public meeting, he shall pay for crying of it two pence to Thomas Woodford, to be paid before it be cried; and the crier shall have a book of the things that he crieth. At a general Town Meeting in April, 1643-It was ordered, that Mr. Andrews should teach the children in the school one year next ensuing, from thl( 25th of March, 1643, and that he shall have for his pains ~16; and therefore the townsmen shall go and inquire who will engage themnselves to send their clhildAren; and all that do so shall pay for one quarter at the least, and for more if they do send them, after the proportion of twenty shillings the year; and if they go any weeks more than an even quarter, they shall pay sixpence a week; and if any would send their children, and are not able to pay for their teaching, they shall give notice of it to the townsmen, and they shall pay it at the town’s charge; and Mr. Andrews shall keep the account between the chlildren’s schooling and himself, and send notice of the times of payment and demand it; and if his wages doth not come in so, then the townsmen must collect and pay it; or if the engagements come not to sixteen pounds, then they shall pay what is wanting, at the town’s charges. At a general Town Meeting, October 30thl, 1643-It was ordered, that if any boy shall be taken playing, or misbehaving himself, in the time of public services, whether in the meeting house or about the walls…. by two witnesses, for the first time shall be examnined and punished at the present, publicly, before the assembly depart; and if any shall be the second time taken faulty, on witness, shall be accounted….

Further, it is ordered, if the parents or master shall desire to correct his boy, hlie shall have liberty the first time to do the same. It was further ordered, in the same general meeting, that there should be a bell rung by the watch every morning, an hour before daybreak, and that they are appointed by the constables for that purpose; shall begin at the bridge, and so ring the bell all the way forth and back firom Master Moody’s (Wyllys hill) to Jolhn Pratt’s…. and that they shall be in every house, one up, and .. some lights within one quarter of an hour after the end of the bell ringing…. if they can…. the bell is rung before the time appointedl, then to be up with lights as before mentioned, half an hour before dayI)reak, and for default herein is to forfeit one shilling and sixpence, to be to him that finds him faulty, and sixpence to the town. The other cities of the State are as follows: Norwich, at the head of navigation, on the Thames River. It has a population of 16,653, is connected with all parts of the country by railroad, and is the terminus of a line of steamers from New York. It is actively engaged in commerce and manufactures. Bridgep)ort, on Long Island SoIin(l, has 19,876
inhabitants, and is connected with New York by steamboat, and is on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway. 311 II

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* OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It is largelvy engaged in manufactures.

ITaterbury, on the Naugatuck Railwi., 2J nliles from New Haven, is an important place for the manufil(ture of brass, German silver, buttons, and other small articles. It contains. l)opulation of ]0,876. New London, onl the Thaines River, liis 9756 inhabitants. It is a thriving manufacturing place, and is a(tively engaged in commerce, both foreign and( domestic, having the l)(‘st lharbor in the State. Norwalk, on Long Island( Sound, on the l’e of the New York and New Haven Railway, has a population of.tl)out 15,000, and is extensively engaged in nmaufictures. MLiddletown, on the Connecticut River (35 miles from its mouth), and IWest ]leri(len, on the Hartford and New Haven Railway (16 miles firom New Haven), each has a population of 10,000; they are growimg manufacturing cities.

MISCELLANIES. TlHE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. The following is a transcript of the principal part of the celebrated judicial code, know,ln as the Blue Laws, by which it is said the first colonists of Connecticut were governed for a considerable time. Some writers have questioned the genuineness ot’

thie laws, and it seems certain that, if genuine, the code was never written, but was declared and interpreted by the select men, the judges, and the pastors of the diflferent congregations: The Governor and magistrates, convened in general assembly, are the supreme power, unlder God, of this independent dominion. From the determination of the assembly no appeal shall be made. The Governor is amenable to the voice of the people. The Governor shall have only a single vote in determining any question, ex. cept a casting vote when the assembly may be equally divided. The assembly of the people shall not be dismissed by the Governor, but shall dismiss itself’. Conspiracy against this dominion shall be punished with death. Whoever attempts to change or overturn this dominion, shall suffer death. The judges shall determine controversies without a jury. No one shall be a freeman, or give a vote, unless hlie be converted, or a member in free communion in one of the churches in this dominion. No food or lodlging shall be afforded to a Quaker, Adamite, or other heretic. No one sli-l’ cross a river without an authorized ferryman.

No one shall run of a Sabbath day, or walk in his garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from the church. No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep houses, cut hair, or shave. on the Sa)lbbatlh dlay. No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day. A person accused of trespass in the night, shall be judged guilty, unless he clear himself by his oath. 0No one shall buy or sell lands without permission of the select men. 342 i i I I

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CONNECTICUT. Whoever publishes a lie to the prejudice of his neighbor, shall sit in the stocks, or be whipped fifteen stripes. Whoever wears clothes trimmed with silver, or bone lace, above two sllillings a yard, shall be presented by the grand jurors, and the select men shall tax the offender at the rate of 3001. estate. Whoever brings cards or dice into this dominion shall pay a fine of 5L. No one shall read Common Prayer, keep Christmas or Saint’s day, make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of music, except the drum, the trumpet, and jews-harp. When parents refuse their children suitable marriages, the magistrates shall determine the point. The select men, on fincding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents and put them into better hands, at the expense of the parents. A man that strikes his wife shall pay a fine of 101.; a woman that strikes her husband shall be punished as the court directs. Married persons must live together, or be imprisoned. Every miale shall have his hair cut round according to a cap.

THE REGICIDES. Soon after the restoration of monarchy in England, many of the judges who had condemned King Charles I. to death, were apprehended.

Thirty were condemned, and ten were executed as traitors; two of them, Colonels Goffe and Whallcy, made their escape to New England, and arrived at Boston, July, 1660. They were gentlemen of worth, and were much esteemed by the colonists for their unfeigned piety. Their manners and appearance were dignified, commanding universal respect. Whalley had been a Lieutenant-General, and Goffe a 3tjor-General in Cromwell’s army. An order for their apprehension, from Charles II., reached New Engl,and soon after their arrival. The king’s commissioners, cager to execute this order, compelled the judges to resort to the woods and caves, and other hiding places; and they would undoubtedly have L:een taken, had not the colonists secretly aided and assisted them in their concealments.

Sometimes they found a refuge in a cave on a mountain near New Haven, and at others, in cellars of the houses of their flriends, and once they were secreted unllder the Neck bridge, in New Haven, while their pursuers crossed the bridge on horseback. While in New Haven, they owed their lives to the intrepidity of Mr. Davenport, the minister of the place, who, when the pursuers arrived, preached to the people from this text: “Take council, execute judgment, make thy shadow as the night in the midst of the noonday, hide the outcasts, bewray not him that wandereth. Let my outcasts dwell with thee. Moab, be thou a covert to them from the face of the spoiler.” Large rewards were offered for their apprehension, or foibr any information which might lead to it Mr. Davenport was threatened, for it was known that lie had harbored them. Upon hearing that lie was in danger, they offered to deliver themselves up, and actually gave notice to the deputy governor of the place of their concealment; but Davenport had not preached in vain, and the magistrate took no other notice than to advise them not to betray themselves. After lurking about for two or three years in and near New Haven, they found it necessary to remove to Hladley, where they were received by Mr. Russell, with whom they were concealed fifteen or sixteen years. After many hairbreadth es 22 343 I I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. capes, the pursuit was given over, and ticy were finally suffered to die a natural (leath in their exile. The following interesting incident is related in connection with the sojourn of the Regicides in Connecticut: In the course of Philip’s war, whiclh involved almost all the Indian tribes in New FEnglaind, and, among others, those in the neighborhood of this town, the inhabitants thought it proper to observe the 1st of September, 1675, as a day of fasting and prayer.

While they were in the church, and employed in their worshlip, they were surprised by a band of savages. The people instantly betook themselves to their arms, which, according to the custom of the times, they had carried with them to the church; and, rushing out, attacked the invaders. The panic Under which they began the conflict was, however, so great, and their number was so disproportioned to that of their enemies, that they fought doubtfully at first, and in a short time began evidently to give way. At this moment, an ancient man, with hoary locks, of a most venerable and dignified aspect, and in d(ldress widely differing from that of the inhabitants, appeared suddenly at their liead, and with a firm voice and an example of undaunted resolution, reanimated their courage, led them again to the conflict, and totally routed the savages. VWhen the battle was ended, the stranger disappeared, and no one knew whence lie had come, or whither he Jhad gone. The relief was so timely, so sudden, so Unexpected, so providential; the appearance and retreat of him, who had fur nished it, were so unaccountable; his person was so dignified and commanding, lhis resolution so superior, and his interference so decisive, that the inhabitants, without any uncommon exercise of credulity, readily believed him to be an angel sent from heaven for their preservation. Nor was this opinion seriously controverted, until it was discovered, years afterwards, that Goffe and Whalley had been lodged in the house of Mr.

Russell. Then it was known that their deliverer was Goffe; Whalley having become superannuated some time before the event took place. There is an obscure and very doubtful tradition, that Goffe also was buried here.

PENALITY FOR KISSING. In 1654, a trial took place in Connecticut, under the section of the “Blue Laws” prohibiting kissing. The culprits were Sarah Tuttle and Jacob Newton. It seems that Sarah dropped her gloves, and Jacob found them. When Sarah asked for them, Jacob demanded a kiss for his pay, and Sarah, not thinking the charge extortionate, paid it in full.

Complaint was made by some sour-tempered individual, and the guilty parties were arraigned before the magistrate. The facts were clearly proved, and the parties were each fined twenty shillings. THE DARK DAY.

The 19thl of May, 1780, was remarkable for the intense darkness which prevailed throughout the New England colonies. At this time the Legislature ot Connecticut was in session in Hartford. A very general opinion prevailed, that the day of judgment was at hand. The House of Representatives, being unable to transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn the council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel Davenport was asked, he answered, “I am against an adjournment.

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CONNECTICUT. proaching, or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause for an adjournment; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wish therefore that candles may be brought.” AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. The people of Connecticut resolved to maintain their independence of the Duke of York, as their charter was of prior date to that of the Duke. Detachments of militia were therefore ordered to New London and Saybrook, the troops at Saybrook being placed under the command of Captain Thomas Bull, of Hartford. Early in July, 1675, the people of Saybrook were surprised by the appearance of Major Andros, with an armed force, in the Sound, making directly for the fort. They had received no intelligence of the hostile expedition of Andros, and having no instructions from the Governor, were undecided what course to take, when, at a critical juncture, Captain Bull with his company arrived, and preparations were at once made for the defence of the fort and town. The assembly met at Hartford on the 9th of July, and immediately drew up a protest against the proceedings of Andros, which they sent by express to Saybrook, with instructions to Captain Bull to propose to Andros a reference of the dispute to commissioners. On the 11th, Major Andros, with several armed sloops, drew up before the fort, hoisted the king’s flag on board, and demanded a surrender of the fortress and town. Captain Bull immediately raised His Majesty’s colors in the fort, and arranged his men in the best manner possible. The major did not like to fire on the king’s colors, and perceiving that, should he attempt to reduce the town by force, it would in all likelihood be a bloody affair, he judged it expedient not to: fire upon the troops. Early in the morning of the 12th of July, Andros desired that he might have permission to land on the shore, for the purpose of an interview with the ministers and chief officers of the town. He probably flattered himself that if he could obtain a foothold upon the soil, and then read the Duke’s patent, and his own commission, to the people, it would make a serious impression upon them, andl that he would be able to gain by artifice that which he could never accomplish by force of arms. He was allowed to come on shore with his suite. Captain Bull and his officers, with the officers and gentlemen of the town, met him at his landing, and informed him that they had, at that instant, received instructions to tender him a treaty, and to refer the whole matter in controversy to commissioners, capable of determining it according to law and justice. Major Andros rejected the proposal at once, and forthwith commanded, in His Majesty’s namne, that the Duke’s patent, and the commission which he had received from His Royal Highness, should be read. Captain Bull, comprehending at once the artifice of Andros, commanded him, in His Majesty’s name, to forbear the reading.: And when his clerk attempted to persist in reading, Captain Bull repeated his, command, with such energy of voice and manner as convinced the major that it might not be altogether safe for him to proceed. The Yankee captain, having succeeded in silencing the valiant representative of the Duke, next informed him that he had a communication to deliver from the’

assembly, and he then read the protest. Governor Andros, affecting to be well pleased with the bold anc soldierlike appearance of his opponent, asked, “What is your name?” He replied, ” My name is Bull, sir.” ” Bull!”

exclaimed the ov t!-. o”I.A pity t you_r horns ar_e_ nol tippe __w se Fi.

nd in ( 345

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lature of the colony were determined to defend themselves in the possession of their chartered rights, Andros prudently gave up his design of seizing the fort. The militia of the town courteously guarded himi to his boat, and, going on board, lie soon sailed for New York, and Connecticut was no more troubled by his presence or interference until after the accession of James the Second. ELECTION DAY

IN THIE OLDEN TIME. Previous to the adoption of the Constitution of 1819, the freemen of the State met annually at Hartford on the first AVednesdlay in 5Iay, to choose State officers. The following description of the counlting of thile votes, and the inauguration of the Governor, is taken forllm “KIendall’s Travels,” published in 1808: I reached Hartford at noon, on Wednesday, the 19thl of May, 1807. The city is on the west bank of the Connecticut, 50 miiles above its mouth. The governor, whose family residence is on the east side of the river, at some distance from Hartford, was expected to arrive in the evening. This gentleman, whose name is Jonathan Trumbull, is the son of the late Governor Jonathan Trumbull; and though the election is annual, he has himself been three or four years in office, and will almost certainly so continue during the remainder of his life. It was known that the votes at this time were in his favor. The governor has volunteer companies of guards, both horse and foot. In the afternoon the horse were drawn up on the bank of the river to receive him, and escort him to his lodgings. He cane before sunset, and the fineness of the evening, the beauty of the river, the respectable appearance of the governor, and ()f’ the troop, the dignity of the occasion, and the decorum observed, united to gratify the spectators. The color of the clothes of the troops was blue. The governor, though on horseback, was dressed in blackl, but lie wore a cockade in a hat, which I did not like the less, because it was in the form rather of the old school than of the new. In the morning the foot guards were paraded in front of the State House, where they afterwards remained under arms, while the troop of horse occupied the street which is on the south side of the building. The clothing of the foot was scarlet, with white waistcoats and pantaloons; and their appearance and demeanor were military. The day was fine, and the apartments and galleries of the State House afforded an agreeable place of meeting, in whlichl the members of the Assembly and others awaited the coming of the governor. At about 11 o’clock his excellency entered the State House, and shortly after took his place at the head of a procession, which was made to a meetinghouse or church, at something less than half a mile distant. The procession was on foot, and was composed of the person of the governor, together with the lieutenant-governor, assistants, high sheriffs, members of the lower house of the assemblly, and, unless with accidental exceptions, all the clergy of the State. It was preceded by the foot guards, and followed by the horse; and attended by gazers, that, considering the size and population.of the city, may-be said to have been numerous. The church, which from its situation is called the South Meeting House, is a small one, and was resorted to on this occasion only because that more ordinarily used was at this time rebuilding. The edifice is of Syood, alike unornamented within and withlout;. and when filled, here wa still presentel.tQ the eye,apthing but what had the plainest appearance. t 346

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CONNECTICUT. The military remained ill the street, with the exception of a few officers, to whom no place of hlonor or distinction was assigned; neither the governor nor other magistrates were accompanied with any insignia of office; the clergy had no canonical costume, and thlere were no ifemales iii the church, excel-;t a few (rather more than twenty in inumber), whlo were stationed by tlhemselves in a gallery opposite the pull)it, in quality of sing,ers. A decent order was thle liighest characteristic that presented itself’. The pulpit, or, as it is here called, the desk, was filled by three, if not four, clergymen; a number by its form and dimensions it was alxle to accoinmmodate. Of these, one opened the service with a prayer, another delivered a seriton, a third made a concluding prayer, and a fourth pronounced a benediction. Several hlymlns were sung(; and among others an occasional one. The total number of singers was between’forty and fifty. The sermon, as will be supposed, touched upon matters of government. When all was finished, the procession returned to the State IIouse. The clergy who walked were about a hundred in number. It was in the two bodies of guards alone that any suitable approlchl to magnificence discovered itself. The governor was l’ull dressed, in a suit of’ bl1ie; but the lieutenant-governor wore riding boots. All, howevcr, was consistently I)plaia, and in unison with itself, cxcept the dress swords, which were woin 1)y high sheriffs, along with their village lial)ilaments, and of lwhichl the tfashlion Afnd the materials were marvellously diversified. Arriived in front ol’ thle State H[ouse, the military formed on each side of the strect; and, as the governor passed them, presented arms. The several parts of thle procession now separated, each to a dinner prepared for itself at an ad(joining inn; thc governor, lieutenanlt-governor, and assistants to their table, the clergy to a second, ani(l the representatives to a third. Thle time of day was abI)out two in the afternoon. Only a short time elapsed before business was resumed, or rather at length commenced. The General Assembly met in the council room, and the written votes being examined and counted, the names of the public officers elected were formally declared. They were in every instance the same as those which had been successful the preceding year. This done, the lieutenant-governor administered the oath to the governor elect, who, being sworn, proceeded to administer their respective oathls to the lieutenant-governor and the rest; and here terminated the affairs of the election day. Soon after 6 o’clock, the military fired three feu de joies, and were then dismissed. On the evening following that of election day, there is an annual ball at Hart. ford, called the election ball; and on the succeding Monday, a second, which is more select. The election day is a holiday thlrotl,ughout the State; and even the whole emainder of the week is regarded in a similar light.

Servants and others are now indemnified for the loss of the festivals of Christmas, Easte;r, and Whitsuntide, whichl the principles of their church deny them. Families exchange visits, and treat their guests with slices of election cake; and thus preserve some portion of the luxuries of the forgotten feast of the Epiphany. 347

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THE MIDDLE STATES. NEW YORK. Area,………… 47,000 Square Miles.

Population in 1860,…… 3,880,735 - Population in 1870,……..

4,382,759 IN population, wealth, and variety of resources, New York is the first State in the Union. It is situated between 40~ 29’ 40” and 45~ 0’

42” N. latitude, and between 71~ 51’ and 79~ 47’ 25” W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Ontario; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; oni the south by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; an(l on the west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Canada. TOPOGRAPHY. The following admirable sketch of the topographical features of the State is taken from French’s “Gazetteer of the State of New York:” “Surface.-Thlis State lies upon that portion of the Appalachian Mountain system where the mountains generally assume the character of hills, and finally sink to a level of the lowlands that surround tle( great depression filled by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. T h r e e distinct mountain masses or ranges enter the State from tl( south and extend across it in a generally northeast direction. Th(‘
first or most easterly of these ranges-a continuation of the Blu(e R i d g e of Virginia-enters the State from N ew Jersey, and extend,; northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson, al)pears on the east side of that river, and forms the highlands of Putnam and Dutchess counties. A northerly extension of the same mountains passes into the Green Mountains of western Massachusetts and Vermont. This range culminates in the highlands upon the Hud ‘~~~~ ~~349 lI

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0 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE ON CATIILL MOUNTAIS. s”]. The highest peaks are 1000 to 1700 feet above tide… The (leep gorge formed by the Hudson in passing through this range presents some of the finest scenery in Arnerica, and has often beel cornmpared to the celebrated valley of the Rhine. “The second series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylvania, and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster, and Greene c o u n t i e s, terminating and culminating in the Catskill Mountains upon the Hudson. The highest p.peaks are 3000 to 3800 feet above t i d e; the Shawangunk Mountains, a high and continuous ridge e xteniding between Sullivan and Orange counties and into the south part of Ulster, is the extreme east range of this series. The Helderberg and Hellibark Mountains are spurs extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharic counties… The declivities are steep and rocky; and a large share of the surface is too rough for cultivation. The highest peaks overlook the Hudson, and from their summits are obtained some of the finest views in eastern New York. “The third series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware, (Otsego, Schoharie, t

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NEW YORK. Montgomery, and Herkimer counties to the Mohawk, and appears upon the north side of that river, and extends northeast, forming the whole series of highlands that occupy the northeast part of the State and generally known as the Adirondack Mountain region. South of the Mohawk, this mountain system assumes the form of broad, irregular hills, occupying a wide space of country. It is broken by the deep ravines of the streams, and in many places the hills are steep and nearly precipitous. The valley of the Mohawk breaks the continuity of the range, though the connection is easily traced at Little Falls, the Noses, and other places. North of the Mohawk, the highlands extend liortheast in several distinct ranges, all terminating upon Lake Champlain. The culminating point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the State, is Mount Marcy, 5467 feet above the tide. The mountains are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A large share of the surface is entirely unfit for cultivation; but the region is rich in minerals, and especially in an excellent variety of iron ore. West of these ranges, series of hills forming spurs of the Alleghanies enter the State from Pennsylvania, and occupy the entire south half of the western part of the State. An irregular line extending through the southerly counties, forms the watershed that separates the northern and southern drainage; and from it the surface gradually declines northward until it finally terminates in the level of Lake Ontario. The portion of the State lying south of this watershed, and occupying the greater part of the two southerly tiers of counties, is entirely occupied by these hills.

Along the Pennsylvania line they are usually abrupt and are separated by narrow ravines, but toward the north their summits become broader and less broken. A considerable portion of the highland region is too steep for profitable cultivation, and is best adapted to grazing. The highest summits in Alleg,any and Cattaraugus counties are 2000 to 3000 feet above tide. “From the summits of the watershed the highlands usually descend toward Lake Ontario in series of terraces, the edges of which are the outcrops of the different rocks which underlie the surface. These terraces are usually smooth, and, although inclined toward the north, the inclination is generally so slight that they appear to be level. Between the hills of the south and the level land of the northl is a b)eautiful rolling region, the ridges gradually declining toward the north. In that part of the State south of the most eastern mountain iange the surface is generally level or broken by low hills. In New York and Westchester counties, these hills are principally composed II 351

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of primitive rocks. The surface of Long Island is generally level or gently undulating. A ridge 150 to 200 feet high, composed of sand, gravel, and clay, extends east and west across the island north of the centre. “Rivers and Lakes.-The river system of the State has two general divisions,-the first comprising the streams tributary to the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the second those which flow in a generally southerly direction. The watershed which separates these two systems extends in an irregular line eastward from Lake Erie through the southern tier of counties to near the northeast corner of Chemung; thence it turns northeast to the Adirondack Mountains in Essex county, thence southeast to the eastern extremity of Lake George, and thence nearly due east to the eastern line of the State. “The northerly division has five general subdivisions. The most westerly of these comprises all the streams flowing into Lake Erie and Niagara River and those flowing into Lake Ontario west of Genesee River. In Chautauqua county the streams are short and rapid, as the watershed approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie. Cattaraugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks are the most important streams in this division. Buffalo Creek is chiefly noted for forming Buffalo Harbor at its mouth; and the Tonawanda for 12 miles from its mouth is used for canal navigation. Oak Orchard and other creeks flowing into Lake Ontario descend from the interior in a series of rapids, affording a large amount of waterpower. “The second subdivision comprises the Genesee River and its tributaries. The Genesee rises in the north part of Pennsylvania and flows in a generally northerly direction to Lake Ontario. Its upper course is through a narrow valley bordered by steep, rocky hills. Upon the line of Wyoming and Livingston counties it breaks through a mountain barrier in a deep gorge and forms the Portage Falls,-one of the finest waterfalls in the State. Below this point the course of the river is through a beautiful valley, one to two miles wide and bordered by banks 50 to 150 feet high. At Rochester it flows over the p)recipitous edges of the Niagara limestone, forming the Upper Genesee Falls; and three miles below, it flows over the edge of the Medina sandstone, forming the Lower Genesee Falls. The principal tributaries of this stream are Canaseraga, Honeoye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka and Black creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, Hiemlock, and Conesus lakes lie within the Genesee Basin. “The third subdivision includes the Oswego River and its tribu 352 I

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NEW YORK. taries, and the small streams flowing into Lake Ontario between Genesee and Oswego rivers. The basin of the Oswego includes most of the inland lakes which form a peculiar feature of the landscape in the interior of the State. The principal of these lakes are Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Crooked, and Owasco,-all occupying long, narrow valleys, and extending from the level land in the centre far into the highland region of the south. The valleys which they occupy appear like immense ravines formed by some tremendous force, which has torn the solid rocks from their original beds, from the general level of the surrounding summits, down to the present bottomis of the lakes. Oneida and Onondaga lakes occupy basins upon the level land in the northeast part of the Oswego Basin. A/ud Creek, the most westerly branch of Oswego River, takes its rise in Ontario county, flows northeast into Wayne, where it unites with Canandaigua Outlet and takes the name of Clyde River; thence it flows east to the west line of Cayuga county, Wvhere it empties into Seneca River. This latter stream, made up of the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes, from this point flows ill a northeast course, and receives successively the outlets of Owasco, Skaneateles, Onondaga, and Oneida lakes. From the mouth of the last-named stream it takes the name Oswego River, and its course is nearly due north to Lake Ontario. “The fourth subdivision includes the streams flowing into Lake Ontario and the St.

Lawrence, east of the mouth of the Oswego. The principal of these are Salmon, Black, Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Racket rivers. These streams mostly take their rise upon the plateau of the great northern wilderness, and in their course to the lowlands are frequently interrupted by falls, furnishing an abundance of waterpower. The water is usually very dark, being colored with iron and the vegetation of swamps. “The fifth subdivision includes all the streams flowing into lakes George and Champlain. They are mostly mountain torrents, frequently interrupted by cascades. The principal streams are the Chazy, Saranac, and Au Sable rivers, and Wood Creek. Deep strata of tertiary clay extend along the shores of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek. The water of most of the streams in this region is colored by the iron over which it flows. “The second general division of the river-system of the State includes the basins of the Allegany, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson. The Allegany Basin embraces the southerly half of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties and the southwest corner of Allegaly. The ‘I f 353

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Allegany River enters the State from the south in the southeast corner of Cattaraugus county, flows in nearly a semicircle, with its outward curve toward the north, and flows out of tle State in the southwest part of the same coulnty. It receives several tributaries from the north and east. These streams mostly flow in deep ravines, bordered by steel), rocky hillsides. The watershed between this basin and Lake Erie ai)l)roachles within a few miles of the lake, and is elevated 800 or 1COO0 feet above it. “The Susquehanna Basin occupies about one-third of the south border of the State. The river takes its rise in Otsego Lake, and, flowing southwest to the Pennsylvania line, receives Charlotte River from the south and the Unadilla from the north. After a course of a few niles in Pennsylvania, it again enters the State, and flows in a general westerly direction to near the west border of Tioga county, whence it turns south and again enters Pennsylvania. Its prill(ipal tributary from the north is Chlenango River. Tioga River enters the State from Pennsylvania near the east border of Steuben county, flows north, receives the Canisteo from the west and the Conhoctonl from the north. From the mouth of thie latter the stream takes the name Chlenlung River, and flows in a southeast direction, into the Susquehianna in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the State line. The upper course of these streams is generally through deep ravines bordered by steep hillsides; but below they are bordered by wide and beautiful intervales.

“1The Delaware Basin occupies Delaware and Sullivan and portions of several of the adjacent counties. The north or principal branch of the river rises in the northeast part of Delaware county and flows southwest to near the Pennsylvania line; thence it turns southeast and forms the boundary of the State to the line of New Jersey. Its principal branches are the Pepacton and Neversink rivers. These streams all flow in deep, narrow ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hills. “The Basin of the Hudson occupies about twothirds of the east border of the State, and a large territory extending into the interior. The remote sources of the Hudson are among the highest peaks of the Adirondacks, more than 4009) feet above tide. Several of the little lakes which form reservoirs of the upper Hudson are 2500 to 3000 feet above tide. The stream rapidly descends through the narrow defiles into Warren county, where it receives from the east the outlet of Schroon Iake, and Sacondaga River from the west. Below the mouth of the latter the river turns eastward, and breaks through the 354 I i k

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NEW YORK. VIEW ON THE HUDSON RIVER. barrier of the Luzerne Mountains in a series of rapids and falls. At Fort Edward it again turns south and flows with a rapid current, frequently interrupted by falls, to Troy, 160 miles fromn the ocean. At this place the river falls into an estuary, where its current is affected by the tide; and from this place to its mouth it is a broad, deep, sluggish stream. About 60 miles fromn its mouth, the Hudson breaks through the rocky barrier of the Highlands, forming the most easterly of the Appalachian Mountain Ranges; and along its lower course it is bordered on the west by a nearly perpendicular wall of basaltic rock 300 to 500 feet high, known as’The Palisades.’ Above Troy the Hudson receives the Hoosick River from the east and the Mohawk from the west. The former stream rises in western Massachtisetts and Vermont, and the latter near the centre of the State. At Little Falls and the’Noses,’ the Mohawk breaks through the mountain barriers in a deep, rocky ravine; and at Cohoes, about one mile from its mouth, it flows down a perpendicular precipice of 70 feet, forming an excellent waterpower. Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson are all comparatively small streams. South of the Highlando 3.-5 If

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. LAKE GEORGE. the river spreads out into a wide expanse known as’Tappan Bay.’ A few small streams upon the extreme east border of the State flow eastward into the Housatonic; and several small branches of’he Pasaic River rise in the south part of Rockland county. “Lake Erie forms a portion of the west boundary of the State….

The harbors upon the lake are Buffalo, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, and Barcelona….. Niagara River, forming the outlet of Lake Erie, is 34 miles long, and, on an average, more than a mile wide…. Lake Ontario forms a part of the north boundary to the west half of the State.” Between Warren and Washington counties, lies Lake George, sometimes called by its Indian name, Horicon, the most beautiful body of water in the State. It is 36
miles long, with a breadth varying from threequarters of a mile to 4
miles. “The water is remarkably transparent, and in some parts is more than 400 feet deep. To n assenger traversing this lake, scarcely anything can be imagined 356 i II I I I

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NEW YORK. more beautiful or picturesque than the scenery along its banks.

The romantic effect of the prospect is greatly enhanced by a multitude of delightful islands of various forms and sizes, which meet the gaze of the beholder on every side. Of these, if we include many little islets and rocks, there are more than 300: a popular notion prevails that their number corresponds to that of the days of the year. Twelve miles from the southwestern extremity of the lake, there is an island of about 20 acres, called, from its position, Twelve Mile Island. A mile farther north there is a high point, or tongue of land, called Ton)gue Mountain, west of which projects a small arm of the lake, named Northwest Bay. Here the Narrows, that is, the narrowest part of the lake, commence and continue 7 or 8
miles. Near the west end of the Narrows, on the eastern side of the lake, is Black Mountain, the summit of which is regarded as the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the lake, having an elevation of 2200 feet above its surface. About 12 miles beyond Black Mountain there is a rock about 200 feet high, rising almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. Duriong the French War, Major Rogers, being closely pursued by the Inlians, slid down this steep declivity, and landed safely on the ice, leaving his pursuers petrified with astonishment at the dangerous exploit which they had witnessed. From this circumstance, the rock llas been named Rogers’ Slide. Two or three miles beyond the place just mnentioned, is Lord Howe’s Point, where the division of the English army under Lord Howe landed previous to their attack on Ticonderoga.” The greatest of all the natural wonders of the State, however, are the famous Falls of the Niagara, which lie partly within the limits of New York, and partly in Canada. The Niagara River, as has been stated, forms the outlet of the 4
great upper lakes, and discharges their waters which it receives through Lake Erie, into Lake Ontario. At the point where it leaves Lake Erie, the Niagara is very wi(de, but it narrows as it recedes from the lake, and about 16 miles from Lake Erie, it begins to contract suddenly, and the current increases in velocity. This is the beginning of the rapids, which are a mile in length. The fall of the river in this distance is 52 feet, and down this descent the immense volume of water rushes in great swells, until the Falls are reached. As it approaches the precipice, the river makes a curve from west to north, and spreads out to an extreme width of about 4750 feet. Goat Island, which extends down to the brink of the cataract, occupies about one-fourth of this space, leaving the river on the American side about 1100 feet wide, and on the Canadian side about double this 357 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. width. The line along the verge of the Canadian fall, is much longer than the breadth of this portion of the river, by reason of its horseshoe form, the curve extending up the central part of the current. In passing down the rapids the waters acquire a force which dashes them over the precipice in a grand, resistless torrent, and they fall in a magnificent curve, as they leap clear of the rocky wall into the boiling pool at its base. The fall is 164 feet on the American side, and 150 on the Canadian. The greater volume of water passes over the Canadian, or “Horseshoe Fall.” The space between the cataract and the wall of rock over which it dashes, widens near the bottom, the strata being there of a loose, shaly character, and consequently hollowed out by the continual action of the spray. A cave is thus formed behind the fall, into which, on the Canadian side, persons can enter, and pass by a rough and slippery path toward Goat Island. Below the falls, the current, contracted to less than 1000 feet in width, is tossed tumultuously about, and forms great eddies and whirlpools as it sweeps down its rapidly descending bed.

Small boats can pass the river in safety here, and a little steamer used to convey passengers almost to the foot of the falls. The river is crossed by two suspension bridges. One immediately below the falls, is used by vehicles and pedestrians, the other, a mile below, is used partly by these, and partly by the railway line entering Canada. Fourteen miles below, the river enters Lake Ontario. The Falls of Niagara are unsurpassed in grandeur and magnificence by any in the world. When the state of the atmosphere is favorable, the roar of the cataract may be heard for miles.

It sometimes rolls over the land to Lake Ontario, and across its waters to Toronto in Canada, 46 miles distant. Anthony Trollope has written of them as follows: “The falls, as I have said, are made by a sudden breach in the level of the river. All cataracts are, I presume, made by such breaches; but generally the waters do not fall precipitously as they do at Niagara, and never elsewhere, as far as the world yet knows, has a breach so sudden been made in a river carrying in its channel such or any approach to such a body of water. Up above the falls for more than a mile the waters leap and burst over rapids; as though conscious of the destiny that awaits them. Here the river is very broad and comparatively shallow; but from shore to shore it frets itself into little torrents, and begins to assume the majesty of its power. Looking at it even here, in the expanse which forms itself over the greater fall, one 358 In

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NEW YORK. FALLS OF THE NIAGARA. feels sure that no strongest swimmer could have a chance of saving himself if fate had cast himn in even among those petty whirlpools. The waters, though so broken in their descent, are deliciously green. This color, as seen early in the morning or just as the sun has set, is so bright, as to give to the place one of its chiefest charms. “This will be best seen from the farther end of the island-Goat Island as it is called-which, as the reader will understand, divides 23

359

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ihe river immediately above the falls.

Indeed, the island is a part of that precipitously-broken ledge over which the river tumbles, and no doubt in process of time will be worn away and covered with water. The time, however, will be very long. In the meanwhile, it is perhaps a mile round, and is covered thickly with timber.

At the upper end of the island the waters are divided, and, coming down in two courses each over its own rapids, form two separate falls. The bridge by which the island is entered, is a hundred yards or more above the smaller fall. The waters here have been turned by the island, andl(l make their leap into the body of the river below at a right angle with it-about 200 yards below the greater fall. Taken alone, this smaller cataract would, I imagine, be the heaviest fall of water known; but taken in conjunction with the other, it is terribly shorn of its majesty. The waters here are not green as they are at the larger cataract; and, though the ledge has been hollowed and bowed by them so as to form a curve, that curve does not deepen itself into a vast abyss as it does at the horseshoe up above. This smaller fall is again divided; and( the visitor, passing down a flight of steps and over a frail wooden bridge, finds himself onl a smaller island in the midst of it. “But we will go at once on to the glory, and the thunder, and the majesty, and the wrath of that upper hell of waters. We are still, let the reader remember, on Goat Island-still in the States-and on what is called the American side of the main body of the river. Advancing beyond the path leading down to the lesser fall, we come to that point of the island at which the waters of the main river begin to descend. From hence across to the Canadian side the cataract continues itself in one unabated line. But the line is very far from being direct or straight. After stretching for some little way from the shore to a point in the river whi(ch is reached by a wooden bridge at the end of which stands a tower upon the rock,-after stretching to this, the line of the ledge bends inward against the flood-in, and in, and in-till one is led to think that the depth of that horseshoe is immeasurable. It has been cut with no stinting lhand. A monstrous cantle has been worn back out of the centre of the rock, so that the fury of the waters converges; and the spectator, as hie gazes into the hollow with wislhfill eyes, faincies that he can hardly trace omit the centre of the abyss. “Go down to the end of that wood(len bridge, seat yourself on the rail, and there sit till all the outer world is lost to you. There is no grander spot about Niagara than this. The waters are absolutely around you. If you have that power of eye-contrio which is so neces 360

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NEW YORK. sary to the full enjoyment of scenery, you will see nothing but the water. You will certainly hear nothing else; and the sound, I beg you to rememnber, is not an ear-cracking, agonizing crash and clang of noises, but is melodious and soft withal, though loud as thunder. It fills your ears, and, as it were, envelops them, but at the same time you can speak to your neighbor without an effort. But at this place, and in these moments, the less of speaking, I should say, the better. There is no grander spot than this. Here, seated on the rail of the bridge, you will not see the whole depth of the fall. In lookiing at the grandest works of nature, and of art too, I fancy it is never well to see all. There should be something left to the imagination, and much should be half concealed in mystery. The greatest charm of a mountain range is the wild feeling that there must be strange, unknown, desolate worlds in those far-off valleys beyond. And so here, at Niagara, that converging rush of waters may fall down, down at once into a hell of rivers, for what the eye can see. It is glorious to watch themn in their first curve over the rocks. They come green as a bank of emeralds, but with a fitfil flying color, as though conscious that in one moment more they would be dashed into spray and rise into air, pale as driven snow. The vapor rises high into the air, and is gathered there, visible always as a permanent white cloud over the cataract; but the bulk of the spray which fills the lower hollow of that horseshoe is like a tumult of snow. This you will not fuilly see from your seat on the rail. The head of it rises ever and anon out of that caldron below, but the caldron itself will be invisible. It is ever so far down -far as your own imagination can sink it. But your eyes will rest full upon the curve of the waters. The shape you will be looking at is that of a horseshoe, but of a horseshoe miraculously deep from toe to heel; and this depth becomes greater as you sit there. That which at first was only great and beautifuil becomes gigantic and sublime, till the mind is at a loss to find an epithet for its own use. To realize Niagara, you must sit there till you see nothing else than that which you have come to see. You will hear nothing else, and think of nothing else. At length you will be at one with the tumbling river before you. You will find yourself among the waters as though y(ll belonged to them. The cool, liquid green will run through your veins, and the voice of the cataract will be the expression of your own heart. You will fall as the bright waters fall, rushing down into your new world with no hesitation and with no dismay; and you will rise again as the spray rises, bright, beautiful and pure.

Then you wi I flow away in your course to the uncompassed, distant, and eternal ocean. 1361 I I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “When this state has been reached and has passed away, you may get off your rail and mount the tower. It is not very high, and there is a balcony at the top onil which some half-dozen persons may stand at ease. Here the mystery is lost, but the whole fall is seen.

It is not even at this spot brought so fully before your eye, made to show itself in so complete and entire a shape, as it will do when you come to stand near it on the Canadian shore. But I think that it shows itself more beautifully. And the form of the cataract is such, that here on Goat Island, on the American shore, no spray will reach you, though you are absolutely over the waters. But on the Canadian side, the road as it approaches the fall is wet and rotten with spray, and you, as you stand close upon the edge, will be wet also. The rainbows as they are seen through the rising cloud-for the sun’s rays, as seen through these waters, show themselves in a bow, as they do when seen through rain-are pretty enough, and are greatly loved. And now we will cross the water, and with this object will return by the bridge out of Goat Island, ol the mainland of the American side. But as we do so, let me say that one of the great charms of Niagara consists in this: that over and above that one great object of wonder and beauty, there is so much little loveliness-loveliness especially of water I mean. There are little rivulets running here and there over little falls, with pendent boughs above them, and stones shining under their shallow depths. As the visitor stands and looks through the trees, the rapids glitter before him, and then hide themselves behind islands. They glitter and sparkle in far distances under the bright foliage, till the remembrance is lost, and one knows not which way they run….. ” Having mnounted the hill on the Canada side, you will walk on toward the falls. As I have said before, you will from this side look dlirectly into the full circle of the upper cataract, while you will have b)efore yoli, at your left hand, the whole expanse of the lesser fall. For those who desire to see all at a glance, who wish to comprise the whole with their eyes, and to leave nothing to be guessed, nothing to be surinised, this no doubt is the best point of view….. “Here, on this side, you walk on to the very edge of the cataract, and, if your tread be steady and your legs firm, you dip your foot into the water exactly at the spot where the thin outside margin of the current reaches the rocky edge and jumps to join the mass of the fall. The bed of white foamtn beneath is certainly seen better here than elsewhere, and the green curve of the water is as bright here as when seen 362 I

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NEW YORK. from the wooden rail across. But nevertheless I say again that that wooden rail is the one point from whence Niagara may be best seen aright. “Close to the cataract, exactly at the spot from whence in former days the Table Rock used to project from the land over the boiling caldron below, there is now a shaft, down which you will descend to the level of the river, and pass between the rock and the torrent. This Table Rock broke away from the cliff and fell, as up the whole course of the river the seceding rocks have split and fallen from time to time through countless years, and will continue to do till the bed of the upper lake is reached….. ” In the spot to which I allude the visitor stands on a broad safe path, made of shingles, between the rock over which the water rushes and the rushing water. He will go in so far that the spray, rising back from the bed of the torrent, does not incommode him. With this exception, the farther he can go in the better; but circumstances will clearly show him the spot to which he should advance. Unless the water be driven in by a very strong wind, five yards make the difference between a comparatively dry coat and an absolutely wet one. And then let him stand with his back to the entrance, thus hiding the last glimmer of the expiring day. So standing, he will look up among the falling waters, or down into the deep, misty pit, from which they reascend in almost as palpable a bulk. The rock will be at his right hand, high and hard, and dark and straight, like the wall of some huge cavern, such as children enter in their dreams. For the first five minutes he will be looking but at the waters of a cataract-at the waters, indeed, of such a cataract as we know no other, and at their interior curves which elsewhere we cannot see. But by and by all this will change. He will no longer be on a shingly path beneath a waterfall; but that feeling of a cavern wall will grow upon him, of a cavern deep, below roaring seas, in which the waves are there, though they do not enter in upon him; or rather, not the waves, but the very bowels of the ocean. He will feel as though the floods surrounded him, coming and going with their wild sounds, and he will hardly recognize that though among them he is not in them. And they, as they fall with a continual roar, not hurting the ear, but musical withal, will seem to move as the vast ocean waters may perhaps move in their internal currents. He will lose the sense of one continued descent, and think that they are passing round him in their appointed courses. The broken spray that rises from the depths below, 363

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rises so strongly, so palpably, so rapidly, that the motion in every direction will seem equal. And, as he looks on, strange colors will show themselves through the mist; the shades of gray will become green or blue, with ever and anon a flash of white; and then, when some gust of wind blows in with greater violence, the sea-girt cavern will become all dark and black. Oh, my friend, let there be no one there to speak to thee then; no, not even a brother. As you stand there speak only to the waters.” The principal rivers are navigable for a greater or less distance, and canals connect the various parts of the State, and afford water transportation along the unnavigable parts of the rivers. The principal islands are Long Island and Staten Island. Long Island extends eastward from the mainland, and lies south of Connecticut. Its northern shore is washed by Long Island Sound, and its eastern and southern shores by the Atlantic Ocean, while the East River, a narrow strait, separates it fronm Manhattan Island. It is about 115 miles long, and about 20 miles broad. Its surface is generally level, rising only in slight elevations.

The coast is broken into numerous bays and harbors, some of which are excellent. Gardiner’s and Great Peconic bays, at the eastern extremity of the island, extend into the land for about 30 miles. The majority of these bays form the harbors of flourishing towns. The coast is well lighted, and several fine summer resorts are situated along it. The soil is fertile and highly cultivated. Several important towns are located on the island, and railroads furnish sure and rapid communication between them. Brooklyn, the second city in the State, is located on the extreme western end of Long Island. Staten Island lies in the lower part of New York Bay. It is about 14 miles long, 4 miles wide, and is built up with a number of busy little villages. Its shores and heights are lined with handsome country seats, and a railroad extends throughout its entire length. MINERALS. The State is very rich in mineral deposits. Iron abounds. Extensive beds of hematite ores are found in Columbia and Dutchess counties, magnetic ores in Putnam, Orange, and Westchester counties, and the region lying between Lakes Champlain and Ontario is especially rich in specular and magnetic ores.

The western counties also contain large deposits of this mineral. Coal is found in Steuben county, and lead in St. Lawrence, Ulster, Sullivan, Columbia, Wash 364 i

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NEW YORK. ington, Dutchess, Rensselaer, and Westchester counties. Zinc, copper, titanium, manganese, arsenic, silver, cobalt, and bismuth are found to a limited extent. Marble, gneiss, and sandstone abound. Sulphuret of iron is found ill St. Lawrence county, and carburet in Essex, Clinton, and Dutchess counties. Mineral springs are numerous. There are fine salt springs in Onondaga (which yield in this county large quantities of table salt), Erie, Genesee, and Orleans counties. Natural issues of carbureted hydrogen exist in several counties in the State. In Chautauqua county, the village of Fredonia is lighted by means of this gas, as is also Barcelona lighthouse in the same county. CLIMATE. In the northern and western parts of the State, the summer is short and hot, the winter long and severe, and the spring cold and damp, and rendered unpleasant by chilly winds. In the eastern section the sea breezes temper the severity of the cold, and lessen the heat of the summer. The climate of New York City is the most delightful in the country, taking it “the year round.” SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. In the valleys of the principal rivers of the State the soil is generally of an excellent quality, and very fertile. In the mountainous regions it is poor. The average soil, however, is good, and the State as a whole is fertile. Agriculture is carried on to a very great extent, much care being given to scientific farming. The State is noted for its market gardens, as well as for its dairy and grazing farms. In 1869, there were 14,355,403 acres of improved land, and 6,616,553 acres of unimproved land in the State, whose agricultural wealth for the same year may be stated as follows: Cash value of farms (estimated),….. $1,000,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery

(estimated),……………………$38,000,000 Number of horses,…………… 703,120 ” asses and mules,………. 1,960 ” milch cows,…………. 1,980,300 young cattle……….2,450,600
sheep,…………… 3,750,960 swine,……….. 4,960,300 Value of domestic animals……..$108,856,290 Bushels of wheat…………..

9,750,000 ‘4 rye,…………… 4,748,000 “.. Indian corn……….19,100,000 oats…………. 31,250,000 365

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. B f peas and beans………1,909,339 Irish potatoes,………28,500,000 barley………………… 4,600,000
buckwheat,………….. 278,109 of
wool,……………………..9,500,000
butter……………………103,097,280 cheese,…………….

48,548,289 hops………………………9,600,000
lay………………………..4,600,000
ar,………………………..10,816,458 f wine…………………

62,000 orchard products (estimated),… $4,000,000 market garden products (estimated), $3,800,000 homemade manufactures, “. $825,000 slaughtered animals,.. “. $16,000,000 COMMERCE. The commerce of New York is the most important of any of the States. In 1863 the total tonnage owned in the State was 1,889,190 tons, of which 848,328 was registered, and 321,714 was steam tonnage. In addition to this, however, a very large proportion of the vessels owned in other States are engaged in trading with the ports of New\ York. This State possesses the principal harbor of the Republic, and is more extensively engaged in the foreign and coast trade than any other.

A very large share of the exports, and nearly all the imports, of the country pass through the port of New York. The share of the State in the lake trade is immense. Buffalo is the great centre of this trade. The enrolled and licensed tonnage of the port in 1863 was 112,893 tons, of which 50,964 was steam tonnage. In the same year, 7647’American and foreign vessels were entered, and 7729 were cleared at Buffalo. The value of imports from the west by lake and railroad, in the same year, was estimated at $125,000,000. Of this sum, $2,957,021 were on account of imports from Canada. The total value of imports from all sections was $256,214,614. Immense quantities of grain are received annually from all parts of the west, and shipped eastward by the Erie Canal. In 1863, the value of canal exports was $56,644,792. In 1869, the tonnage of merchandise carried through them amounted to 1,000,000 tons, the capacity of all the vessels entered at the ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco. In the same year the tolls amounted to $1,278,507.52. These tolls are pledged by the Constitution for the support and repair of the canals, the repayment of the State indebtedness on their account, the reimbursement of the 366 Bushels o ..

.. &. Pounds o 14 Tons of h Maple su~ Gallons ot Value of && t& i

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NEW YORK. treasury for taxation upon the people, and for the support of the State Government. MANUFACTURES. The State is largely engaged in manufactures, almost every species of industry being represented in this branch of its wealth. In 1870, there were in the State 36,206
establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 351,800 hands and a capital of $366,994,320, consuming raw material worth $452,065,452, and yielding an annual product of $785,194,651. There were 81 cotton mills, with a capital of $8,511,336, employing 2608 male and 4546 female hands, consuming raw material worth $6,990,626, paying $2,626,131 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $11,078,211. There were 188 woollen mills, with a capital of $9,972,857, employing 4381 male and 2992 female hands, colisulning raw material worth $8,348,693, paying $2,824,344 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $14,152,645. The other manufactures were as follows: Value of leather produced……..$36,569,800 ‘ pig iron produced,……… 7,922,463 rolled iron produced……. 16,834,480 ” steam engines and machinery produced, 20,962,058 agricultural implements produced,. 11,847,037 sawed and planed lumber produced, 27,570,569 flour produced………60,237,220 salt produced……… 1,017,569 malt and spirituous liquors produced, 19,297,274 ” boots and shoes produced,…. 23,679,874 furniture produced…….16,075,268 musical instruments produced,.. 5,453,015
jewelry, silverware, etc., produced,. 10,853,956 ” soap and candles produced,… 6,125,018 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State of New York was the first member of the Union to engage in internal improvements upon a large scale. In 1817, the great Erie and Hudson Canal was commenced. It was completed in 1825 at a cost of $7,000,000. This magnificent work, connecting the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Great Lakes, is due to the genius and determination of De Witt Clinton, who more than any other man contributed to its successful accomplishment. The Erie Canal has several branches diverging from it, viz: one from Utica to Binghampton, one from Syracuse to Oswego, one from Geneva to 367 )

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Montezuma, and one from Rochester to Danville. The next important main line is the Champlain Canal, from Albany to Lake Champlain, which is not far behind the “Erie” in the extent and value of its trade. The other canals are the Delaware and Hudson, connecting the Hudson River with the coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania; the Chemung, connecting Senaca Lake and Elmira; thie Crooked Lake, between Penn Yan and Dresden; and the Black River and Genesee Valley Canal, which is not yet completed. There are about 873 miles of canal navigation completed in the State. The various routes are all in successful operation, each commanding a large and profitable trade. They have all been constructed by the State. The railroads of New York are among the most important in tlhe country. In 1870 there were 4773 miles of completed roads in the State. The total cost of these was about $225,000,000. The State is traversed in every direction by roads of this class, which connect its principal towns and cities, and extend into the States lying around it. Close connections are made with the most important roads of the Union, and by a judicious system, inaugurated within the last few years, travellers are conveyed from New York City to the principal cities of the Union without change of cars in the majority of instances, and waith but one or two changes in the others. Freights are brought firoom tihe far South and the remote West to the metropolis in the cars iii which they were originally placed. The New York Central Railway, extending from Albany to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo and Oswego; the Erie Railway, from Jersey City, opposite New York City (and lying for a short distance in New Jersey), to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo, Dunklirk, and Rochester; the Albany and Susquehanna, fromnt Albany to Binghampton; and the Hudson River and Harlemn Railways, the last two from New Yorki City to Albany, are the principal roads in the State. EDUCATION.

“The institutions of higher education in this State are mostly iinder the general supervision of a board styled’The Regents of the University of the State of New York.’ The Board consists of the Governor, the LieutenantGovernor, the Secretary of State, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction, as ex-officio members, and of nineteen other persons chosen by the Legislature in the same manner as Senators in Congress. The officers of the Regents are a Chancellor, a V,ice-Chancellor, a Treasurer, a Secretary and an Assistant Secretary, 368

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NEW YORK. who are appointed by the Board, and who hold their offices at its pleasure. The leading duties with which the Regents are charged, are the incorporation of colleges, academies and other institutions of learning, under such general rules and regulations as they may from time to time establish, and the visitation and general supervision of all colleges and academies. “The Regents are the Trustees of the State Library, the Trustees of the State Cabinet of Natural History, and the Historical and Antiquarian Collection connected therewith. They annually apportion itmongi the academies the sum of $40,000 from the income of the literature Fund; also the sum of $18,000, or thereabouts, to acadeinies appointed to instruct classes in the science of common school teachlinlg; and $3000 to academies which shall have raised an equal amount, for the purchase of books and philosophical and chemical L)pparatus. “An organization consisting of the officers of colleges and academies, subject to the visitation of the Board, and called’The University Convocation of the State of New York,’ holds an annual session at Albany, commencing on the first Tuesday in August. “There are in the State 23 colleges, the oldest, Columbia College, having been incorporated by the colonial government in 1754. This college has, in addition to its academical department, a Law Departilent, and a School of Mines. The University of the City of New York has schools of Art; of Civil Engineering and Architecture; of Analytical and Practical Chemistry; and of Law. “Cornell University, at Ithaca, incorporated in 1865, and opened to students in 1868, has been liberally endowed by Mr. Ezra Cornell. It has also received the donation of land scrip made to this State by the General Government to found an agricultural college. In its plan and object, it combines the advantages of a university with the practical benefits of a school of science and art. “Rutger’s Female College, in New York City, provides a thorough collegiate course of instruction, surpassing even many colleges for young men. “Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie; The Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn; and other institutions for young ladies, offer every facility desired for complete education. “The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the general supervision of Public Schools in the State.

School Commissioners in the different counties, city and town superintendents in the principal 369

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cities and towns, and trustees in the school districts, exercise a local supervision over the schools in their respective localities. Great improvements have been made ill the public schools of the State. The schools were made free in 1867. There are four State Normal Schools in successful operation, and four others have been authorized by law. The State Normal and Training School at Oswego has been distiinguished for its influence in introducing special methods of primary instruction, known as Object Teaching. During the year 1867-68, 81
academies instructed teachers’ classes in the science of common school teaching and government, under the supervision of the Regents of the University. Teachers’ Institutes are held in nearly all the counties, principally under the direction of the County Commissioners.” * In the year 1870, there were 11,705 public schools in the Stat(, conducted by 5283 male and 21,230 female teachers. The nunibcr of children at school during some portion of the year was 1,029,955. The amount expended on these schools in thesame year was $9,929,462. In 1867 the number of private schools was 1433. In 1870 there were 8360 libraries in the State, containing 2,436,576 volumes. Of these 774 were public. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows: daily 74, semiweekly 10, triweekly 7, weekly 366, monthly 69, quarterly 10, annual 6-total 542. Of these 365 were political, 56 religious, 63 literary, and 58 miscellaneous. Thtieir total annual circulation was 320,930,884 copies.

PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The charitable institutions of this State are, perhaps, the most complete and the best managed of any in America. They are under the general supervision of a Board of Public State Charities, appointed by the Governor. The New York Institution for the Deaf and Dunmb, located at New York City, was founded in 1818. It is one of the largest and most complete in the world, and is famous for the excellence and success of its system of treatment. Oni the 1st of January, 1868, it contained 439 pupils. The New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, to which place it * American Year Book, vol. i. pp. 415-416. 370 I

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NEW YORK. was removed from Albany in 1855, is in a flourishing condition.

The iumber of inmates is 140. The State Lunatic Asylum is at Utica. It was opened in 1843, and is always full of patients. On the 1st of January, 1867, the number was 401. Besides this establishment the State maintains the Willard Asylum, at Ovdc, and the Hudson River Asylum, at Poughkeepsie.

The City and County of New York maintain a large Insane Asylum on Blackwell’s Island; King’s county has one at Flatbush, and the Commissioners of Emigration have one on Ward’s Island. There are also several private, and a number of county asylums. The Inebriate Asylum is at Binghampton. Persons addicted to the use of strong drink are reclaimed here. There were 40 inmates in the asylum on the 1st of January, 1868. The W,estern House of Refuge, at Rochester, is for the confinement and reformation of juvenile delinquents. It was opened in 1849. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were 448 boys confined here. There are three State Prisons-one at Sing Sing, one at Clinton, and one at Auburn. They are each managed by a warden, and are under the supervision of a Board of five persons appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They hold office ten years. The prisoners are required to labor during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. The number of inmates in the Sing Sing prison on the 1st of September, 1867, was 1409; the number in the Auburn prison, 927; in the Clinton prison, 507. All the principal cities of the State are provided with excellent penal establishments of their own, and make liberal provision for the support of such charitable institutions as are needed. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 the total value of church property was $66,073,755.

The number of churches was 5474. FINANCES. On the 30th of September, 1874, the total funded debt of the State was $30,199,456, classified as follows: General fund……………… $3,988,526

Contingent………………………………. 68,000

Canal……………….10,230,430

Bounty;……………………………….15,912,500

Total,……………………$30,199,456 371

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The following statement shows the amount of the State debt on September 30Oth, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking ftinds at that date: Balances. As provided for.

General fund, $4,040,026.40 $1,008,975.74 $3,031,050.66 Contingent, 68,000.00 17,992.21 50,007.79 Canal, 11,966,580.00 2,149,884.61

9,816,695.39 Bounty, 22,567,000.00 3,055,609.58 19,511,390.42

$38,641,606.40 $6,232,462.14 $32,409,144.26 The State debt, on September 30th, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds, amounted to…… $38,641,606.40 On September 30th, 1874, to……

30,199,456.40 Showing a reduction of……. $8,442,150.00 The receipts of the State Treasury, on account of all funds except the Canal and Free School funds for the fiscal year, amounted to $26,465,370.43, and the expenditures to $19,636,308.36. The gross valuation of taxable property in the State for the year 1870 was $1,967,001,180. The total State tax am ounted to $14,285,97(6, being a little more than seven mills on the dollar. On the 1st of October, ]870, there were 292 National Banks in operation in the State of New York, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $13,497,741, and an aggregate circulation of $67,077,668. At the same time there were 61 banks doing business under the State lws, whose outstanding circulation was $2,253,937.50. There were, at the same time, 133 Savings Banks, with assets estimated at $220,000,000. GOVERNMENT. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in 1777. It has been amended and changed since then. The last Convention f()r this purpose met in June, 1867, and continued its sessions for several weeks into the year 1868. The Governnlient of the State is placed in the hands of a Governor, ILieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Comp)troller, Treasurer, Attorney General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 32 members) and an Assemnbly (of 128 members). The Exeeiictive officers named above and the Senators are elected once every two years, and the members of the Assembly annually. The election for Governor and f,ielitenant-Governor and that for the other officers are held on alternate years. The Canal Commissioners and Inspectors of State 372 As provided f,or. $3,031,050.66

50,007.79 9,816,695.39 19,511,390.42 $32,409,144.26

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NEW YORK. Prisons are elected for three years, one each year. The Canal Ap praisers, the Superintendent of the Banking Department, and the Auditor of the Canal Department are appointed for three years by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Adjutanit-General and other officers of the military staff are appointed by the Governor. “The Court for the Trial of Impeachments is composed of the President of the Senate (who is president of the court, and when absent the chief judge of the Court of Appeals presides), the Senators, or the major part of them, and the judges of the Court of Appeals, or the greater part of them. It is a court of record, and, when sunmmoned, meets at Albany, and has for its clerk and officers the clerk and officers of the Senate. “The Court of Appeals has fill power to correct and reverse all proceedings and decisions of the Supreme Court. It is composed of eight judges, of whom four are elected (one every second year) by the people at large, for eight years, and four selected each year from the Justices-of the Supreme Court having the shortest time to serve. These selections are made alternately firom the First, Third, Fifth, and Seventh, and from the Second, Fourtl, Sixth, and Eighth Judicial Districts. The judge (of the four chosen at large) whose term first expires, presides as Chief Judge. Six jud(es constitute a quorum Every cause must be decided within the year in which it is argue(l, and, unless reargued, before the close of the term after the argunment. “The Supreme Court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, and power to review judgments of the County Courts, and of the old Courts of Common Pleas. For the election of the Justices, the State is divided into eight judicial districts, the first of which elects five, and all the others four, to serve eight years. In each district one justice goes out of office every two years. The justice in each district whose term first expires, and who is not a judge of the Court of Appeals, is a Presiding Justice of the court, and the clerks of the several counties serve as clerks. “The County Courts are always open for the transaction of any business for which no notice is required to be given to an opposing party. At least two terms in each county for the trial of issues of law or fact, and as many more as the County Judge shall appoint, shall be held in each year. “County Judges are elected for four years; they are vested with the powers of justices of the Supreme Court at Chambers, are mem ‘73

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. bers of Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and, with two Justices of the Peace, constitute Courts of Sessions. “The Criminal Courts are the Courts of Oyer and Terminer and the Courts of Sessions. The Courts of Oyer and Terminer in each county, except in the city and county of New York, are composed of a justice of the Supreme Court, who presides, the County Judge, and the two Justices of the Peace chosen members of the Court of Sessions. The Presiding Justice and any two of the others form a quorum. In the city and county of New York they are held by a justice of the Supreme Court alone. These courts are all held at the same time and place at which the Circuit Courts are held. Courts of Sessions, except in the city of New York, are composed of the County Judge and the two Justices of the Peace designated as members of thie Court of Sessions, and are held at the same time and place as the County Courts.” *

The seat of Government is established at Albany. For purposes of government the State is divided into 60 counties HISTORY. The first white man who trod the soil of New York, was Samuel Champlain, a French navigator, who entered the lake to which he lias given his name, on the 4th of July, 1609. On the 12th of the same month, Hendrik Hudson, an Englishman, commanding a ship ill the service of the Dutch East India Company, entered the bay of New York, having discovered the entrance to it three days previous. lie explored the river which is called after him, as far as Albany; and during the next ten years, frequent voyages for trade were made to this region by the Dutch, and small trading posts were established by them at Manhattan Island (New Yorkl City and Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, Fort Orange and Manhattan Island were permanently settled, 18 families locating themselves at the former place, and 30 at the latter, which was called New Amsterdam. The English claimed the territory by right of prior possession; and in March, 1664, Charles II.

granted it to his brother, the Duke of York. In August of the same year, the English took forcible possession of the province, which had been called New Netherlands by the Dutch, and changed its name to New York, which also became the name of the town of New Amsterdam. * American Year Book, vol. ii. p. 412. 374

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NEW YORK. NEW YORK IN 1664. Under the rule of James II., the colony was governed with an iron I-and. Large grants of land and odious privileges were awarded to unworthy favorites, but the people at large were oppressed with heavy taxes, and their industry hampered by burdensome restrictions upon manufactures and trade. Frequent conflicts between the authorities and the people were the result of these narrow measures. It was hoped that the accession of WTilliam and Mary to the throne would bring with it a change in the polivcy of the Government towards the province, but this expectation was doomed to disappointment. The new king was quite as fond of high taxes as the old one had been. Nicholson, the Governor appointed by King James, oppressed the people so grievously, that they rose against him in 16,89, seized the government, and made their leader, Jacob Leisler, a merchant of New York, Governor in the names of William and Mary. Leisler held his place for two years, although the home Government never formally recognized him. In 1691, the king sent Governor Sloughter over to supersede him. Leisler and his son-in-law, Milborne, made some slight resistance to the new ruler, and were arested, tried for treason, and executed. The Indians gave great trouble to the first settlers, and the early history of New York is little more than a record of a continuous war.; fhre with the various tribes of the Five Nations. In 168; Scehenee 24 375

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tady was taken and burnt by the savages, and many of its inhabitants killed. During the wars with the French in America, many incursions were made into the province by the French and Indians, and coilsiderable suffering was experienced by the settlers. The province bore a prominent part in these struggles, furnishing many men and much money, and providing some of the best officers connected with them.

The country along Lakes George and Champlain was made historical by the events of these wars. The victory over Dieskau was won at the head of the former lake, which beautiful sheet of water was again made memorable by the fearful massacre of the garrison of Fort William Henry, in 1757. The fort had been surrendered to the French, but their Indian allies refused to respect the capitulation. The next year, Abercrombie’s army of 16,000
men, the largest and best equipped force that had ever been seen in America, was defeated before Ticonderoga. Besides these important events of the last French war, there were many other enterprises connected with these struggles, in which the colony won considerable renown. New York contained, perhaps, more royalist partisans than any of the colonies; but in spite of this, the people, as a whole, were warm in their resistance to the oppressions of England, and gave a hearty support to the measures adopted by the United Colonies for their common protection. In October, 1775, they forced Tryon, the last loyalist Governor, to take refuge on a British man-of-war. Some of the principal events of the Revolution occurred in this State, which, besides furnishing its fair share of men and means, gave to the cause many of the brightest names which adorn it.

The fortresses of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which were situated within the limits of New York, were seized by the “Green Mountain Boys,” of Vermont, in May, 1775. The other events of the war occurring in this State, were the advance and retreat of the army of Montgomery and Schuyler, which was expected to conquer Canada, in July, 1775, the battle of Long Island, and the occupation of New York, in February, 1776; the invasion of the State by Burgoyne, in the summer of 1777, and his subsequent surrender at Saratoga, after the battles of Stillwater and Saratoga, in October of the same year; the contests with the Six Natianis, who had espoused the English cause, and the destruction of their villages by General Sullivan, in 1779; and the evacuation of the city of New York by the British, on the 25th of November, 1783. Immediately after the close of the war, the State was involved in 376

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:NEW YORK. the renewal of an old controversy respecting the territory now known as the State of Vermont. * For some time it seemed that the quarrel would result in open hostilities between New York and Vermont; but it was at length compromised in 1790, as has beeni shown iii another chapter. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in March, 1777. It was revised in 1801, 1821, and 1846. A fourth revision was made in 1868.

Slavery existed in New York until 1817, when it was finally abolished.

Indeed, at the time of the seizure of the province by the English, in 1664, it contained, in proportion to its population, more slaves than Virginia. New York was the eleventh State to ratify the Constitution of the United States, which was done on the 26th of July, 1788. The western part of the State was rapidly settled after the close of the Revolution, but suffered considerably from the attacks of the British (luring the war of 1812-15. The State bore a conspicuous part in this struggle. The principal naval depot of the Americans on the lakes was at Sacket’s Harbor, on Lake Ontario, and was the object of an unsuccessful attack by the British. The battle of Plattsburg and the great naval fight on Lake Champlain both occurred within the limits of the State, which was also well represented in the gallant little navy which made such a glorious name on the high seas. “In 1796, the’ Western Navigation Company’ was incorporated. This company built locks around the Rapids upon the Mohawk, and dug a canal across the portage at Rome, so that laden boats could pass from the ocean to Oneida Lake, and thence by the outlet of that sheet of water to Lake Ontario. Various plans were brought before the public from time to time for improving, this channel of navigation and for building locks around Niagara Falls, so as to unite the waters of Ontario and Erie.

In 1800, Governeur Morris conceived the bold(l plan of bringing the waters of Lake Erie to the Hudson by means of a canal directly through the centre of the State. In 1808, James Geddes made a partial survey of the proposed route, and gave a report highly favorable to the enterprise. De Witt Clinton soon after investigated the matter, and from that time forward gave to the project the whole weight of his influence. The war of 1812
caused a suspension of the work, but upon the return of peace in 1815, the dis * See Chapter on Vermont. 377

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cussion was vigorously resumed; and in 1816, a law was passed authorizing the construction of the canal. The work was actually commenced in 1817, and the canal was finished in 1825. It speedily became the great channel of trade and emigration, and poured into New York City the rich streams of traffic which have made it the commercial metropolis of the western continent. The State has been covered with a network of railways, rendering communication between dlistant points easy and rapid. The early attention paid to internal improvements, and the consequent development of internal resources, gave to New York the impetus which has placed it first in commercial importance, and given to it the name of’ The Empire State.”’ * During the recent war, the State was amongst the first and most active in its support of the Government. It contributed to the service of the Union a force of 473,443 men, of which number the city of New York furnished 267,551. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance are New York, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Rochester, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Watervleit, Oswego, Newtown, Pouglkeepsie, Auburn, Newburgh, Elmira, Morrisania, Cohoes, Flushing, Hempstead, Johnson, Lockport, Binghamnpton, Fishkill, Rome, Schenectady, Kingston, Cortlandt, Yonkers, Oyster Bay, Ogdensburgh, Brookhaven, Huntington, Ithaca, Rondout, Saugerties, and Greenburg. ALBANY, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Albany county, on the right bank of the Iutdson, at the head of tidewater and sloop navigation, in 42~ 39’ 3” N. latitude, 73~ 32t W. longitude; 145 m-iles north of New York, 164 west of Boston, and 370 northeast from Washington. It is finely located, the ground rising to the westward, from the river shore to an elevation of about 220 feet.

These heights are divided into three distinct hills by ravines through which considerable streams of water flow, viz., the Foxen Kill, Rutten Kill, and the Beaver Kill. The ravines have been almost entirely filled up, and the creeks reach the river by means of huge sewers far below the surface. “The view from the most elevated points in Albany is very fine.

To the north may be seen the city of Troy and( adjacent vilages, and in the distance loom up the Green Mountains * New American Cyclop,edia, vol xii. p. 269. 378

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NEW YORK. ALBANY. of Vermont. To the east we behold a beautiful extent of country stretching beyond the Hudson as far as the eye can reach; and to the south, the Helderbergs and the Catskill Mountains, with the river flowing at their base.” Being situated at the head of sloop navigation, Albany has a large commerce with all parts of the State. The Hudson affords water communication with the sea, the Erie Canal connects it with the great lakes, and the Champlain Canal binds it to Lake Champlain and the lower St. Lawrence. Seven railways connect it with all parts of the Union. The Erie Canal enters the city at its northern limits. The boats are thence conveyed to a large basin covering 32 acres, which has been formed by constructing a pier, more than a mile in length, which cuts off and encloses a bend in the river. A safe and fine anchorage is thus secured for vessels and steamers during the season of ice, and the sides of the basin afford excellent wharfage. The trade brought to the city by the canals is immense, and has been the chief cause of its rapid growth and prosperity. The lumber trade is estilnated at about.7,000,000. About 2;000;000 barrels of flour, over 379

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 3,000,000 bushels of corn, nearly 2,000,000
bushels of barley, and about 5,000,000 pounds of wool, pass through Albany yearly. The city is also largely interested in manufactures. Iron, hollowware, and malt are the principal articles. Large numbers of stoves and large quantities of beer are produced annually. Pianofortes, hats, caps, bonnets, sleighs, coaches, leather, are also produced in large quantities. The city is well built as a rule, and contains a number of handsome edifices. The streets are more crooked and irregular than those of any American city, save Boston, but, with this exception, Albany retains few traces of its origin. State street, extending from the river, westward to the Capitol, is the’principal thoroughfare. The city contains a number of public squares, some of which are handsome. The public buildings are handsome, though not in keeping with the wealth and importance of the Empire State. The Capitol was erected in 1807, at a cost of $173,000. It is a plain building of brown stone, from the quarries on the Hudson River, with a Doric portico of white marble. It is 115 by 90
feet, and is 50 feet high. It is surmounted by a dome ornamented with a statue of Justice. In this building are the halls of the two Houses of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor, and Adjutant-General, and the chambers of the Court of Appeals and Supreme Court. Immediately in the rear of the Capitol stands the new State Library, a handsome modern fire-proof edifice, containing more than 60,000 volumes, among which are some of the rarest and most valuable works in print. The State Hall, a large edifice of white marble, stands opposite the Capitol, with a handsome park between them. It contains the offices of the Secretary of State and other State officials. It was b)uilt in 1843, at a cost of $350,000. A new and imposing Capitol is now in course of erection. Near the State Hall, and on the same side of the square, is the City Hall, also built of white marble, at an expense of $120,000. It is occupied by the officers of the city government, and by the city and countyr courts. The educational and scientific institutions of Albany are of a high character.

They possess many of the handsomest buildings in the city. In addition to the free common schools, the Albany Academy, the Albany Female Academy, the State Normal School, for the education of teachers in common schools, and the Albany University are the principal. The University embraces departments of law, medicine, and science in its various branches, and connected with it is the 380

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NEW YORK. D)udley Observatory, founded by Mrs. Blandina Dudley. The Jler chants’ Exchange, Post Ofice, and Exchange Bank are handsome edifices. The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous, and( are liberally supported. The city contains upwards of 50 churches and 6 missions. The most imposing church edifice is the Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, one of the largest churches in the Union. It will seat 4000 persons. There are several fine libraries in the city, and the newspapers publislied here are influential and possessed of a large circulation. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, whichl is distributed in pipes from a large reservoir built at an expense of $1,000,000. For purposes of government the city is divided into teii wvards, each of which elects two aldermen, who, together with tha Mayor and Recorder, fortm the Common Council, or city government. The population, according to the census of 1870, is 69,422. With the exception of Jamestown, in Virginia, Albany is the oldest settlement within the limits of the original thirteen States. Before the arrival of the whites, the Indians gave to the place the name of. Seho-negh-ta-da, “over the plains,” which name the Dutch settlers afterwards gave to an Indian settlement which marked the present site of Schenectady, as “over the plains” from Albany. In September, 1609, Hendrik Hudson, having discovered the river which bears his name, ascended it to a point now marked by the city of Hudson, where he anchored, having spent nearly two weeks in the voyage from the mouth of the river. From this point the mate and a boat’s crew ascended to the head of tide water, the present site of Albanry, 27
miles higher up the stream. In 1614, a fort and a trading post were established by the Dutch on Boyd’s Island, near the southern limits of the present city. In 1617, the fort was carried away by a flood, and a year or two later, a new one was built near the present site of Fort Orange Hotel, on Broadway, and called Fort Orange in honor of the Prince of Orange. In 1630, Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a dealer in pearls, of Amsterdam, bought from the Indians a large tract of land, including Fort Orange, on the west bank of the Hudson, and sent out a considerable colony of Dutch mechanics and farmers to occupy his new estate. Seven years afterwards he purchased from the Indians another tract lying immediately across the Hudson, and thus became proprietor of a district extending for 24 miles along the river, and‘48 miles from east to west. Over this region, to which he gave the name of Rensselaerswyck, he exercised sovereign authority, as its k 381

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURIC’ES. patroon, committing the administration of matters of justice and fil nance to a commissarygeneral. In 1664, the province passed into the hands of the English. Van Rensselaer was secured in his possession of the soil by a new patent from the king, but the sovereignty passed to the crown. The Van Rensselaer family still retain a large portion of the orininal estate, and a part of the Van Rensselaer mansion, built in 1765, is still standing in Albany. After passing into the hands of the English, the settlement, which had been known as Fort Orange, Beaverwyck, Williamstadit, and the Fuyck, was called Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., of England.

Albany received a city charter in 1686, with Peter Schuyler as its first’mayor. The selection of the mayor was fortunate, as both he and his family possessed the confidence and friendship of the Indians to such an extent that the savages never attacked Albany, though they made the neighboring settlements feel severely the terrors of their hostility.

During the Revolution, Albany gave an active support to the patriot cause, and contributed many troops to the American army. The defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga saved it from capture, as that general was marching directly upon it. Sir Henry Clinton also made two attempts to reach it, both of which resulted in failure. In 1807, Albany became the capital of the State, but it was a comparatively illsignificant town until the introduction of steam navigation and the opening of the Erie Canal placed it in the path to its present prosperity. NEW YORK, The largest and most important city of the State and the Unlite( States, is situated in New York county, on Manhlattan Island(l, at the mouth of the Hudson River, 18
miles from the Atlantic Ocean, latitude (of the City Hall) 40~ 42’ 43” N., longitude 74~ 01 3” W. The city limits comprise the entire county of New York, embracing Manhattan Island, Randall’s, Ward’s, and Blackwell’s islands, in the East River, and Governor’s, Bedloe’s, and Ellis’ islands in the bay, the last 3 of which are occupied by the military posts of the Federal Government. Manhattan Island is bounded on the north by Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvel Creek, on the east by the East River, on the west by the Hudson River, and on the South by New York Bay. It is 9 miles long on the east side, 1321 miles long on the west side, and 21 miles wide at its greatest breadth. It is but a few fc::t in wAdtlt at its southern extremity, but spreads out like a fan 382

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NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY S BUILDINGY BROADWAY

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NEW YORj,K. as it stretches to the northward. The southern point is but a few inches above the level of the bay, but the island rises rapidly to the northward, its extreme northern portion being occupied by a series of bold, finely wooded heights, which terminate at the junction of the Hudson River and Spuyten DIuyvel creek, in a bold promontory 130 feet high. These heights, known as Washington Heights, are 2 or 3 miles in length. The southern portion of the island is principally a sand bed, but the remainder is rocky. The island covers all area of 22 square miles, or 14,000 acres. It is built up compactly for about 6 miles, and irregularly along the east side to Harlem, 3 miles farther. Along the west side it is built up compactly to the Central Park, 59th street, and irregularly to Manhattanville, 125th street, from which point, to Spuyten Duyvel creelk, it is covered with country seats, gardens, etc. Three wagon and 2 railroad bridges over the Harlem River connect the island with the mainland, and 26
lines of ferries connect it with Long and Staten islands and New Jersey.

The city is finely built, and presents an aspect of industry and liveliness unsurpassed by any city in the world. Lying in full sight of the ocean, with its magnificent bay to the southward, and the East and Hudson rivers washing its shores, the city of New York possesses a climate which renders it the most delightful residence in America. In the winter the proximity of the sea moderates the severity of the cold, and in the summer the heat is tempered by the delightful sea breezes which sweep over the island. Snow seldom lies in the streets for more than a few hours, and the intense “heated terms” of the summer are of very brief duration. As a natural consequence, the city is healthy, and the death-rate, in proportion to the population, is small. The southern portion is densely built up, and between the City Hall and 23d street, it is more thickly populated than any city in America. It is in this section that the “tenement houses,” or buildings containing from 10 to 20 families, are to be found. In this region there are many single blocks of dwellings containing twice the number of families residing on 5th avenue, on both sides of that street, from Washington Square to the Central Park, or than a continuous row of dwellings, similar to those of 5thl avenue, 3 or 4
miles in length. There is a multitude of these squares, any one of which contains a larger population than the whole city of Hartford, Connecticut, which covers an area of 7 square miles. The greatest mortality is

Annual Cyclol)dia, 1861. IHartford at that time contained a populaion of abco:t 28,000’. 385 lI

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE IN BROADWAY. in these overcrowded districts, which the severest police measures cannot keep clean and free from filth. It must not be supposed, however, that poverty alone induces persons to live in such houses. Many of the most crowded districts are occupied by people, especially foreigners, who wish to avoid the expense and trouble of more commnodious residences. The southern portion of the city is devoted almost exclusively to trade, comparatively few persons residing below the City Hall. Below Canal street the streets are narrow, crooked, and irregular, but above this point they are broad and straight, and are laid out at regular intervals. Above Houston street the streets extending across the island are numbered. The avenues begin in the vicinity of 3d street, and extend, or will extend, to the northern limits of the island, runfling parallel with the Hudson River. They are generally 100 feet wide, and are compactly built up. The numbered cross streets are usually 60 feet wide, but a few have a width of 100 feet. First street is about a mile and three quarters above the southern end: of the island, which is known as the Battery. The main thoroughfare is Broadway, which extends throughout the entire length of Manhattan Island. It 386 l

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NEW YORK. is built tip compactly for about 5 miles. There are over 420
miles of streets in the patrol districts, and 11 miles of piers along the water. The sewerage is good in the main, but is defective ill some places.

Upwards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid. The streets are lighted by over 15,000 gas lamps, the footways are generally made of broad stone flags, and the streets are laid in some cases with the wooden pavement, and in others with the Belgian, or stone block pavement. Cobble stones are rapidly disappearing. For so large a city, New York is remarkably clean, except in those portions lying close to the river, or given up to paupers. The city is substantially built. Frame houses are very rare. Many of the old quarters are built of brick, but this material is now used to a limited extent 0nly. Broadway and the principal business streets are lined with buildings of marble, iron, brown and Portland stone, palatial ill their appearance; and the sections devoted to the residences of the better classes are built up mainly with brown stone or Portland stone, and in some instances with marble. Thus the city presents an appearance of grandeur and solidity most pleasing to the eye. The public buildings will cominpare favorably with any in the world, and there is no city on the globe that can boast so many palatial warehouses and stores. Broadway is one of the most magnificent thoroughfares in the world. The stores which line it are generally from five to six stories high above the ground, with two cellars below the level of the pavement, and vaults extending to near the middle of the street. The adjacent streets in many cases rival Broadway in their splendor. The stores of the city are famous for their elegance and convenience, and for the magnificence of the goods displayed in them. The street! occupied by private residences are broad, clean, well paved, and are lined with dwellings inferior to none in the world in convenience and elegance.

Fifth, Madison, Park, and Lexington avenues, and the numbered streets crossing them, are lined with magnificent residences of brown or light-colored stone and marble. The amount of wealth and taste concentrated in the dwellings of the better classes of the citizens of New York is very great. The city is well provided with public parks and promenades. The principal parks, commencing at the lower end of the island, are the Battery, containing 10 acres, and facing the Bay; the Bowling Green; the City Hall Park, comprising an area of 10 acres, and containing the City Hall, the new Post Office, Court House, etc.; Washington Square, about 5 acres; Union Park; Grammercy Park, belonging to 387

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE IN FIFTH AVENUE. the owners of the residences facing it; Stuyvesant Square, about 3 acres, divided in the centre by the passage of 2nd avenue; Tompkins Square, about 11 acres; Madison Square, 6 acres; and Hamnilton Square, 15 acres. These are handsomely laid off, with the exception of Tompkins Square, which is used as a drill ground, and are ornamented with fountains, statues, etc., and are kept in good order by the city. The chief pleasure ground is the Central Park, situated on the eastern slope of an elevated ridge extending along the western side of the island, in the upper part of the city, from 59th street, on the south, to 110th street, on the north, and from 5th avenue, on the east, to 8th avenue, on the west. It is two miles and a half in length, by half a mile in width, and embraces an area of 843
acres. It is laid out with great taste and skill, and comprises a variety of landscap)e, which renders it one of thile most beauti 388 I

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NEW YORK. VIEW IN CENTRAL PARK. ful and attractive parks in the world. Up to the present day the outlay upon it has exceeded ten millions of dollars. It is divided into the Lower Park, extending from 59th to 79th streets, and comprising an area of 336 acres; and the Upper Park, extending fromn 79th to 110th streets. Between the Upper and Lower Parks lie the vast reservoirs of the Croton water works, which cover an area of 137 aores, and have a capacity of 1,150,000,000 gallons. The Lower Park is generally level, and is laid off in lawns, terraces, walks, and (irives, with two beautiful lakes, which cover an area of 40 acres; and is ornamented with statuary, flowers, and tastefill buildings. The Upper Park is more rugged, and is naturally the more beautiful. It is a succession of charming hills and dales, whose beauties have been increased and heightened by the best landscape gardeners and engineers. A museum of natural history, and the beginning of a zoological garden are located in the Lower Park, near the principal entrance on 5th avenue; and a museum of statuary has been opened in one of the buildings at Mount St. Vincent, in the Upper Park. The management of the Park is entrusted to a Commission, appointed by 389

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE WATER TERRACE IN THE CENTRAL PARK. the Governor of the State. Naturally, the Park is an object of great pride to the citizens, and is one of the principal attractions to strangers visiting the city. It is usually full of pleasure seekers, of all 11ges, sexes, and conditions, and it is pleasant to record that no crime, of the most trifling character, has ever been committed within its limits. In 1870, the total number of persons visiting it, including the drivers and occupants of carriages, was 8,421,427. Pleasure boats ply on the principal lake, and may be engaged for a small sum; and “park omnibuses,” or open carriages of a peculiar construction, under the control of the Commissioners, convey visitors through the grounds for the sum of 25 cents each. The streets enclosing the Park are being rapidly built up with elegant mansions, and afford one of the most delightful quarters for residence on the island. New York is the commercial metropolis of the United States. The local trade of the city is necessarily very great, but its trade with the rest of the Union is enormous, and it conducts a large foreign commerce. Only three lines of railway enter the city limits, but 14 lines, terminating on the shores of Long Island and New Jersey, connect it with all parts of the Union. At least 100 steamboats, large and( small, ply between the city and the towns on the Bay, the Hudson River, and Long Island Sound, while fully as many steamships connect New York with the more distant p)rts of the Union. Besides these, the number of sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade is very large. About 120 first class steamers ply between New York and the ports of E-lrope, and about 20 sail to South American, Mexican, and West Indian ports. Being entirely surrounded by water, New 390

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NEW YORK. York is admirably adapted to commerce. The largest ships can lie alongside of its piers, of which there are eleven mniles, constantly crowded with shipping, on the North and East River fronts. During the year 1870, the foreign imports of New York were valued at $315,200,022, and the exports to foreign countries at $195,945,733, exclusive of $58,191,475 in specie and bullion. About two-tl)irds of all the imports, and about forty per cent. of all the exports of the United States pass through the port of New York. In the year 1868, the arrivals at New York from foreign ports were as follows’: Vessels. Steamers,………………………… 694

Ships………………… 390 Barks,………………… 1,055

Brigs………………… 1,499 Schooners………………… 1,223

Total………………… 4,861 The domestic trade of New York is immense. During the year 1864, some of the receipts of the port were as follows: Barrels of wheat flour,……. Bushels of wheat……..

oats,……… COrlln…………………………. Bales of cotton,………. Packages of pork……… ” beef,…….. cut meats,…… ” butter,…….. cheese,……… Tierces and barrels of lard,…. Kegs of lard,………. Barrels of whiskey……… “
petroleum…….. In June, 1863, the tonnage belonging to the port of New York was officially stated as follows: Registered-permanent, 609,02.5; temporary, 237,420. Enrolled-permanent, 745,330; temporary, 17,334. Total, 1,624,000. There was besides, 97,485 steam tonnage. This does not include the vessels owned in other cities and( States, or foreign vessels trading with New York. The city is amply provided with means of communication b)etweeci its principal points. Lines of omnibuses and street railways traverse the island in every direction, the principal car lines continuing their trips through the night. The fares vary from five to ten cents. More 391 3,967,717 13,453,135 12,952,238 7,164,895 190,911 332,454 209,664

268,417 50-1,153 756,872 IS6,. 000 16,1’,14 2S9,4S’l 775,5S7 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. than 400 street cars and 200 omnibuses are engaged in transporting persons through the city. A steam railway, connecting the upper and lower portions of the island, is now in construction. Communication with the shores of Long Island, Staten Island, and New Jersey is maintained by 26 lines of ferries, employing over 100
steam ferry boats, and transporting, it is estimated, upwards of 80,000,000 of passengers, and more than 3,000,000 of vehicles annually.

The railway lines leading to the city run over 400 trains to and from points 5 miles and upwards distant from the city. Fourteen railways lead directly to the city. Three of these terminate within the city limits, six on the New Jersey shore, four in Brooklyn, and one on Staten Island. The hotels of New York are the best in the world. They are built upon extensive plans, and are among the finest specimens of architecture in the city. They are fitted up luxuriously, and afford their guests every comfort and convenience. The principal are the Astor House, the St.

Nicholas, the Metropolitan, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the St.

James, and the Grand Hotels; and the Everett, the Clarendon, the Albemarle, the Hoffman, the Coleman, the Sturtevant, and the Gilsay Houses. The Astor is built of gray granite, and presents a massive appearance; the St. Nicholas, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the Hoffman, the Albemarle, the St. James, and the Grand are of pure white marble; and the Gilsay House, a magnificent modern structure, is of iron.

These Houses are amongst the most elegant buildings in the city, and each is capable of accommodating several hundred guests. The theatres are numerous, and will compare favorably in splendor and convenience with any in the world. They are more comfortably arranged than those of other American cities, and are much handsomer. The performances are good, as a rule. There are about 30 firstclass places of amusement in the city, including theatres, concert halls, lecture rooms, music halls, circuses, summer gardens, etc., besides a number of inferior places. It is estimated that during the fall and winter season about 30,000 persons nightly attend the performances at these places. The principal telegraph lines of the country begin or terminate in New York. There is also a line connecting the principal points of the city, and used for local business. The public buildings are numerous and imposing, and the city is surpassed by only a few of the capitals of Europe in this respect. 392

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NEW YORK. CITY HALL. The City Hall is a fine edifice of white marble 216
feet in length, situated in the City Hlall Park The foundation was laid in 1803, and the building was opened for the use of the municipal GovernIent in 1812. It is handsomely furnished and decorated with paintitgs and statuary. The County Court House, in the rear of the City Ilall, is a spletdid buildilg, of white marble in the Italian style of architecture, 250 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 3 stories high, the whole being surmounted by a fine dome, the summit of whichl will be 210 feet above the street. The Cstom House, on Nassau street, corner of William, is a splendid building of Quincy granite, erected f)r a Merchants’ Exchange, at a cost of over $1,800,000, including the ground. It is entirely fire proof, and covers the whole block, beiii.g 200 feet long, by 171 to 144
feet wide, and 124 feet to the top of the dlome. The front is ornamented with a portico, resting on 18 massive Ionic columns. The Sub-Treasury of the United States, on Wall a,nd NXassau streets, is built of white marble, in the Dorice style. It cost, iluding the ground, $1,195,000. The HTall of Justice, or the ” Tonbl)s,” on Centre street, between Leonard aud Franklin, inclu((e\s 25 393

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the halls of the Court of Sessions, and the police courts, and the city prison. The prison contains 150 cells. The building is in the Egyptian style of architecture, is constructed of light granite, and is 253 feet long, by 200 wide. The Literary and Scientific institutions are numerous. There are about 260 free schools in the city, 89 of which are primary, and 15 for colored children. The buildings used are mostly of brick, are large, and are provided with every convenience.

The annual attendance is about 209,000. They are liberally supported by the city. Besides these, a number of private institutions are supported in Ipait by the city. The University of NeTew York occupies a gothic building of whlite marble, on University place, opposite Washington Square. It was founded in 1831. It has about 25 professors and tutors, and about 336
students. Its library contains over 5000 volumes. The Nre York Free College, Lexington avenue and 23d street, is a handsome building, erected in 1848. The students, whose number is limited to 1000, are chosen from the pupils of the public schools only, and here receive a thoroughly collegiate education free of charge. The Cooper Intitute, on Astor place, is an imposing building of brown stonIe, erected at a cost of $600,000, and presented to the city of New York by Peter Cooper, Esq. It contains a free reading-room and library, and affords a free education fo)r the poorer classes in the practical arts and sciences. One of its departments is a school of design for womnen. The basement is occupied by an immnense lecture-room. The General Theological Seminary, West 20th street, between 9th and 10th ave.nues, is the principal school of the Protestant Episcopal Chlurch. The other institutions of importance are Columbia College, 49th street, 1)etween Madison and 4th avenues; the Lyceum of Natural History, the Union Theological Seminary, the New York Historical Society, the American Geographical and Statistical Society, the New York Law Institute, the College of St. Francis Xavier, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, the College of Pharmacy, and Ruttgers’ Female College. The Libraries are excellent. Tile principal is the Astor Library, founded by John Jacob Astor, and enlarged by his son William B. Astor. The collection numbers over 150,000 volumes. It is firee to the public, and is open daily (Sundays and holidays excepted), from 9 to 5 o’clock. The books cannot be taken from the reading-room. The J.ercantile Library, in Clinton Hall, Astor place, contains about 90,000 volumes. Its privileges are extended only to members, who 394

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i’EW YORK. ACADEMY OF DESIGN. pay a small subscription annually. The Society Library, 67 Univer sity place, contains over 55,000 volumes, and consists of one of the most valuable collections of books in the city. Its privileges are limited to members and such friends as they may introduce.

Tiec New York Historical Library, 2d avenue and 11th street, contairns over 30,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of coins and antiquiities.

The others are the Apprenties’ Library, 18,000 volumes:; Anterican Institute Library, 10,000 volumes; City Library,.5000 volumes; Law Institute Library; Yo?tng Men’s Christian Association Library, about 15,000 volumes; General Theological Semiiiary Library, 18,000 volumes; and the Library of the Union Theological Semiinary, 26,000 volumes. The Art Galleries are, the National Academy of Design, whose elegant hall, at the corner of 4th avenue and 23d street, fobrns one of the chief ornaments of the city; and the Artists’ Fiund Society. The monuments, fountains, etc., are few in number, and insignificant in appearance. The principal are the Worth Monument, at the intersection of Broadway and 5thi avenue; and the Martyrs’ Monumnent, in Trinity Church-yard. The churches are numerous and represent every denomination of Christians. Many are magnificent structures, erected at great ex 395

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. )clse and in the highest style of art. The principal is Trinity Clurch, Protestant Episcopal, on Broadway, opposite Wall street. It was founded in 1696, and the present is the third edifice which has mnarked the site, the others having been destroyed by fire. The present church was begun in 1839, and completed in 1846. It is ] 92 feet by 80 feet, and 60 feet high. The steeple is 284 feet high, and firom it the best view of the city and suburbs, the bay, etc., is to be o(l)tained.

The church is of brown stone, and is beautifully ornaII,ented with carvings, sculptures, stained-glass windows, etc. The spire contains a clock and a fine chime of bells. The church is situated in the midst of an old graveyard, which is one of the most interesting spots in the city.

Trinity Church is the richest church in the Union, its property being estimated at over $60,000,000. Grace Church, Protestant Episcopal, Broadway and 10th street, is a beautiful structure of light-colored stone, built in 1845. The interior is very fine. The others, conspicuous for their elegance and splendor, are St. Patrick’s Cathedral (Romnan Catholic), now building, on 5tll avenue and 50thll street, St. George’s, Trinity Chapel, St. Paul’s (Metho(li.t), St. Stephen’s (Roman Catholic), and the Temple Emmanuel (Jewish). The Bible House, occupying the square bounded by 3d and 4th avenues, and 8th and 9th streets, is a massive brick structure, and is the property, and the scene of the operations, of the American Bible Society. Upwards of 500 operatives are employed here. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are numerous, and of Iigh and useful character. The New York TIospital, onl West 59th near the Park, the Intstitution for the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb Asyl.um, the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, the New York Orphan Asylum (besides which nearly all the religious denominations have similari institutions of their own), the Bellevue Hospital, St. Luke’s fTospital, the Five Points Mission, the Home of Industry, the New York Juvenile Asylum, the Institutio)t for the Deaf and Dumb, the American Female Guardian Society, the Eye and Ear Infirma)y, the City Dispensaries (of which there are 8), and the Lying-in Hospitals, are the principal. Large sums are annually expended for charitable and benevolent purposes, by the city and the citizens. The prisons of the city, with thle exception of the Tombs, are located on Blackwell’s Island. The city also provides a refuge for juvenile delinquents on Randall’s Island, and a hospital for emigrants on Ward’s Island. All of these are provided with splendid and spacious buildings.’

396

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‘OST OFFICE.. BROADWAY,, NEW YQun.

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STEINWAY & SONS, PIANO-FORTE MANUFACTORY, FOURTH AVENUE, FROM

IFTY-$ECOND’TO FIFTY-THIRD STREET, NEW YORK, I t~ I H

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NEW YORK. The cemeteries lie out of’ the city limits, with the exception of that lIcloiging to Trinity Parish, which is located on the Hudson, near \Vashingt6n Heights. The others number 12, and are situated oi0 Long Island and in Westchester county. The principal are Green wood and Calvary on Long Island, and Woodlawn ill Westchester c.ounty. The journals of New York stand at the head of the American press. The principal dailies are the Herald, Tribune, Times, World, Su7, Standard, Evening Post, Express, and Evening Mail. There are 14t( loewspapers and periodicals published in the city, claiming a circula tion of over 5000 copies. New York is also the principal place in the Union for the publication of books. The office of the New York Herald is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. The city is supplied with pure water by means of the Croton Aque(Ilict, from the Croton River, a small stream in Westchester county. ”lhe total length of the Aqueduct, to the reservoirs in the Central P’ark, is about 38
miles. It was begun in 1837, and completed in 1842, at an expense of $10,375,000. It is the largest and most mag,iificent of all modern constructions of its class, and supplies the city with an abundance of pure and delightful drinking water. The water is conducted by the Aqueduct from the Croton River to the reservoirs at the High Bridge (on which bridge it crosses the Harlem River) and those in the Central Park, from which it is distributed over the city in large iron pipes, there being a small distributing reservoir on 5th avenue, at the corner of 42d street.

The buildings, both public alnd private, of the city are thoroughly supplied with water. Upwards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid through the streets, and every portion of the city is well supplied in this respect. The capacity of all the reservoirs is nearly 2,000,000,000
of gallons. The city is lighted with gas, which is supplied by several private companies. There are upwards of 15,000 gas lamps in the streets, which burn from dusk until dawn. The city is divided into 22 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council, elected by the people. The Mayor is chosen once in two years. The council is divided into a Board of Aldermen, 17 in number, elected fbr two years, and a Board of Councilmen, 2z5 in number, chosen annually. The police force consists of a Board of Comtmissioners, to whorn the direct control of the force is entrusted, a Marshal, and about 2100 officers and men. They are dressed in a neat uniform of dark blue clothe are armed with clubs and revolvers, 399

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. TIIt BRIDGE, HARLE,I. and are drilled regulIarly in military tacti(s. There are 33 precincts, including the detective squad. The force is charged with the duty of guarding about 300
day and 400 night posts, about 425 miles of streets, and 14 miles of piers. There are 25 station houses fitted up with lodging rooms for the men, and having rooms also for the accommodation of wandering or destitute persons, large numbers of whom thus receive temporary shelter. The Fire Departmrent is under the control of a Board of Conimissioners. It consists of a Chief Engineer, an Assistant Engineer, 10 District Engineers, and over 500 men and 46 horses. There are 34 steami fire engines, 4 hand engines, and 12 hook and ladder comnpanies in the department. The men are regularly enlisted, and are paid by the city. There is a fire alarm telegraph, with about 800 stations, extending through the city, and it is so arranged that the mIost inexperienced person can at once telegraph the exact location of a fire to Ill the engine houses in the city. It requires but 15 seconds in the dlay, and one minute at night, to get the engines ready for action an(d start tlhemin on the way to a fire. A system of fire patrols is maintaimed by the city and by the insurance companies. There are also a iiumrber of lofty lookout towers, from which a constant watch is kept. According to the United States census of 1870, the population of New York is 942,337. There can be no doubt, however, that the 400

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NEW YORK. actual population is over 1,000,000. The rate at which the city has grown is shown by the following table: Year. Population.

1656………………..1,000 1756…………………10,381

1800…………………. 60,489 1820…………………123,706

1830………………….202,589 1840……………..312,852

1850………………….515,547 1860………………….814,287 On the 12th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered Manhattan Island. The Dutch made a temporary settlement on the island in 1612, and established a permanent colony in 1623, when a fort was built, and the settlement named New Amsterdam. The first white child, Sarah Rapelje, was born in the same year, and in 1626, Peter Minuits, the Dutch Governor, arrived. In 1633, a new fort was begun on the present site of the Battery. Previous to 1638
tobacco was cultivated and slavery was introduced. In 1656, there were 1000 inhabitants and 120 houses in the town; in 1658, wharfs were constructed, and in 1662 a windmill was built. In August, 1664, an English fleet arrived in the bay, and took possession of the town in the name of the King of England. No resistance was offered, and the name of the town was changed to New York, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., to whom Charles II. had granted the entire province.

In July, 1673, the Dutch fleet recaptured the town, drove out the English, and named it New Orange. The peace between Great Britain and the Dutch, which closed the war, restored the town to the English, November 10th, 1674, and the name of New York was resumed. The Dutch Government was replaced by the English system under a liberal charter, and during the remainder of the seventeenth century the town grew rapidly in population and size. In 1700, New York contained 4500 white, and 750 black inhabitants, and about 750 dwellings. In 1689, there was a brief disturbance, known as Leisler’s Rebellion. In 1702, a terrible fever was brought fromn St. Thomas’, and carried off 600 persons, one-tenth of the whole population. In 1696, the first Trinity Church was built, and in 1719, the first Presbyterian Church was built. In 1711, a slave market was established; in 1725, the New York Gazette, the fifth of the Colonial newspapers, was estab 401

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lished; in 1732, stages ran to Boston, the journey occupying 14 days; and in 1735, the people made their first manifestation of hostility to Great Britain, which was drawn forth by the infamous prosecution by the officers of the Crown of Rip Van Dam, who had been the acting Governor of the town. In 1741, a severe fire occurred in the lower part of the city, destroying the old Dutch fort and the Dutch church, and in the same year the yellow fever raged with great violence.

The principal event of the year, however, was the so-called negro plot for the destruction of the town. Though the reality of the plot was never proved, the greatest alarm prevailed; the fire in the fort was declared to be the work of the negroes, numbers of whom were arrested; and upon the sole evidence of a single servant girl a number of the poor wretches were hanged. Several whites were also charged with being ;,ccomplices of the negroes. One of these, John Ury, a Roman Catholic priest, and, as is now believed, an innocent man, was hanged in August. In the space of six months 154 negroes and 20 whites were arrested; 20 negroes were hanged, 13
were burned at the stake, and 78 were transported. The rest were discharged. In 1750 a theatre was established, and in 1755 St. Paul’s Church was built. New York took a prominent part in the resistance of the Colonies to the aggressions of the mother country, and, in spite of the presence of a large number of Tories, responded cordially to the call of the Colonies for men and money during the war. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island having been lost by the Americans, the city was occupied by the British, who held it until the close of the war.

It suffered very much at their hands. Nearly all the churches, except the Episcopal, were occupied by them as prisons, riding-schools, and stables; and the schools and colleges were closed. On the 21st of September, 1776, a fire destroyed 493 houses, all the west side of Broadway from Whitehall to Barclay street, or about oneeighth of the city; and on the 7th of August, 1778, about 300 buildings on East River were burned. Onl the 25th of November, 1783, the British evacuated the city, which was at once occupied by the American army. In 1785 the first Federal Congress’ met in the City Hall, which stood at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and on the 30th of April 1789, George Washington was inau,gurated( first President of the United States on the same spot. By 1791 the city had spread to the lower end of the present City IHall Park, and was extending along the Boston Road (Bowery) and Broadway. In 1799, the Manhattan 402

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NEW YOIRK. UNION SQUARE. STATUE OF WASHIXNGTON. Company, for supplying the city with fresh water, was chartered. On the 20th of September, 1803, the cornerstone of the City Hall was laid. Free schools were established ill 1805. In the same year the yellow fever raged with violence, and had the effect of spreading the population by driving them up the island, where many located themselves permanently. In 1807, Robert Fulton navigated the first steamboat from New York to Albany. The War of 1812-15 for a while stopped the growth of the city, but after the return of peace, its onward progress was resumed. In August, 1812, experimental gas lamps were placed in the Park, though the use of gas for purposes of lighting was not begun until 1825. In 1822, the yellow fever again drove the population higher up the island, and caused a rapid growth of the city above Canal street. In 1825, the Erie Canal was completed. This great work, by placing the trade of the West in the hands of New York, gave a powerful impetus to the growth of the city, which was now increasing at the rate of from 1000 to 1500 houses per year. In 1832 and 1834, the cholera raged severely, carrying off upwards of 4484 persons in the two years. In 1835, the “great fire” occurred. This terrible conflagration (December 16th) laid 648
houses, almost the entire business portion of the city, south of Wall street, and east of Broadway, in 403

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NEW YORK. above the level of the East River, known as “The Heights.” This is the wealthiest and most fashionable quarter of Brooklyn, though it is now rapidly giving way to business edifices. The principal tho roughfare is Fulton street, stretching from the Fulton Ferry to the City Hall, from which point it turns abruptly to the eastward, and extends to the city limits, under the name of Fulton avenue. It is enclosed as far as the City Hall, about one mile, with large and hand. some stores and offices. From the City Hall eastward, it is less sub stantially built. The proximity of Brooklyn to New York and its facilities for economical living have been the chief causes of its rapid growth. Thousands of persons living in Brooklyn conduct their business in New York, and pass and repass between the cities daily. The trade of Brooklyn is mostly local. The city is largely engaged in manu factures, but its productions are sold chiefly through New York. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here, and the city has a large trade in flour, sugar and whiskey. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The City Hall, at the southern end of Fulton street, is an imposing edifice of white marble, 162
by 102 feet, and 75 feet highl, surmounted by a dome, the top of which is 153 feet from the ground. It was erected at a cost of $200,000. Just in the rear of the City Hall, and fronting on Joralemon street, is the County Court House, 140 feet wide, and 315 feet deep, built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture. It cost $543,000. The Academy of iJusic, and the -Iercantile Library, on Montague street, are built in the modern Gothic style, of a fine quality of brick ornamented with stone, and are among the handsomest buildings in the city. There are nearly 200
churches in Brooklyn, in consequence of which the place is frequently called “The City of Churches.” Some of these are magnificent edifices, but the majority are simple and modest in their appearance. They are all in prosperous condition, and there are, perhaps, few cities in the land whose church finances make so favorable a showing as those of Brooklyn. The city is well supplied with public schools of every grade, and contains a number of thriving private schools and academies. The average attendance is over 50,000. There are also schools for colored children. During the year ending February 1st, 1864, the amount expended by the city for purposes of education was $229,845.61. The Literary Institutions are of a high character. The Jiercantil6 405

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NEW YORK. above the level of the East River, known as “The Heights.” This is the wealthiest and most fashionable quarter of Brooklyn, though it is now rapidly giving way to business edifices. The principal tho roughfare is Fulton street, stretching from the Fulton Ferry to the City Hall, from which point it turns abruptly to the eastward, and extends to the city limits, under the name of Fulton avenue. It is ellclosed as far as the City Hall, about one mile, with large and hand. some stores and offices.

From the City Hall eastward, it is less sub stantially built. The proximity of Brooklyn to New York and its facilities for economical living have been the chief causes of its rapid growth. Thousand(s of persons living in Brooklyn conduct their business in New York, and pass and repass between the cities daily. The trade of Brooklyn is mostly local. The city is largely engaged in manu factures, but its productions are sold chiefly through New York. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here, and the city has a large trade in flour, sugar and whiskey. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The City Hall, at the southern end of Fulton street, is an imposing edifice of white marble, 162
by 102 feet, and 75 feet high, surmounted by a dome, the top of which is 153 feet from the ground. It was erected at a cost of $200,000. Just in the rear of the City Hall, and fronting on Joralemon street, is the County Court House, 140 feet wide, and 315 feet deep, built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture. It cost $543,000. The Academy of Jlusic, and the .Iercantile Library, on Montague street, are built in the modern Gothic style, of a fine quality of brick ornamented with stone, and arc among the handsomest buildings in the city. There are nearly 200
churches in Brooklyn, in consequence of which the place is frequently called “The City of Churches.” Some of these are magnificent edifices, but the majority are simple and modest in their appearance. They are all in prosperous condition, and there are, perhaps, few cities in the land whose church finances make so favorable a showing as those of Brooklyn. The city is well supplied with public schools of every grade, and contains a number of thriving private schools and academies. The average attendance is over 50,000. There are also schools for colored children. During the year ending February 1st, 1864, the amount expended by the.city for purposes of education was $229,845.61. The Literary Institutions are of a high character. The JIercantile 405

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OUR COUN’TRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Library contains about 35,000 volumes, and is supported by the subscriptions of its members. The Logit Island Historical Society possesses a fine collection of 15,000 volumes, besides numerous manuscripts and historical relics. The United States Lyceumn is located ill the Navy Yard, and possesses a large and valuable collection of curiosities, geological and mineralogical specimens. The Lyceumn, in \Washlington street, possesses a splendid granite build(ling, and a fine lecture hall. The Art Association holds two exhibitions in each year.

Besides these, are the Philharmonic Society, and several other societies devoted to literary, scientific, and musical ends. The Charitable Institutions are the Long Island College Hosp)ital; the City Hospital, in Raymond street, with beds for 170 patients; the Graham Institution, for the relief of respectable aged, indigent females; the Ori)hat Asylumn of the City of Brooklyn, which shelters about 150 children; the Association for Improving the Con(lition of the Poor, a noble chlarity, which has in a single year rendered substantial aid to 8000 persons; the JIarine Hospital, belonging to the United States; the Church Charity Foundation, for the relief of indigent and destitute persons; and the Brooklyn and Homosopathic Dispensaries. Besides these, are a number of religious and private chlarities, which are well sustained. There are several small squares and parks in the city, the principal of lwhich is Washington Park (Fort Greene), occupying an elevated plateau northeast of the City Hall.

During the Revolutionary war, the site of this park was occupied by extensive fortifications designed to cover the Long Island approaches to the city of New York. The ruins of Fort Greene, the principal work, still remain. The park is tastefully laid out, and commands a good view of the city. During the last few years, a large park, known as Prospect Pai-k, has been laid out in the southwestern portion of the city. It contains 550
acres, and promises to be one of the handsomest parks in the Union. The United States Navy Yarcd is situated within the city limits, on the south side of Wallabout Bay, whlich lies in the northeast part of Brooklyn. It occupies about 40 acres of ground, enclosed by a stone wall, and contains a large dry-dock, constructed at a cost of $1,000,000, several extensive shops for the construction of vessels, machinery, arms, etc. It is one of the principal naval stations of the Republic. To the niorthl of the Navy Yard, stands the fIarine Hospital, in the midst of extensive grounds.

During the war of the Revolution, the 406

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NEW YORK. UNITED STATES NAVY YARD, BROOKLYN. British prison ships were anchored in Wallabout Bay. Large numbI)ers of American prisoners of war were confined in these hulkls, and it is said that 11,500 of them perished from ill usage and inipure air. They were lhastily buried on the slhore of the bay. By 1808, their b1)(nes were entirely exposed, the tide having washed out their graves. in that year, their bones were collected and deposited in 13 coffins, ilis(ribed with the names of the 13 original States, and deposited in a vault in IHudson avenue, near the present Navy Yard. The Governient property at the Navy Yard, not counting the shipping, is estimated at $25,000,000. The Atlattic Dock, in South Brooklyn, opposite Governor’s Island, is a very extensive work. It embraces within the piers an area of nearly 41 acres, and can accommodate ships of the largest size. It was built by a company incorporated in 1840, with a capital of $1,000,000. The outer pier extends for 3000 feet along Buttermilk Channel, and is covered with large granite warehouses. It is the ,esntre of one of-the largest grain trades in the world. The cemeteries of Brooklyn are used by that city in colnmon with

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408 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. New York. The principal is Greenwood, in the extreme southern part of Brooklyn, about 3 miles from Fulton Ferry.

The street cars run to the gates. It is beautifully laid out, contains 242
acres of ground, and is one of the most beautiful cemeteries in the world.

Many of its monuments are noted as works of art. It commands ex tensive views of the ocean and of the bay and city of New York. The cemeteries of the Evergreens and Cypress Hill lie about 4 miles to the eastward of Greenwood. Brooklyn is connected with New York by numerous ferries. It is lighted throughout with gas, and is abundantly supplied with pure water from the Ridgewood water-works. There is also a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. The city is divided into 20 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. The population in 1870 was 396,300. Brooklyn was first settled in 1625, by a band of Walloons, sent out as agriculturists by the Dutch West India Company. These settled on the shores of the bay now used by the Navy Yard, and gave to their settlement the name of Waalboglht, or Walloon’s Bay, which has since been corrupted into Wallabout Bay. From this beginning sprang a straggling town, to which the Dutch gave the name of Breuckelen, from a village in Holland. The first white man who actually settled within the limits of the present city of Brooklyn, was George Jansen de Rape]je. The Dutch Government bought the title to the land from the Canarsee Indians, a large tribe which dwelt in the southern part of what is now Kings county. In 1641, the Dutch allowed the English. to settle on Long Island, on the condition of their taking the oath of allegiance to the States General. In 1654, the erection of the first church was begun by order of Governor Stuyvesant. It was located at Flatbush. Previous to this, the settlers on Long Island attended worship in New Amsterdam. The history of Brooklyn until thle l)erio(d of the Revolution is uneventful. During that struggle, it was the scene of several important events. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island was fought, the battlefield being within the present city limits in the direction of Flatbush. The American arniv was defeated and compelled to abandon Long Island. The occupation of New York by the British forces was the result. Brooklyn grew very slowly after its settlement. In 1698, it contained 509 persons;. in 1800, 3298; in 1820, 7175. In 1834, it was incorporated as a city. In 1855, it was consolidated with the city of

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NEW YORK. Williamsburg and the town of Bushwick, including the village of Greenpoint, under the general name of Brooklyn. BUFFALIO, The third city in the State, is situated in Erie county, at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, in latitude 42~ 53’ N., longitude 780 55f MT It is 352 miles by the Erie Canal, and 300 miles by the New Yorkl Central Railway, west of Albany, and 460 miles northwest of NewN York by railway. It is connected with Albany and the Hudson River by the Erie Canal, and has railway connections with all parts of the Union. The water front of the city is 5
miles long, half of it lying along LJake Erie, and the rest along the Niagara River. Biufi-alo Creek extends through the southern portion of the city, and forms a part of the harbor. “The harbor of Buffalo is now one of the best in the great chain of lakes. The present harbor is formed by Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal, the Erie and Ohio Basins, and North Buffalo Harbor. Buffalo Creek is navigable for more than 2 miles from its entrance into the lake for vessels drawing 12 feet of water. Nearly parallel to, and fromni 200 to 800 feet from it, is the Blackwell ShipCanal, one mile and a quarter long, and connected with it by 4
ship(anal slips. About 1 mile from the mouth of the creek, and connected with it by a ship-canal slip, is the Ohio Basin, containing 10 acres. A pier or breakwater on the south side of the creekl, and a sea wall next the lake, give ample protection from storms. On the end of this p)ier, extending about 1500 feet into the lake, is a mole on which is the Government lighthouse. On the north side of the creek is another 1)ier, extending into the lake about 500 feet. At nearly right angles t-o the south pier, and distant from it and the north pier 600 feet, cominences the Erie Basin Pier, extending towards North Buffrlo Harbor 5000 feet, and about 1000 feet distant from the shore line of the lake. “‘he intermediate space between this pier and the shore line, 1000 by 5000 feet, is called the Erie Basin Harbor, which has sufficient depth of water for vessels drawing 10 feet. At the lower end of the Erie Basin sea-wall is a mole, and vessels can enter it at this point, or from the entrance through Buffalo Creek. About threequarters of a mile from the mole of the Erie Basin Pier is the Black Rock Pier, enclosing a portion of the Niagara River, about 2 miles long and from 200 to 600 feet wide, forming what is called’Black Rock Harbor.’ The water in this harbor is shoal. and only vessels of light draught can enter it. 409

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. VIEW FROM WEST POINT. It forms for more thanii a mile the Erie Canal, and boats dragwing 6 feet of water can pass thlrough it. Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal and slips, the Ohio and Erie Basin harbors, give abundance of sea-room to accommodate a fleet of 300 sail and steam vessels. The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Tonawanda, a distance of 12 miles, is nearly parallel with the Niagara River, and for a very considerable portion of the distance is only separated from it by an embankment of from 100 to 400 feet in width. The Niagara River from North Buffalo to Tonawanda, a distance of 8 miles, has from 16 to 25 feet of water, with good bottom for anchorage and wide river for a harbor. The rapid growth of the West and tile large augmentation in the receipt of cereals have given rise to immense grain warehouses, called elevators, which were introduced to facilitate and cheapen the transhlipmtent of this kind of produce. There are now built and in successful operation 27 of these grain warehouses, besides 2 floating elevators. They have a storage capacity for 5,830,000 bushels, and have a transfer capacity (‘qlal to 2,808,000 bushels in eachl 24 hours. They were first intro duced in 1842.

There are 6 ship-yards in the city, 4 of which have 410

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NEW YORK. dry-doels. They will admit the largest vessels navigating the lakes. There is a marine railway and a very powerful derrick for handling boilers and heavy machinery.” The position of Buffalo has placed in its hands the immense commerce of the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal, and its trade has been greatly increased by the great lines of railways which connect it with all parts of the United States and Canada. Its grain trade is enormous, and is growing rapidly. In 1863, the total number of vessels entering and clearing at the port of Buffalo was 15,376. These had a total tonnage of 6,757,903. In the salne year the trade of Buffalo by lake, rail, and canal amounted to $256,214,614. In the same year there were received at this port grain and( flour estimated as wheat to the amount of 64,735,510 bushels. It is not an unusual sight during the season of navigation to see a fleet of 150 sailing vessels and steamers enter Buffalo harbor from the west during a period of 24 hours. The manufacturing interests are increasing rapidly. Iron, leather, agricultural implements, and oil refining are the most important. It is believed that Buffalo will soon rank next to Pittsburg in its iron manufactures. Its proximity to the iron and coal regions of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio afford it great facilities for the economnical working of this metal. The city is well built. The streets are broad and well paved, and as a rule intersect each other at right angles. The stores and business houses are substantial, and in many cases handsome. The business portion of the city lies near the water. Farther back are the streets devoted to private residences. These are generally well shaded, and are lined with tasteful and sometimes with elegant dwellings. There are six public squares, viz: Niagara, Lafayette Place, Washington, Franklinl, Delaware Place, and Terrace Parks. The public buildings include the City Hall, 2 CourtHouses, the City Penitentiary, the City Jail, the Cutstomt Ilouse, the State Arsenal, and the building of the }oung Men’s Christian Association. Among the Literary and Benevolent Institutions are the Buffalo University and Jledical School; the Young lIen’s Association, with a library of over 13,000 volumes; the Buffalo Fentate Academy; the City and Jiarine Hospitals; St. Vincent’s Orphan Asylum; and the I-Iosp)ital of the Sisters of Charity. All of these are provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There are up.vards of 70 churches in the city, several of which are noted for their beauty and grandeur. 26 6

411

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4 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The city is liglhted with gas, and supplied withl pure water, and its tllhoroughfares are traversed by street railways. Thie city is divided into 13 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council c!iosen by the people. There are over 30 public schools, besides a Central Higl] School, and a number of private institutions in the city. There arc 18 publications issued here, 6 of which are daily, 8
weekly, and 3 semiweekly newspapers. The population in 1870 was 117,714.

Buffalo was laid out in 1801 by the Holland Company, and in 1812 it became a military post, at which time it contained about 200 houses. In December, 1813, it was captured and burned by the British and Indians, and only 2
houses left standing. Congress made a donation of $80,000 to the settlers to assist them in rebuilding the place. In 1832, it was incorporated as a city, and in 1852, the charter was amended so as to include Black Rock.

Since 1814, the growth of the (ity has been very rapid. It contained only 2095 inhabitants in 1820, its wonderful growth being confined almost entirely to half a century. ROCHESTER, In Monroe county, is the fifth city in importance in the State. It is situated on both sides of the Genesee River, 7 miles from its entrance into Lake Ontario, 230 miles west by north of Albany, and 68 miles east-northeast of Buffalo. Latitude 43~ 8’

N., longitude 77~ 51’ W. The ground upon which the city stands is generally flat, and the corl)orate limits cover an area of 8 square miles, nearly all of whlichl is closely built up. The streets are broad and straight, and are well p)aved. In the business sections are many handsome buildings, and the private residences are generally tasteful and often elegant. The Genesee River is navigable to the city limits, but the docks are situated at the mouth of the river, 7 miles distant. These are conniected with the city by railway, and by lines of steamers. Rochester controls a large trade on Lake Ontario. The Erie Canal passes through the city, crossing the river on a fine stone aqueduct. The Genesec Valley Canal connects with it here, and extends southward from Rochester to the Alleghany River. The Erie and New York Central railways and their branches have added much to the wealth and iimportance of the city. The unlimited waterpower afforded by tihe Genesee, has been one of the chief sources of the prosperity of Rochester. WVithin a distance of 3 miles, the river has a descent of 226 feet, which it accomplishes in 3 perpendicular falls of 95, 20 and 75 feet. The tipper falls lie within the city limits and are noted for their beauty. 412

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GENESEE FALLS.

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ifi (4; ___ –- ___ - i /~~~ Th~~~~~~~~~*_-!__ I I’ EED TEN CYLINDER

ROTARY PRINTING PRESS.

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NEW YORK. In consequence of the possession of this waterpower, Roc(hester is now one of the principal manufacturing cities in the Union. The flour inills are the most extensive in the country. Shoes, iron ware, wooden ware, clothing, etc., are extensively manufactured. There is also an extensive trade in produce, which is collected here for shipment to other markets. The nurseries of Rochester are famous, and are unsurpassed. The public buildings of the city are handsome. The principal are the City Hall, and the Arcade, the latter containing the Post Office and other Federal offices. The Eduecational and Literary Institutions are the University of Rochester, with a fine edifice of brown stone, and an endowment of $200,000; the Rochester Theological Seminary, under the control of the Baptists; the Athenecum; the Puiblic Library; and the Free Academy. There over 20 public schools, in excellent condition, and a number of private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are St. Mary’s Hospital, the City Hospital, the Industrial School, the Homefor the Frienldless, an Insane Asylum, two Orphan Asylums, and the Western House of Refuge, for boys, belonging to the State. There are over 45
churches in the city, many of them elegant structures. The city is well supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. Street railways afford communication between its various parts. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 62,315. Rochester was settled in 1812, and was named in honor of Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, one of the pioneers of the city. It was incorporated as a city in 1834. TROY, The sixth city in the State, lies on both sides of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Poestenkill Creek, at the head of steamboat navigation, 6 miles northeast of Albany, and 151 miles north of New York. The principal portion of the city lies immediately along the river, for about 3 miles, communication between the two banks being maintained by means of a bridge and ferry boats. The city lies in a plain. At the southern end of the east side rises a bold hill, called Mount Ida, from which an extensive view may be gained of Troy, the river, and the surrounding country. In the northern part of the city is a rugged mass of rock, 200 feet high, called Mount Olympus. 415.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANIES. ANCILNT LAWS OF THE PROVINCE

OF NEW YORK. Tlhe following laws are extracted from those establishled by the Duke of York for the government of New York, in the year 1664. This code (called the “Dukle’s Laws” I) was compiled under the direction of Nicolls, the first English Governor. It continued in force till the period of the Revolution in England, and ceased to have effect in 1691, when the General Assembly of the Province I)egan to exercise a new legislative power under the sovereignty of King William: Capital Laws.-l. If any person within this Government shall by direct exprest, impious or presumptuous ways, deny the true God and his Attributes, he shall be put to death. 2. If any person shall Commit any wilful and premeditated Murder, hlie shall be put to Death. 3. If any person Slayeth another with Sword or Dagger who liath no weapon to defend himself; hlie shall be put to Death. 4. If any person forcibly Stealethl or carrieth away any mankind; I-Ic shall be put to death. 5. If any person shall bear false witness maliciously and on purpose to take away a man’s life, Hle shall be put to Death. 6. If any man shall Traitorously deny his Majestyes right and titles to his Crownes and Dominions, or shall raise armies to resist his Authority, He shall be put to Death. 7. If any man shall treacherously conspire or Publiquely attempt to invade or Surprise any Town or Towns, Fort or Forts, within this Government, He shall be put to Death. 8. If any Child or Children, above sixteen years of age, and of Sufficient understandling, shall smite their natural Father or Mother, unless thlereunto provoked and forct for their selfe preservation from Death or Mayming, at the Complaint of the said Father and Mother, and not otherwise, they being Sufficient witnesses thereof, that Child or those Children so offending shall be put to Death. Bond Slavery.-No Christian shall be kept in Bondslavery villenage or Captivity, Except Such whlo shall be Judged thereunto by Authority, or such as willin,gly have soulld, or shall sell themselves, In which Case a Record of such Servitude shall l)e entered in the Court of Sessions held for that Jurisdiction where Such Matters shall Inhabit, provided that nothing in the Law Contained shall be to the prejudice of Master or Dame who have or shall by any Inldenture or Covenant take Apprentices for Terme of Years, or other Servants for Term of years or Life. C7urc7t.-Whereas the publique Worship of God is much discredited for want of painful and able Ministers to Instruct the people in the true Religion and for want of Convenient places Capable to receive any Number or Assembly of people in a decent manner for Celebrating Gods holy Ordinances. These ensueing Lawes are to be observed in every parish (Viz.) 1. That in each Parish within this Government a church be built in the most Convenient part thereof, Capable to receive and accommodate two Hundred Persons. 2. To prevent Scandalous and Ignorant pretenders to the Ministry from in 416

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NEW YOIRK. truding themselves as Teachers; No M3inister shall be A.dmitted to Officiate, within the Government but such as shall produce Testimonials to the Goverlnoutr, that lie hathli Received Ordination either from some Protestant Bishop, or 3inis ter within some part of his Majesties Dominions or the Dominions of any foreign Prince of the Reformed Religion, upon which Testimony the Governour shall induce the said Minister into the parish that shall make presentation of lim, as duely Elected by the Major part of the Inhabitants householders. 3. That the Minister of every Parish shall Preachl constantly every Sunday, and shall also pray for the Kinge, Queene, Duke of Yorke, and the Royall fam ily. And every person affronting or disturbing any Congregation on the Lords Day and.on such publique days of fast and Thanksgiving as aie appointed to be observed. After the presentments thereof by tlhe Churchwardens to the Sessions and due Conviction thereof lie shall be punished by fine or Imprisonment accord ing to the merit and Nature of the offence, And every Minister shall also Pub liquely Administer the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper once every Year at the least in his Parish Church not denying the private benefit thereof to Persons that for want of health shall require the same in their houses, under the penalty of Loss of preferment unless the Minister be restrained in point of Conscience. Fasting Days and Days of Thanks givin To be observed.-Whereas by an Act of Parliament the fifth Day of November is annually to be observed for the Great deliverance from the Gunpowder Treason, And whereas by one other Act of Parliament The thlirtyetli Day of January is annually to be observed with Fastin,g and Prayer in all his Majesties Dominions to shew a hearty and Serious Repentance and Detestation of that Barbarous Murthler Commited upon the Personi of our late King Charles the first, thereby to divert Gods heavy Judgment fronm falling upon the whole Nation, as also by another Act of Parliament we are en joyned thankfully to acknowledge the providence of God upon the Nine and Twentyethl Day of May for his Majesties Birth and Resturation to the Throne of his Royall Ancestors whereby Peace and unity is Established in all his Majesties Domains, Every Minister within his Severall Parish is enjoyned to pray and Preach on these days and all other Persons are also enjoyned to abstain from their Ordinary Laboure and Calling According to the true intent of both the said Acts. Every Person Licenced to keel) an Ordinary shall always be provided of strong and wholesome Beer, of four bushels of malt, at the least to a Hoggsheadl which he shall not Sell at above two pence the quart under the penalty of twenty Shillings, for the first Offence, forty shillings for the Second, and loss of his Licence, It is permitted to any to Sell Beer out of Doores at a peny the Ale quart or under. No Licenced Person shall suffer any to Drink excessively or at unseasonable hours after Nine of the Clock at night in or about any their houses upon penalty of two shillings six pence for every Offence if Complaint and proofe be made thereof. All Injuryes done to the Indians of what nature whatsoever; shall upon their Complaint and proofe thereof in any Court have speedy redress gratis, against anv Chiristian in as full and Ample manner, (with reasonable allowance for damIage) as if the Case had been bctwixt Christian and Christian. No Indian whatsoever shall at any time be Suffered to Powaw or performe out. ward worship to the Devil in any Towne within this Government. Lying and False 2Vews.-Every Person of age of discretion which shall be re. 417

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. puted of fourteen years or upwards, who shall wittingly and willingly forge or Publish fals newes whereof no Certain Auther nor Autlientique Letter out of any part of Europe can be produced, whereby the minds of People are frequently disquieted or exasperated in relation to publique Affairs, or particular Persons injuried in their good names and Credits by such Common deceites and abuses Upon due proofe made by Sufficient witnesses before the Governour or any Court of Sessions the Person so Offending in ordinary Cases shall for the first offence be fined ten shillings, for the second offence twenty shillings and for the third offence forty Shillings and if the party be unable to pay the same he shall be Sett in the Stocks so longe, or publiquely whipt with so many stripes as the Governor or any Court of Sessions shall think fitt not exceeding forty stripes: or four houres Sitting in the Stocks, and for the fourth offence he shall be bound to his good behaviour, paying Cost or Service to the Informer and witnesses, suclh as shall be judged reasonable sattisfaction, But in Cases of high nature and publique Concernes, the fine or punishment shall be increast according to the discretion of the Governor and Council onely. If any Masters or Dames shall Tyrannically and Cruelly abuse their Servants, upon Complaint made by the Servant to the Constable and Overseers, they shall take Speedy redress therein, by Admonishing the Master or Dame not to provoke their Servants, And upon thle Servants Second Complaint, of the like usage It shall be Lawful for the Constable and Overseers to protect and Sustaine such Serv.nts in their Houses till due Order be taken for their Reliefe in the ensuing Sessions Provided that due Notice thereof be Speedily given to Such Masters or Dames, and the Cause why such Servants are Protected and Sustained, and in Case any Master or Dame by such Tyranny and Cruelty, and not casually, shall smite out the Eye or Tooth of any such man or maid Servant, or shall otherwise Maim or disfigure them such Servants after due proof made shall be sett free from their Service, And have a further allowance and recompence as the Court of Sessions shall judge meet. But in Case any Servant or Servants shall causelessly Complain against their Master or Dame If they cannot make proofe of a just occation for such Complaints such Servants shall by the Justices of the Court of Sessions be enjoyned to serve three Months time extraordinary (Gratis) for every such vnd(lue Complaint. All Servants who have served Diligently; and faithfully to the benifit of their Masters or Dames five or Seaven yeares, shall not be Sent empty away, and if any have proved unfaithful or negligent in their Service, notwithstanding the good usage of their Masters, They shall not be dismist, till they have made satisfaction according to the Judgment of the Constable and Overseers of the parish where they dwell. No man Elected into any Military Office, shall refuse to accept thereof, or discharge his trust therein under the penalty of five pounds whereof one half to be paid to the Governour and the other halfe to him that is chosen in his place, and accepts thereof. No man shall be Compeld to bear Armes or wage war by sea or Land, without the bounds and limits of this Government, But from Defensive warrs noe man shall be exempted. At a sessions held at the City of New York, Oct. 6, 1694, in the 6th year of AWilliam and Mary, present the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, and assistants of the Common Councl. 418

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NEW YORK. For the better preservation of the Lords day, no servile Work to be done, or any goods bought or sold on the Lords day, under the penalty of ten shillings for the first offence, and double for every subsequent offence. The Doors of Publick Houses, to be kept shut, no company to be entertained in them, or any sort of Liquor sold in time of Divine service; Strangers, Travellers, or such as lodge in such Houses excepted; also no person to drink excessively, or be drunk, the penalty 10s. for every offence. No Negro or Indian servants to meet together, above the number of four, on the Lords Day, or any other day, within the City liberties; nor any slave to g(o ariound with Gun, Sword, Club, or any weapon, under penalty of ten lashes at the pubUlick whipping post, or to be redeemed by his master or owner, at six shilling,s per head. One of the Constables in the five wards on the south side the fresh Water, by turns to walk the streets of the city, in time of Divine Service, to see these laws observed, and to have power to enter into all publick Houses to put the same in execution. The Constable to make enquiry after all strangers, and give in their names t( the Mayor, or in his absence to the eldest Alderman, no keeper of publick house &c, to entertain or lodge any suspected person, or men or women of evil fame both these heads under penalty of 108. for each offence. No person to keep shop or sell any goods by retail or exercise any handy-craft trade, but such as are Freemen of the City, under penalty of 5s. every offence. All Jesuits, Seminary Priests, Missionaries, or other Ecclesiastical person, made or ordained by any power or Jurisdiction derived or pretended fromn the Pope, or see of Rome, residing or being within the Province, to depart the same, on or before the first of Nov. 1700. If any such continue, remain, or come into the Province, after the said first of November, he shall be deemed an Incendiary, a disturber of the publick peace, Ian Enemy to the true Christian Religion, and shall suffer perpetual imprison iienit. It’ any such person, being actually committed, shall break Prison and escape, hlie shall be guilty of Felony, and if retaken shall die as a Felon. Persons receiving, harbouring, succouring, or concealing any such person. and knowing him to be such, shall forfeit the sum of 200 pounds, half to the King, li and towards the support of the Government, and the other half to the prosecutor, shall be set in the Pillory three days, and find sureties for their behaviour, it the discretion of the court. Any Justice of peace may cause any person suspected to be of the Romish Clergy to be apprehended, and if lie find cause, may commit him or them, in order to a trial. Any person, without warrant, may seize, apprehend, and bring before a Magistrate, any person suspected of the crimes above, and the Governor, with the Council. may suitably reward such person as they think fit. OLD

TIME CUSTOMS OF NEW YORK CITY. The Dutch kept five great festivals of peculiar notoriety, in the year: Kerstydt (Christmas); Nieuwjar (New Year); a great day of cake, Paas (the Passover); Pinxter (i. e.

Wlhitsuntide); and Sao Claan (i. e. Saint Nicholas, or Christ-Kinkle day).

The negroes on Long Island on some of those days came in great crowds to Brooklyn, and lieldltheir field frolics. 419

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It was the general practice of families in middle life to spin, and make much of their domestic wear at home. Short gowns and petticoats were the general in-door dresses. Young women who dressed gay to go abroad to visit, or to church, never failed to take off that dress and put on their homemade, as soon as they got home; even on Sunday evenings, when they expected company, or even their beaux, it was their best recommendation to seem thus firugal and ready for any domestic avocation. The boys and young men of a family always changed their dress for a common dress in the same way. There was no custom of offering drink to their guests; when punch was offered, it was in-great bowls.. Dutch dances were very common; the supper on such occasions was hot chocolate and bread. The negroes used to dance in the markets, using tom-toms, horns, etc., for music. None of the stores or tradesmen’s shops then aimed at any rivalry as now. There were no glaring allurements at windows, no over-reaching signs, no big bulk windows; they were content to sell things at honest profits, and to trus,t to aa earned reputation for their share of business. Many aged persons have spoken to me of the former delightful practice of families sitting out on their “stoops ” in the shades of the evening, and their saluting the passing friends, or talking across the narrow streets with neighbors. It was one of the grand links of union ill the Knickerbocker social compact. It endeared, and made social neighbors: made intercourse on easy terms; it was only to say, Come, sit down. It helped the young to easy introductions, and made courtships of readier attainment. I give some facts to illustrate the above remarks, deduced from the family B. w’ Ia l am personally acquainted. It shows primitive Dutch manners. His grandfather died at the age of sixty-three, in 1782, holding the office of alderman eleven years, and once chosen mayor and declined. Such a man, in easy circumstances in life, following the true Dutch ton, had all his family to breakfast, all the year round, at daylight. Before the breakfast hlie universally smoked his pipe. His family always dined at twelve exactly, at that time the kettle was invariably set on the fire for tea, of Bohea, which was always as punctually furnislied at three o’clock. Then the old people went abroad on purpose to visit relatives, changing the families each night in succession, over and over again all the year round. The regale at every such house was expected as matter of course to be chocolate supper, and soft waffles. Afterwards, when green tea came in as a new luxury, loaf sugar also came with it; this was broken in large lumps and laid severally by each cup, and was nibbled or bitten as needed! The family before referred to actually continued the practice till as late as seventeen years ago, with a steady determination in the patriarch to resist the modern innovation of dissolved sugar while 7e lived. While they occupied the stoops in the evening, you could see every here and there an old Knickerbocker with his long pipe, fuming away his cares, and ready on uity )occasion to offer anotlher for the use of any passing friend( who would sit down and join him. The ideal picture has every lineament of contented comfort and cheerful repose. Something much more composed and bappy than the bustling anxiety or “over business ” in the moderns. The cleanliness of Dutch housewifery was always extreme; everything lad to 420

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NEW YOILK. submit to scrubbing and scouring; dirt in no form could be endured by them: and dear as water was in the city, where it was generally sold, still it was in per petual requisition. It was their honest pride to see a well-furnishled dresser, showing copper and pewter in shining splendor, as if for ornament, rather than for use. It was common in families then to cleanse their own chimneys without the aid of hired sweeps; and all tradesmen, etc., were accustomed to saw their own fuel. No man in middle circumstances of life ever scrupled to carry home his one cwvt. of meal from the market; it would have been his shame to have avoided it. Men wore thlree-square or cocked hats, and wigs; coats with large cuffs, big skirts lined and stiffened with buckram. None ever saw a crown higher than the head. The coat of a beau had three or four large plaits in the skirts, wadding almnost like a coverlet to keep them smooth; cuffs very large, up to the elbows, open below and inclined down, with lead therein; the capes were thin and low, so as readily to expose the close plaited neck-stock of fine linen cambric, and the large silver stock-buckle on the back of the neck; shirts with hand ruffles, sleeves finely plaited, breeches close fitted, with silver, stone, or paste gem buckles; shloes or pumps with silver buckles of various sizes and patterns; thread, worsted, and silk stockings; the poorer class wore sheep and buckskin breeches close set to the limbs. Gold and silver sleeve buttons, set with stones or paste of various colors and kinds, adorned the wrists of the shirts of all classes. Tile very boys often wore wigs; and their dresses in general were similar to those of tle men. The women wore caps (a bare head was never seen), stiff stays, hoops from six inches to two feet on each side; high heeled shioes of’ black stuff, with white silk or thread stockings; and in the miry times of the winter they wore clogs, gala shloes, or pattens. As soon as wigs were abandoned, and the natural hair was cherished, it became the mode to dress it by plaiting it, by queuing and clubbing, or by wearing it in a black silk sack or bag, adorned with a large black rose. In time, the powder with which wigs and the natural hair had been severally adorned, was run into disrepute (about 28 or 30 years ago) by the then strange innovation of “Brutus heads;” not only then discarding the long-clherished powder and perfume, and tortured frizzle-work, but also literally becoming “round heads” by cropping off all the pendent graces of ties, bobs, clubs, queus, etc. The hardy beaux who first encountered public opinion by appearing abroad unpowdered and cropt, had many starers. The old men, for a time, obstinately persisted in adherence to the old regime; but death thinned their ranks, and use and prevalence of numbers at length gave countenance to modern usage. From various reminiscents, we glean that laced ruffles, depending over the hand, was a mark of indispensable gentility. The coat and breeches were generally desirable of the same material-of “broadcloth” for winter, and of silk camlet for summner. No kind of cotton fabrics were then in use, or known. Hlose were, therefore, of thread or silk in summer, and fine worsted in winter; shloes were square-toed, and were often “double channelled.” To these succeedled shlarp-toes, as piked as possible. When wigs were universally wornl, grey wigs were powdrei’(l; and for that purpose sent in a wooden box frequently to the barber to be dressed on his blockhead. But ”’ brown wigs,” so-called, were exempted from the white disguise. Coats of red cloth, even by boys, were considerably worn; anid plush breeches, and plush vests of various colors, shining anal smooth, were in common use. Everlasting, made of worsted, was a fabric 421

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of great use for breeches, and sometimies for vests. The vest had great depending pocket flaps, and the breeches were short above the stride, because the art, since devised, of suspending them by suspenders, was then unknown. It was then the test and even the pride of a well tormed man, that he could by his natural form readily keep his breeches above his hips, and his stockings, without gartering, above the calf of his leg. With the queues belonged frizzled side-locks LI(l tout pies, formed of the natural hair, or, in defect of a long tie, a splice was added to it. Such was the general passion for the longest possible whip of hair, that sailors and boatmen, to make it grow most, used to tie theirs in eel skins. Nothing like surtouts were known; but they had coating or cloth great-coats, or blue cloth and brown camlet cloaks, with green baize lining to the latter. In the time of the American war, many of the American officers introduced the use of Dutch blankets for great-coats. The sailors used to wear hats of glazed leather, or woollen thrums, called chapeaus; and their “small clothes,” as we now call them, were immensely wide “petticoat-breeches.” The workingmen in the country wore the same form, having no falling-flaps, but slits in front; and they were so full in girth, that they ordinarily changed the rear to the front, when the seat became prematurely worn out. At the same time numerous workingmen and boys, and all tradesmen, wore leather breeches and leather aprons. Some of the peculiarities of the female dress were these, to wit: Ancient ladies are still alive, who often had their hair tortured for hours at a sitting, in getting up for a dress occasion, the proper crisped curls of a hair curler. This formidable outfit of head-work was next succeeded by “rollers,” over which the hair was combed above the forehead. These were again superseded by “cushions” and artificial curled work, which could be sent to the barber’s block, like a wig, “to be dressed,” leaving the lady at home to pursue other objects. When the ladies first began to lay off their cumbrous hoops, they supplied their place with successive substitutes, such as these, to wit: first came “bishops,” a thing sttuffed or padded with horsehair; then succeeded a smaller affair, under the name ot Cue de Paris, also padded with horsehair. Amoiing other articles of female wear, we may name the following, to wit: Once they wore a ” skimmer-hat,” made of a fabric which shone like silver tinsel; it was of a very small flat crown and big brim, not unlike the present Leghlorn flats. Another hat, not unlike it in shape, was made of woven horsehair, wove in flowers, and called “horsehair bonnets,” an article which might be again usefully introduced for children’s wear, as an enduring hat for long service. I have seen what was called a bath-bonnet, made of black satin, and so constructed to lay in folds that it could be set upon, like a chapeau bras; a good article now for travelling ladies. The “muskmelon-bonnet,” used before the Revolution, had numerous whalebone stiffeners in the crown, set an inch apart, in parallel lines, and presenting ridges to the eye between the bones. The next l)oinet was the “whalebone-bonnet,’ having only the bones in the front as stiffeners. A “calash-bonnet” was always formed of green silk; it was worn abroad, covering the head, but when in rooms it could fall back in folds like the springs of a calash or gig-top; to keep it over the head, it was drawn up by a cord always held in the hand of the wearer. The “wagon-bonnet,” always of black silk, was an article exclusively in use among the Friends, and was deemed to look, on the head, not unlike the top of the “Jersey wagons,” and having a endent piece of like silk hanging from the bonnet and covering the shoulders. The only straw wear was that called the “straw Cheshire bonnet,” worn generally by old people’ 422

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NEW YORK. The ladies once wore “hollow-breasted stays,” which were exploded as inju rious to the health. Then came the use of straight stays.

Even little girls wore such stays. At one time the gowns worn had no fironts; the design was to dis play a finely quilted MIarseilles, silk, or satin petticoat, and a worked stomacher on the waist. In other dresses, a white apron was the mode; all wore large pockets under their gowns.

Alllong the caps was the ” queen’s nightcap,” the same always worn by Lady Washington. The “cushlion head-dress” was of gauze, stiffened out in cylindrical form, with white spiral wire. The border of the cap was called the balcony. Formerly there were no sideboards, and when they were first introduced after the Revolution, they were much smaller and less expensive than now. Formerly they had couches of worsted damask, and only in very affluent families, in lieu of what we call sofas, or lounges. Plain people used settees and settles,-the latter had a bed concealed in the seat, and by folding the top of it outwards to the front, it exposed the bed, and widened the place for the bed to be spread upon it. In those days, there were no Windsor chairs: and fancy chairs are still more modern. Their chairs of the genteelest kind were of mahogany or red walnut (once a great substitute for mahogany in all kinds of furniture, tables, etc.), or else they were of rush bottom, and made of maple posts and slats, with high backs and perpendicular. Instead of japanned waiters as now, they had mahog any tea boards, and round tea tables, which, being turned on an axle underneath the centre, stood upri(ght, like an expanded fan or palm-leaf, in the corner. Another corner was occupied by a beaufet, which was a corner closet with a glass door, in which all the china of the family was intended to be displayed, for orna. ment as well as use. A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great china punchlibowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage,-for wine drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were then about half their present size; and china teapots and coffeepots, with silver nozzles, was a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware was not then known, and all who showed a silver surface had the massive metal too. This occurred in the wealthy families, in little coffee and teapots; and a silver tankard, for good sugared toddy, was above vulgar entertainment. Where we now use earthenware, they then used delfware, imported from England; and instead of queensware (then unknown), pewter platters and porringers, made to shine along a “dresser,” were universal. Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden trenchers. Gilded looking-glasses and picture frames of golden glare were unknown; and both, much smaller than now, were used. Small pictures painted on glass, with black mouldings for frames, with a scanty touch of gold leaf in the corners, was the adornment of a parlor. The looking-glasses in two plates, if large, had either glass frames figured with flowers engraved thereon, or were of scalloped mahogany-painted white or black, with here and there some touches of gold. Every householder in that day deemed it essential to his convenience and comfort to have an ample chest of drawers, in his parlor or sitting-room, in which the linen and clothes of the family were always of ready access. It was no sin to rummage them before company.

These drawers were sometimes nearly as high as the ceiling. At other times they had a writing desk about the centre, with a falling lid to write upon when let down. A great highll clock case, reaching to the ceiling, occupied another corner; and a fourth corner was appropriated to the chimney place. 423

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUiRCES. They then had no carpets on their floors, and no paper on their walls. Tile silver sand on the floor was drawn into a variety of fanciful figures and twirls of the swecping-l)rushl, and much skill and even pride was displayed thlerein in the devices and arrangement. They had then no argand or other lamps in parlors, but dipt candles, in brass or copper candlesticks, was usually good enough for cornmon use; and those who occasionally used mould candles, made them at home in little tin frames, casting four to six candles in each. A glass lantern with square sides furnishled the entry lights in the lhouses of the affluent. Bedsteads then were mladc, if fine, of carved imahogany, of slender dimensions; but, for common purposes, or for the families of good tradesmen, they were of poplar, and always painted green. It was a matter of universal concern to have them low enough to answer the purpose of repose for sick or dying personiis-a provision so necessary for such possible events, now so little regarded by the modern practice of ascending to a bed by steps, like clamberilng up to a haymow. A lady, giving me the reminiscences of her early life, thus speaks of things as they were before the war of Independence: Mlarble mantels and folding doors were not then known; and well enough we enjoyed ourselves without sofas, carpets, or girandoles. A white floor sprinkled withl clean white sand, large tables and heavy hiihl-baclk chairs of walnut or mahogany, decorated a parlor genteelly enough for anybody. Sometimes a carpet, not, however, covering the whole floor, was seen upon the dining room. This was a show parlor up stairs, not used but upon gala occasions, and then not to dine in. Pewter plates andl dishles were ill general use. China on dinner tables was a great rarity. Plate, more or less, was seen inl most families of easy circumstances, not indeed in all the various shapes that have since been invented, but in massive silver waiters, bowls, tankards, cans, etc. Glass tumblers were scarcely seen. Punch, the most common beverage, was drunk by the company fiom one large bowl of silver or china; and beer from a tankard of silver. The use of stoves was not known in primitive times, neither in families nor churches. Their fireplaces were as large again as the present, with much plainer mantel pieces. In lieu of marble plates around the sides and top of the fireplaces, it was adorned with china Dutch tile, pictured with sundry Scripture pieces. Dr. Franklin first invented the‘“open stove,” called also the “Franklin stove,” after which, as fuel became scarce, the better economy of the “ten plate stove”

was adopted. The most splendid looking carriage ever exhibited among us was that used, as befitting the character of that chief of men, General Washington, while acting as President of the United States. It was very large, so as to make four lhorses, at least, an almost necessary appendage. It was occasionally drawn by six horses. Virginia bays. It was cream colored, globular in its shape, ornamented witle cupids, supporting festoons, and wreaths of flowers, emblematically arrang,((l along the panel work;-the whole neatly covered with best watch glass. It was of English construction. Some twenty or thirty years before the period of the Revolution, the steeds most prized for the saddle were pacers, since so odious deemed. To this end the breed was propagated with much care. Thile Narra,ganset pacers of Rhode Island were in such repute that they were sent for, at much trouble and expense, by some few who were choice in their selections. It may amuse the present generation to peruse the history of one such horse, spoken of in the letter of Rip Van Dam of New York, in the year 17113 which I have seen. It states the fact of the 424

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NEW YORK. trouble hle had taken to procure him such a horse. He was shipped from Rhode Island in a sloop, from which lie jumped overboard, when under sail, and swam ashore to his fornimer home. He arrived at New York in 14 days’ passage, much reduced in flesh and spirit. Ile cost ~32, and his freight 50 shllillings. This writer, Rip Van Dam, was a great personage, lie having been President of the Council in 1731; and on the death of Governor Montgomery, that year, hle was Governor, ex-oficio, of New York. IHis mural monument is now to be seen ill St. Paul’s Church.*

I’THE NEGRO PLOT IN NEW YORK. A robbery, which had been committed at tfle house of Robert Hogg, a merchant in New York, on the 28th of February, 1740-1, seemed to lhave led to the discovery of a plot, which was afterwards called the negro plot. One iMary Burton, an indentured servant to John Huglison (a man of infamous character, and to whose house slaves were in the practice of resorting to drink and gamble, and of secreting the goods they had stolen), was the instrument, in the hands of the magistrates, for the detection and punishment of the offenders. On the 1Sthl of March, after the robbery, a fire broke out in the roof of His Majesty’s house at Fort Georg,e, near the chapel, consuming the house, the chapel, and so’me other buildings adjacent. Most of the public records in the secretary’s office, over the fort gate, were fortunately rescued from the flames. A week after, another fire broke out at the house belong,ing to a Captain Warren, near the long bridge, at the soutihwest end of the city. Both these fires were, at first, supposed to be accidental. But about a week after the last fire, another broke out at the store house of a Mr. Van Zandt, towards the east end of the town. Three days after, a fourth alarm was given, and it was found that some hay was on fire in a cowstable near the house of a Mr. Quick, or a Mr. Vergereau. The fire was soon suppressed. The people, in returning from that fire, were alarmed by a fifth cry, at the house of one Ben Thompson, next door west of a Captain Sarly’s house. It appeared that fire had been placed between two beds, in the loft of a kitchen, where a negro usually slept. The next morning coals were discovered under a haystack, near the coach house and stables of Joseph Murray, Esq., in Broadway. All these circumstances having occurred in quick succession, the people were induced to believe that some designing persons intended to destroy the city by fire. What strengthened this belief was, a seventh alarm of fire the next day, at the house of a Sergeant Burns, opposite the fort garden, an eighth alarm, occasioned by a fire breaking out the same day, in the roof of a Mr. Hilton’s house, near the fly market; and again, the same afternoon, and within a few hours after, a ninth fire occurring at Colonel Philipse’s store house. This strange coincidence of events leaves indeed little room for doubt that some one or more of the fires oc. curred through design. It was soon rumored that the negroes were the perpe trators. One Qu(acko, a negro belonging to a Mr. Walter, was said to have made use of some mysterious language and threats, indicating his knowledge of a plot. A proclamation was issued, offering rewards lbr the discovery of the offenders. Quacko and several other negroes were apprehended and closely interrogated, but without effect. The Supreme Court, at its April term, strictly enjoined the grand jury to make diligent enquiries as to the late robberi;.es and fires within the * Watson’s Historic Tales of Olden Timne. 425

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. city. Mary Burton, who had been apprehended as a witness, relative to the rob bery at Mr. Hogg’s, gave the grand jury reason to believe that she was also privy to the design to set fire to the city. After some difficulty, she made a disclosure, which, in all probability, was greatly exaggerated, though some of its parts might have been true. She stated that meetings of negroes were held at her master’s (Hughson). That their plan was to burn the fort and city. That one Caesar (a black) was to be Governor, and Hughson, her master, king! That they were to destroy the whites. That she had known seven or eight guns, and some swor7ds, in her master’s house. That the meetings at her master’s house consisted of twenty or thirty negroes at a time. Upon this evidence, warrants were issued, and many negroes committed to prison. One Arthur Price, a servant, charged with stealing goods belonging to the LieutenantGovernor, likewise became informer. Being in prison himself, and having access to the negroes there committed, he received, or pretended to have received, much information from them. He was afterwards employed by the magistrates, to hold private conferences with the negroes in prison, and to use persuasion and other means to gain confessions from them. In this business he was peculiarly expert, and received the most unqualified approbation of the magistrates. Yet many of his stories are of such a chivalrous and romantic description as to excite suspicion of their truth. But everything hlie related was implicitly believed. The more extravagant the tale, the more readily was it received and credited. A white woman, who was a common prostitute, and familiar even with negroes, of the name of Margaret or Peggy Salinburgh, alias Kerry, alias Sorubiero, likewise declared she could make great discoveries. The magistrates eagerly hastened to take her examination, and the consequence was, that fresh warrants were issued for the apprehension of many other negroes, not before implicated. Informers were now rapidly increasing. Arthur Price, while in prison, was making great discoveries. Operating on the fears and hopes of the negroes, many declared themselves accomplices. The magistrates were unceasingly engaged. The grand jury were daily presenting bills of indictment against the parties accused. To be inlculpated by Mary Burton, Arthur Price, or Peggy Salinburgh, was sufficient to authorize the indictment and conviction of any person. It is to be regretted that on proof of such suspicious characters so many lives were placed in the hands of the executioner. Not that we dispute the fact that some of the fires were designedly set, but that we mean to )e understood as doubting the extent and nature of the plot ascribed to the negroes. It is evident that Mary Burton was wholly unworthy of credit. Independent of the absurdity and improbability of miany of her stories, she had, on the 22d April, in her first examination and disclosure uinder oath, declared, “that she never saw any white person in company when thley talked of burning the town, but her master, her mistress, and Peggy; ” yet, on the 25th of June following, she deposed that one John Ury, a Catholic priest (a white person), was often at her master’s, and “that when he came to Huglih.

son’s, he (Ury) always went up stairs in the company of Hughson, his wife and d(laughter, and Peggy, with whom the negroes used to be, at the same time, consulting about the plot; ” and that “the negroes talked in the presence of the said( Ury about setting fire to the houses and killing the white people.” She afterwards, on the 14th July following, declared, on oath, that one Corry, a dancing master (also a white person), used to come to Hughson’s and talk with the negroes about the plot. Yet, on evidence of this kind, Ury, who had previously been committed, under the act against Jesuits and Popish priests, was indicted, 426

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NEW YORK. tried, convicted, and executed. At the place of execution, lie solemnly denied the charge, and called on God to witness its falsity. But Ury was a Catlholic, and the public prejudice was so strong that it required very little more to enule his condemnation. Had not Ury been obnoxious, on account of his religion, the accusation against him would perhaps never have been made, or, if made, would have been little regarded. Mary Burton received the hundred pounds which had been promised as a reward for discovering the persons concerned in setting fire to the city. We shall now dismiss this article, after giving the number who were accused, tried, and suffered on this occasion, with some remarks, which grow out of this subject. One hundred and fifty-four negroes were committed to prison, of whom 14 were burnt at the stake, 18 hanged, 71
transported, and the rest pardoned, or discharged for want of proof.

Twenty white persons were committed, of whom 2 only, John IHughson and John Ury, were executed. At this time the city of New York contained a population ofabout 12,000 souls, of whom one-sixthl were slaves. If a plot, in fact, existed for the destruction of the city and the massacre of its inhabitants; and if that plot was conducted by Ury, it certainly betrayed greater imbecility of intellect, and want of caution and arrangement, tog,etlher with less union of action, than could have been expected from one who was evi dently, if we believe his own account, a man of classical education, and profound erudition. It is worthy of remark, that Corry, the dancing master, accused by Mary Burton, was discharged for want of proof. It seems that Mary’s testi mony began, at length, to be doubted. Indeed, it well might; for had the pr)osecutions continued much longer, she would, more than probable, have accused a great portion of the white citizens of New York, as being concerned in this plot. Daniel Horsmanden, Esq., published, at the time, a history of this conspiracy, and labored hard to prove its existence and extent. But it is evident that that hostility to Catholicism, which the British Government so industriously incullcated, tinctured his mind, and gave it a bias unfriendly to the fair development of truth, or to the full and( impartial examination of facts and circumstances. The negroes were without defence.

All the counsel in the city were arrayed against them, and volunteered their services on behalf of the crown, on the trial of those unfortunate slaves. The want of education, and utter ignorance of tl)ose infatuated wretches, easily made them the victims of craft and imposition. Trle hopes of life, and the-promise of pardon, influenced some. of them to make confessions. Yet falsehood was so ingeniously and artfully blended with truth, that it was not an easy task to separate the one from the other. It must, however, be admitted, that many circumstances aided the opinion that the plot, in fact, existed, and if the people were mistaken in this, it was an error into which they might naturally fall at the moment of confusion and distress, and under the attending circumstances A day of public thanksgiving for the deliverance of His Majesty’s subjects from the alleged conspiracy, was appointed by the LieutenantGovernor, and was devoutly and reverently observed by the inhabitants.Smnith’s History. HOW

ROCHESTER WAS SAVED FROM THE BRTI’lSTI. In the spring of 1814-the war between the United States and Great Britaii being in progress-Sir James Yeo, with a fleet of 13 vessels, appeared off’ the mouth of the Genesee, threatening the destruction of the rude improvements in 427

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and around Rochester. Messengers were despatched to arouse the peoplc in the surrounding, country, for defence against the threatened attack. At this time there were but thirty-three people in Rochester capable of bearing arnms. This little band thlrew up a breastwork called Fort Bender, near the Deep Hollow, beside tlie Lower Falls, and hurried down to the junction of the Genesee and Lake Ontario 5
miles north of the present city limits, where tlhe enemy threatened to lantd; leaving behind them two old men, witlh some young lads, to remove the women and children into thle woods, in case the British should attempt to lanld for the capture of the provisions, and destruction of the bridge at Rochlester, etc. Francis Brown andl Elishla Ely acted as captains, and Isaac W. Stone as major, of the Rochester forces, which were strengthlened by thle additions that could be made from this thinly settled region.

Thloughl the eq’.ipm)ents and discipline of these troops would not form a brilliant picture for a warlike eye, their very awkwardness in those points, coupled as it was with their sagacity and courag,e, accomplished more, perhaps, than could have been effected by a larger force of re,gular troops, bedizzened with the trappings of military pomp. The miilitia thlus lhastily collected were marched and countermarcliedl, disappearing in the woo(ds at one point, and suddenly emerging elsewhere, so as to impress the enemy withl the belief that the force collected for defence was far greater than it actually was. (The circunmstances here related are substantially as mentioned to the writer by one who was then and is now a resident of Rochester.) An officer with a flag of truce was sent from the British flect. A militia officer marchled down wit!l ten of the most soldierlike men to reccive him on Lighthlouse Point. These militia men carried their guns upright, as might be consistent withl their l)lan of being, ready for action by keeping hold of the triggers. The Eritisli officer was astonished: lie “looked unutterable thlings.” Sir,” said lie, ” d(lo you receive a fl(ag of truce under arms, witlh cocked triggers?”-“

Excuse me, excuse me, sir: we b)ackwoodsmen are not well versed in military tactics,” replied the American officer, who promptly sought to rectify his error by ordlering his men to’ grouind arms.” The Britonl was still more astonished; and, al’ter delivering( a brief message, immediatcly departed for the fleet, indlicating by his countenance a suspicion that the ignorance of tactics, which lie had witnessed, was all (eigned( for the occasion, so as to deceive thle British Commodore into a snare. S’lortly afterwards, on the same day, another officer came ashore witlh a flag of truce for fart.lher parley, as the British were evidently too suspicious of strata,geni to attempt a liostile landing,, if there was any possibility of compromising for thle spoils. Captain Francis Brown was deputed with a guard to receive the last flag of truce. The British officer looked suspiciously upon him and upon his guard; and, after some conversation, familiarly grasped the pantaloons of Captain Brown about thle klnee, remarking, as lie firmly handled it, ” Your cloth is too goodl to I)e spoiled by suchl a bungling, tailor,” alluding to the width and clumsy aspect of tllat garment. Brown was quick-witted, as well as resolute, and repllied, jocosely, that lie was prevented from dressing fashionably by his haste that mor,ning, to salute suchl distinguished visitors. The Briton obviously imagined that Brown was a regular officer of the American army, whose regimentals were masked by clumsy over clotlhes. Thle proposition was then made, that, if the Aimericans would deliver up the provisions and military stores, which might be in a,nd around Rochester, or Charlotte, Sir James Yeo would slpare the settlements fron~t destruction. “W\ill you comply with the offer?”-” Blood knee deep first,” was the emphatic reply of Francis Brown. 428

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NEW YORK. While this parley was in progress, an American officer, with his staff, return ing from the Niagara frontier, was accidentally seen passing from one wooded point to another; and this, with other circumstances, afforded to the British “confirmation strong” that their suspicions were well founded; that there was a considerable American army collected; and that the Yankee officers pretended ignorance for the purpose of entrapping ashore the Commodore and his forces. The return of the last flag to the fleet was followed by a vigorous attack in bombs and balls, while the compliment was spiritedly returned, not without some effect on at least one of the vessels, by a rusty old six-pounder, which had been furnished and mounted on a log for the important occasion. After a few hours spent in this unavailing manner, Admiral Yeo ran down to Pultneyville, about 20O
miles eastward of Genesee River, where, on learning how they had been outwitted and deterred from landing by such a handful of militia, their mortification could scarcely restrain all hands from a hearty laugh at the “Yankee trick.” 429 27

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NEW JERSEY. Area,……….. 7,576 Square Miles. Population in 1860………. 672,035 Population in 1870………. 906,096 THE State of New Jersey was one of the original colonies which firmed the American Union. It is situated between 38~ 56’ aind 41~ 21’ N. latitude, and between 74~ and 75~ 33’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New York, on the east by New York (from which the Hudson River separates it) and the Atlantic Ocear, on the south by Delaware Bay, and on the west by the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware, from which it is separated by the Delaware River. TOPOGRAPHY. The southern and middle parts of the State are generally low, fiat, and sandy, especially along the coast and for some distance inland. The northern part is rugged and mountainous. Schooley’s, Trowbridge, Ramapo, and Second mountains in the northeast part are ridges of the Alleghany range, making their way across the State from Pennsylvania into New York. The Blue Mountains cross the extreme northwestern part of the State, running parallel with the Delaware River at this point. Southeast of Raritan Bay, there is a range of high hills, extending for a short distance along the coast, called the Nevesink Highlands. They are crowned with a lighthouse and signal station, and are the first land seen by vessels entering the port of New York, and the last on leaving it. Along the Atlantic coast, the shores are cut up with numerous inlets, into some of which flow the principal rivers of the State. Some of these fifurnish excellent harbors. Raritan Bay, in the northeast part, lies opposite the harbor of New York, and possesses many ad 430

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NEW JERSEY. vantages for commerce over the waters of the Great Metropolis.

New ark Bay is connected with it by Staten Island Sound, and is really little more than a broad estuary by which the Passaic River finds its way to the sea. It also receives the waters of the Hackensack River. The Delaware River and Bay wash the entire western side of the State. The river rises on the western slope of the Catskill Moun tains, in New York.

It at first consists of two branches, which unite near Hancock, in Delaware county, on the southwest border of the State. Flowing southeast, it forms the boundary between New York and Pennsylvania as far as the northwest corner of New Jersey, where its course is inflected to the southwest by the Kittatinny (or Shawan gunk) Mountain. It pursues this course to near the 41st parallel of N. latitude, when it breaks through the Blue Mountains by the famous Delaware Water Gap, and flows southward.

The “Gap” is one of the most celebrated places in the country. It lies in the State of Pennsylvania, but for convenience is mentioned here. The cliffs rise hp perpendicularly from 1000 to 1200 feet high, and the river rushes through it in grand style. It is m.uch visited by tourists. The river flows southward until it passes Easton, Pa., when it turns again to the southeast, which course it pursues to its mouth. Its cur rent is broken by a succession of Rapids at Trenton, but below this city it is smooth and deep. The river is 300 miles long, and is naviga ble for ships of the line to Philadelphia, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. Steamboats ascend to Trenton. A canal has been constructed from Bristol, below Trenton, to Easton, Pa., along the west side of the river. A heavy trade is carried on by means of it. The Delaware is bridged in several places along its upper course, commencing at Trenton. A canal, extending from Trenton to New Brunswick, connects it with the waters of the Raritan River and New York Bay., Philadelphia and Easton, on the right bank, and Trenton, Biurlington, and Camden, on the left bank, are the principal towns on the river. The Hudson River washes part of the eastern shore of the State. The other streams are the Raritan, rising in Morris county, and flowing into Raritan Bay, navigable to New Brunswick; the Passaic, rising in Morris countv, and flowing into Newark Bay, navigable to Newark; and the Hackensack, which rises in Bergen county, and flows into Newark’Bay. The Passaic has a perpendicular fall of 50 feet, at Paterson. A’ number of small streams flow into the inlets on the east coast. 431

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cape May, on the extreme southeastern side of Delaware Bay, is one of the most fashionable watering places in America. Long Branch, on the Atlantic coast, near New York, is another fashionable resort, and ranks next to Newport in the list of sea-shore resorts. There are several others on the Atlantic coast. The scenery of the State is very beautiful in many places, and very dreary in others. The Falls of the Passaic are noted for their beauty when the stream is fiull; and the mountainous region of the north, especially the country along the upper Delaware, is wild and picturesque. The Nevesink Highlands command a fine view of the ocean, and of Raritan and New York bays. The country northwest of New York is finely cultivated, and is well built up with numerous pretty towns and villages. MINERALS. Central and southern New Jersey contain immense beds of marl, which is now growing in favor as a fertilizer. The changes in the agriculture of the State, caused by the introduction and general use of this cheap manure, are almost marvellous.

These deposits seem to be inexhaustible, and for the most part lie very near the surface of the ground. Bog ore is found in the southern counties, and hematite and magnetic ores in the hilly regions of the north. Marble, limestone, slate, beds of peat, copperas, and a fine sand used in making glass are found. In Sussex county are situated the most valuable zinc mines in the Union. CLIMATE. The climate of the northern and northwestern parts of the State is severe. In the eastern and southern the winters are milder. The summers are hot and dry, but the spring comes early, and is pleasant. The southern and eastern parts are, to a great extent, marshy, and covered with rank, coarse vegetation. Agues and fever prevail along almost the entire water line of the State, and in many of the i lterior districts. The northern and northwestern portions are healthy. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. Along the sea coast, and in some of the interior regions, the soil consists of a fine white sand, and is worthless for agriculture. The hilly region of the north is devoted to dairy farming and grazing. The soil of the greater.portion of the State is light and sandy, and was for 432

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NEW JERSEY. GATHERING WATERMELONS. a long time esteemed too poor to justify cultivation, but the liberal and judicious use of fertilizers has brought it to a high, and even remarkable state of fertility. Lying so near the great cities of New York and Philadelphia, unusual advantages are offered the farmers of this State for the rapid sale of their crops, and as a consequence they are largely engaged in market-gardening. In 1869, there were 1,944,441 acres of improved, and ],039,086 acres of unimproved land in the State. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of New Jersey, for the same year, is given as follows: Cash value of farms (estimated)…… $250,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated)……………………….$7,000,000 Number of horses……….. 85,460 asses and mules……..6,960 milch cows………… 149,450 young cattle………99,450
sheep…………….140,160 ” swine,…………….. 300,540 Value of domestic animals……….. $19,134,693 Bushels of wheat,……..

1,646,000 433

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NEW JERSEY. Value of cotton goods…… woollen goods,…….

leather………. ” pig iron,……… ” rolled iron…….. ” steam engines and machinery, ” agricultural implements,8 ” sawed and planed lumber,., flour,.. ” malt and spirituous liquors,. ” boots and shoes,…..

jewelry, silverware, etc.,, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. This State is anmply provided with railroad communication. Four great lines, the New Jersey, Erie, Central Newv Jersey, and Morris and Essex, afford direct and unbroken trans portation to all parts of the West, and the Camden and Amboy extends across the State, from New York to Philadelphia. Five main THE BERGEN TUNNEL. routes centre in Jersey City, opposite New York, and four in Camden, opposite Philadelphia. In 1872, there were 1265 miles of completed railroads in the State. Two canals, having an aggregate length of 147 miles, extend across the State, one from Bordentown (through Trenton) to New Brunswick, affording steam transportation between the Delaware and Raritan rivers, and the other extending from Jersey City and Newark to Easton, Pennsylvania. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Jersey is controlled by a State Superintendent and Board of Education, the latter consisting of 17 persons, who are appointed for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who has immediate charge of its schools. There is a Normal School at Trenton, and a Normal Preparatory School at Beverly, both in flourishing condition. There is a permanent School Fund amounting to $557,115. In 1870, the State expended the sum of $1,562,573 on its schools. The number of children in the State, between the ages of five and eighteen years, in 1870, was 258, 435 .

$4,078,768 . 1,896,825 . 9,307,948 . 1,546,965 . 5,297,898 . 8,818,123

633,875 . 3,330,769 . 12,593,148 . 3,675,208 . 3,639,076 . 3,422,109

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NEW JERSEY. Value of cotton goods,. woollen goods,…… leather………

pig iron,…….. rolled iron,…….. steam engines and machinery agricultural implements,. sawed and planed lumber,. flour……….. malt and spirituous liquors, boots and shoes,…. jewelry, silverware, etc.,.

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. This State is anmply provided with railroad communication. Four great lines, the New m Jersey, Erie, Central Newv Jersey, and Morris ‘;. - and Essex, afford direct and unbroken trans portation to all parts of the West, and the Camden and Amboy extends across the State, ‘ ~ from New York to Philadelphia. Five main THE

BERGE., TUNNEL. routes centre in Jersey City, opposite New York, and four in Camden, opposite Philadelphia. In 1872, there were 1265 miles of completed railroads in the State. Two canals, having an aggregate length of 147 miles, extend across the State, one from Bordentown (through Trenton) to New Brunswick, affording steam transportation between the Delaware and Raritan rivers, and the other extending from Jersey City and Newark to Easton, Pennsylvania. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Jersey is controlled by a State Superintendent and Board of Education, the latter consisting of 17 persons, who are appointed for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who has immediate charge of its schools. There is a Normal School at Trenton, and a Normal Preparatory School at Beverly, both in flourishing condition. There is a permanentt School Fund amounting to $557,115. In 1870, the State expended the sum of $1,562,573 on its schools. The number of children in the State, between the ages of five and eighteen years, in 1870, was 258, 4w, $4,078,768 1,896,826 9,307,948 1,,965 5,297,898 8,818,123 633,875

3,330,769 12,593,148 3,675,208 3,639,076 3,422,109 4 & 4, I I I., 4 4 ti t I I 6 4,

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436 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 227. Of these, 161,683 attended the public schools, and 32,447 attended private schools, making a total of 194,130 children receiving instruction. A number of private schools, and several academies are in successful operation in the State. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, is the oldest in the State, having been established in 1746. It is in a flourishing condition, and is justly regarded as one of the principal educational establishments of the Union.

Rutger’s College, at New Brunswick, is also a flourishing institution.

Connected with it is the State Agricultural College, which is in prosperous operation. The instruction is by the example of the college farm, and the lectures of the Professor of Agriculture, delivered in all the counties of the State. There are several other colleges and theological seminaries in the State. In 1870, there 2413 libraries in New Jersey, containing 895,291 volumes. Of these about 1300, containing over 300,000 volumes, are public. In the same year, there were published in the State 20 daily, 1 semiweekly, 95 weekly and 7 monthly newspapers and magazines. Of these, 105 were political, 2 religious, 10 literary and miscellaneous, making a total of 117, with an aggregate annual circulation of 18,625,740 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison, at Trenton, is overcrowded, and is in great need of more extensive buildings. The labor of the convicts is let out to contractors. The separate and silent systems are not in force in this institution, to the injury of its discipline. A library is provide(l for the prisoners. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were about 550 convicts confined here, or nearly 200
more than the prison was designed to accommodate. The State Lunatic Asylum, at Trenton, is a flourishing institution, with 450 patients on the 1st of November, 1867. The State also maintains a flourishing Reform School, at Jamesburg, a Home for Disabled Soldiers, at Newark, and a Home for Soldiers’ Children, at Trenton, and makes a liberal provision for its deaf, dumb, and blind, in the establishments of Philadelphia and Hartford.

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the total value of church property in the State was $18,347,150. The number of churches was 1384.

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NEW JERSEY. FINANCES. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war, and amounts to $2,500,000. Deducting assets it is $1,200,000.

The receipts of the Treasury for eleven months of 1874 were $3,538,126, and the expenditures $3,265,266, leaving a balance on hand of $72,860. In 1868, there were 54 national banks, with an aggregate paid in capital of $11,583,450. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1844. By its terms, every white male citizen of the United States, 21
years old, having resided ill the State one year and in the county five months, is entitled to vote at thle elections. The Government is confided to a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 21
members), and a House of Representatives (of 60 members). The Governor is elected by the people for the term of three years. The Senators are elected for three years, one-third every year; and the Representatives annually for onet year. The Secretary of State holds office for five years, is appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The State Treasurer is elected by the Legislature, on joint ballot, and holds office for one year. The Court of Chancery is held by the Chancellor. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and six Associate Justices. The members of this court and the Chancellor are appointed by the Governor, confirmed by the Senate, and hold office for seven years. The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the Chancellor, the Judges of the Supreme Court, and six other judges (appointed and confirmed in the manner stated above, for a period of six years, one judge going out of office each year). The State is divided into seven districts.

A Judge of the Supreme Court is assigned to each one of these, and holds in his district courts of Oyer and Terminer three times a year in each county. He is also e-officio judge of the court of Common Pleas, Orphans Court, and Court of Quarter Sessions in his district. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 21 counties. The seat of Government is located at Trenton. 437

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HISTORY. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch, soon after their arrival in New Amsterdam. They established a colony at Bergen, between the years 1617 and 1620. In 1630, they built a small fort on the Delaware, below the present city of Philadelphia. In 1634, a company of English settlers, under the authority of a patent from their king, settled oil the shores of the lower Delaware; and in 1638, the same region was colonized by a party of Swedes and Finns. The Dutch and Swedes drove out the English settlers, and in 1655, the Swedes, themselves, were driven out by the Dutch, and nearly all sent back to Europe. When the province of New York was seized by the English, New Jersey went with it. Soon after this, Elizabethtown, Newark, Middletown, and Shrewsbury were founded. A little later, and the district was purchased from the Duke of York, by Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley, and erected into a separate province with its present name. The seat of government was established at Elizabethl, and some little difficulty was experienced in inducing the inhabitants to submnlit to the new authorities. The province suffered considerably from the despotic rule of Sir Edmund Andros. For some time, the government of the province was a condition of semi-anarchy, owing to the refusal of the home Government to recognize the claims of the proprietors. This dispute was complicated by the claim of Pennsylvania to the southern part of the State. It was settled in 1702, by the proprietors surrendering the right of government to the Crown. The provinces of New York and New Jersey were allowed separate Assemblies, but were both placed by Queen Anne under one Governor. In 1708, New Jersey protested against this arrangement, and was given a separate Governor, in the person of Lewis Morris. The colony suffered very little from the Indians, but bore its share in the wars with the French. It gave a hearty support, and played a conspicuous part in the great Revolution. During this war, the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth, were fought in this State, whose territory was more or less occupied by the two armies during the greater part of the war. The first State Constitution was adopted in 1776. On the 18th of December, 1787, the Constitution of the United States was ratified by New Jersey; and in 1790, the seat of government for the State was established at Trenton. 438

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NEW JERSEY. During the late war, New Jersey contributed a force of 79,348
men to the service of the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Trenton, the capital of the State, Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, Camden, New Brunswick, Orange, Morristown, Rahway, Burlington, Hackensack, Bridgeton, Bloomfield, Middletown, and Bordentown.

TRENTON, The capital, and fourth city of the State, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Mercer county, at the head of steamboat navigation. It is 30 miles northeast of Philadelphia, and 57
miles southwest of New York. The city is divided into two parts by the Assunpink Creek-Trenton proper and South Trenton. It is regularly laid out, and has many fine stores and handsome dwellings. It is built on a tolerably uneven surface. State street, which runs pars allel with the river, contains many elegant residences. MIain street, which intersects it at right,angles, is the principal business thoroughfare. The situation of the city on the Delaware is very beautiful, and commands extensive views of the river and the vicinity. A fine, covered bridge crosses the Delaware at the lower part of the town, connecting Trenton with the Pennsylvania shore of the river. It is used by the railway and by vehicles and pedestrians. Another bridge, also covered, spans the river about a mile above. The Delaware and Raritan Canal passes through the city, connecting it with New York and Philadelphia. There is railway communication between Trenton and all parts of the State and country. There is excellent waterpower at Trenton, and the city is to a considerable extent engaged in the manufacture of iron and iron-ware, flour, paper, locomotives, cars, etc. The public buildings are, the Cty Hall; the State Capitol, a handsome edifice of stone, 100 by 60 feet, situated on State street, and overlooking the river; the County Court House, built in the Grecian style; the State Lunatic Asylum; and the State Penitentiary. The State Library is also located at Trenton. The city possesses a system of public schools equal to any in the State in usefulness; it contains over 20 churches; and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 22,874. a 430

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Trenton was first settled by Phineas Pemberton and others, about 1680. In 1720 the settlement was called Trenton, in honor of Colonel William Trent. speaker of the Assembly. In 1790 it became the seat of Government for the State of New Jersey, and in 1792 was incorporated as a city. The most important event in its history is the battle of Trenton, which was fought within the present limits of the city, on the 26th of December, 1776. The Americans had lost the battle of Long Island, and had been forced to evacuate the City of New York, which was promptly occupied by the British under Sir Henry Clinton. A series of disasters ensued, and at the end of the year 1776 Washington had been driven across the Delaware, and the only troops that remained faithful to their colors consisted of less than 4000 half-starved men, destitute of blankets and tents. The people of the country were rapidly coming to the conclusion that the Colonial cause was ho)eless, and were beginning to make their peace with the Royal authorities. Washington alone was hopeful, and he alone was resolved to put an end to the gloom of the situation. Learning that a large force of Hessians had been thrown forward to Trenton, where they held an exposed position, he suddenly faced about, crossed the Delaware in open boats, despite the snow and ice, on the night of December 25th, 1776, and at daybreak the next morning made a sharp attack on the Hessian force, surprising them and routing them completely.

He took about 1000 prisoners, 6 brass field pieces, 1000 stand of arms, and 4 standards, and lost but 4 of his own men. On the night of the 26th he recrossed the Delaware to his own camp in Pennsylvania. This victory was highly important, as it marks the close of the long series of reverses we have referred to, and the beginniing of the successful resistance of the nation. From this time forward the despondent took fresh courage from the example set them by their great commander, and with stout hearts and strong arms fresh attacks were made upon the enemy, resulting finally in the nation’s independence. Twelve years later, as Washington was returning from New Yorkl to Mount Vernon, he was accorded a most enthusiastic and touching welcome by the citizens at Trenton Bridge. NEWARK, The largest and most important city in the State, is situated in Essex county, on the right bank of the Passaic River, 4 miles from its entrance into Newark Bay, 9 miles west of New York. The site of the city is chiefly a large plain, bounded on the west by a range of . 4..

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NEW JERSEY. moderate heights which extend from the northern to the southern limits 6f the town. The citv is regularly laid off, and the streets are bI)road, straight, and shaded with fine trees. Broad street is the principal thoroughfare, and is one of the handsomest streets in the country. It is 120 feet wide, and is lined with noble elms. At intervals along its course, are tastefully laid off parks, famous for their beautifil trees. These parks are surrounded by elegant residences, and constitute the fashionable quarters of the city. Market street intersects Broad street, about the centre of the city, and communicates with the principal railway depot. The private streets are generally attractive. The more pretentious residences are of brown stone, freestone, or brick, but the city is, as a rule, built up with tasteful frame cottages located often in the midst of large grounds. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York have their residences in Newark. Upwards of 200
passenger trains go and come between the two cities every day. The public buildings are generally handsome. The principal are, the City Hall, the Custom House and Post Ofce, the Court House, and the Library Building.

They are all elegant and costly edifices. In addition to these, there are several buildings used by banks, insurance companies, and merchants, which are worthy of special notice. The Literary and Educational Institutions are of a high character. Those most deserving notice are the New Jersey Historical Society, with a fine library of over 2000 volumes; the Library Association, with all elegant building and a collection of over 14,000
volumes; the Newark Academy, beautifully located in the most elevated part of the city; and the public schools, of which there are 12, and a high school. There are more than 75 churches in the city, some of which are very handsome. The city is well supplied with street railways; it is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water, has an excellent system of sewers, and has a police and fire alarm telegraph, a steam fire engine department, paid by the city, and an efficient police force. The Passaic River, which is navigable for steamers to the upper portion of the city, furnishes good water communication with New York and the ocean. The Morris Canal, extending from Easton, Pa., to Jersey City, passes through Newark.

At its entrance into the western portion of the city is a steep inclined plain, over which loaded boats are passed on trucks, the motive power being furnished by the water of the..canal. There is daily steamboat communication with New York, with which city Newark is connected by 3
lines of rail 441

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. way. Railways diverge from Newark to the principal towns of the State. The city has grown with great rapidity during the last 25 years, and owes its prosperity chiefly to its manufacturing interests. These are scattered through a number of generally small establishments, but foot up an enormous aggregate. There are over 550 establishments in the city, the annual product of which is estimated at over $25,000,000. It is the principal point in the Union for the manu facture of jewelry. India rubber goods, carriages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, leather, boots, shoes, saddles, harness, trunks, and clothing are manufactured in large quantities. The India Rubber Workls are very extensive, as are those for the manufacture of car riages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, etc. Newark is a port of entry, but its commerce is almost entirely confined to the coasting trade. Its proximity to New York renders it insignificant as a port. The city is governed by a Mayor and Coun(cil. The population in 1870 was 105,059. The foreign population is very large, and the city is the see of a Roman Catholic Bishop. In 1830
the population was 10,950; in 1840, 17,290; in 1850, 38,983; in 1860, 71,914. Newark was settled in May, 1666, by a company of 30 families from New Haven, led by Captain Robert Treat, and the next year they were joined by an equal number of settlers from Guilford an(l Branford, Conn., led by their minister, the Rev. Abraham Pierson. Mr. Pierson had come originally from Newark, in England, and the new settlement was called after his old home. “Their object seems to have been to establish a Puritan community, to be administered under the laws of God, by members of the church, on strictly democratic principles. They left Connecticut because the colony of New Haven, to which they belonged, had been united to the Connecticut colony of Hartford, a union which interfered with their independence. The proprietors of New Jersey had just issued their liberal proposals to settlers, known as’the grants and concessions;’ and Treat and Pierson, and their associates, having obtained from Philip Carteret, the proprietary governor, a licence to purchase land, paid to the Indians for the tract which now constitutes Newark, Clinton, Orange, Bloomfield and Belleville, ~310 New England currency, 12 Indian blankets, and 12 Indian guns. The settlers laid out the town plat of Newark, with its spacious streets and parks as they now exist. -442

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NEW JERSEY. FALS OFlil PASSAll\I:….A… FALLS OF PASSAIC AT PATERSON.

JERSEY CITY, The second city in the State, is situated in Hndson county, on the right bank of the Hudson River, at its entrance into New York Bay, and immediately opposite the city of New York. The city limits at present include Jersey City, Hoboken, Hudson City, and the other towns in Hudson county. The site of Jersey City proper is low and flat, as is that of Hoboken, but Hudson City and the other towns now included within the corporate limits lie on a range of bold heights, extending back from the Hudson, which command fine views of New York and the surrounding country on both sides of the Hudson. From the highest point on these heights, New York, Brooklyn, the neighboring towns in Westchester county, New York, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, Orange, and Elizabeth, the Hudson, East Hackensack, and Passaic rivers, New York and Newark Bays, Long Island Sound, and the Atlantic Ocean, may all be seen. The streets are generally wide and straight, crossing each other at right angles. The appearance of the city is not prepossessing, though there are some handsome localities.

There are no public buildings worbhy of mention. 443

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ELIZABETIIf, Tile fifthl city in the State, is situated in Union county, 15 miles westsouthwest of New York, and 5
miles south by west of Newark. It is pleasantly located on elevated ground, and is one of the handsomest cities in the State. It is mainly taken up with frame cottages and villas, but brown stone and brick are now coming into general use. Street railways connect its various parts, and the New Jersey and New Jersey Central Railways intersect each other here, and connect it with New York and the various parts of the country. It contains several large manufactories, a number of handsome buildings devoted to business, and over 20 churches, some of which are very handsome. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York reside here.

Its public schools are noted for their excellence. It is lighted with gas; is supplied with water; and is provided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the populationt was 20,838. Elizabeth was settled in 1655, and was for a long time the capital and chief town of the Colony and State. It has always been noted as one of the most cultivated towns in the Union. CAMDEN, The sixth city of New Jersey, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Camden county, immediately opposite the city of Philadelphia, with which it is connected by means of 4 steam ferries. It is 32 miles south-southwest of Trenton. It is located in a large plain, and is regularly laid off. It is well built, and contains some handsome residences and commercial buildings. It owes its importance to its powerful neighbor, Philadelphia. It contains some extensive manufacturing establishments, and is the terminus of the Camden and Amboy, New Jersey Southern, and West Jersey railways. It is lighted with gas; is supplied with water; and has a steam fire department.. and an effective police force. Its public schools are good and numerous, and it contains one or two literary institutions. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, chosen by the people. In 1870, the population was 20,045. The city was incorporated in 1831. The other important towns of the State are New Brunswick, on the Raritan River;.Rahway, between New Brunswick and Elizabeth; Btiilington, on the Delaware River, below Trenton; and Orange,.near 444

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NEW JERSEY. Newark. Long Branch, in Monmouth county, and Atlantic City, in Atlantic county, on the sea shore, and Cape May, in Cape May county, at the mouth of the Delaware Bay, are among the most fashionable watering places in the Union. THE BATTLE OF TRENTON. The summer and fall of 1776
was the most gloomy period of the American revolution. General Washington had been obliged to retreat from Long Island to New York, thence over the Hudson to New Jersey, and through New Jersey to Pennsylvania, vigorously pursued by an enemy flushed with a series of success. The retreat through New Jersey was attended with circumstances of a painful and trying nature.

Washington’s army, which had consisted of 30,000 men, was now diminished to scarcely 3000, and these were without supplies, without pay, and many of them without shoes or comfortable clothing. Their footsteps were stained with blood as they fled before the enemy. The affairs of the Americans seemed in such a desperate condition, that those who had been most confident of success, began despairingly to give up all for lost.

Many Americans joined the British, and took protections from them. In this season of general despondency, the American Congress recommended to each of the States to observe ” a (lay of solemn fasting and humiliation before God.” General Washington saw the necessity of making a desperate effort for the salvation of his country. On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, the American army recrossed the Delaware, which was filled with pieces of floating ice, and marched to attack a division of Hessians, who had advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen, as the tents of the enemy appeared in sight. No time was to be lost-Washington, rising on his stirrups, waved his sword towards the hostile army, aiid exclaimed, “

There, my brave friends, are the enemies of your country! and now all I have to ask of you is, to remember what you are about to fight for!

March!” The troops, animated by their commander, pressed on to the charge; the Hesians were taken by surprise, and the contest was soon decided; about 1000 were taken prisoners, and 40 killed, among whom was their commander, (a German officer,) Colonel Rahl. In this important expedition, Washington divided his troops into three parts, 28 445

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Mwhich were to assemble on the banks of the Delaware, on the night of the 25th of December. One of these divisions, led by General Irvine, was directed to cross the Delaware at the Trenton ferry, and secure the bridge below the town, so as to prevent the escape of any part of the enemy by that road. Another division, led by General Cadwallader, was to cross over at Bristol, and carry the post at Burlington. The third, which was the principal division, and consisted of about 2400 Continental troops, comnmanded by General Washington in person, was to cross at M’Konkey’s ferry, about nine miles above Trenton, and to march against the enemy posted at that town. The night fixed on for the enter)rise was severly cold. A storm of snow, mingled with hail and rain, fell in great quantities; and so much ice was made in the river, that the artillery could not be got over until three o’clock; and before the troops could take up their line of march it was nearly four. The general, who had hoped to throw them all over by twelve o’clock, now despaired of surprising the town; but knowing that he could not repass the river without being discovered and harassed, he determined, at all events, to push forward. He accordingly formed his detachment into two divisions, one of which was to march by the lower or river road, the other, by the upper or Pennington road. As the distance to Trenton by these two roads was nearly the same, the general, supposing that his two divisions would arrive at the place of destination about the same time, ordered each of them, immediately on forcing the outguards, to push directly into the town, that they might charge the enemy before they had time to form. The upper division, accompanied by the general himself, arrived at the enemy’s advanced post exactly at eight o’clo)ck, and immediately drove in the outguards. In three minutes, a firing from the division that hlad taken the river road, gave notice to the general of its arrival. Colonel Rahl, a very gallant Hessian officer, who comninanded in Trenton, soon formed his main body, to meet the assailants; but at the commencement of the action he received a mortal wound. His troops, at once confused and hard pressed, and having already lost their artillery, attempted to file off by a road on the right, leading to Princeton; but General Washington perceiving their intention, threw a body of troops in their front, which intercepted and assailed them. Finding themselves surrounded, they laid down their arms. About 20 of the enemy were killed; and 909, including officers, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. The number of prisoners was Soon increased to about 1000, by the additional capture of those who had concealed themselves in liouses. Six field pieces, and a 1000 stand of small arms, were also taken. Of the Americans, two privates only were killed; two were frozen to death; one officer and three or four privates were wounded. General Irvine b)eing prevented by the ice from crossing the Delaware, the lower road toward Bordentown remained open: and about 500 of the enemy, stationed in the lower end of Trenton, crossing over the bridge in the commencement of the action, marched down the river to Bordentown.

General Cadwallader was prevented by the same cause from attacking the post at Burlington. This well-judged and successful enterprise, revived the depressed spirits of the colonists, and produced an immediate and happy effect in recruiting the American army. THE MURDER OF THE REV. JAMES

CALDWELL. The next summer, in June, Knyphausen made his sudden and apparently objectless inroad into New Jersey. On the night of the 24th, Mr. Caldwell slept 446

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NEW JERSEY. in his own house, but was wakened early in the morning by the news of the approach of the enemy. Mounting his horse in haste, he started for headquarters with the information. He had proceeded but a short distance, however, when hie began to have serious fears for his wife and family that le had left behind. The formner, when she bade him good-bye, told him that she had no apprehensions for her own safety, for the enemy, she said, would not harm her and her little children. He had often left them in a similar way before, and always found them safe on his return, but now he was oppressed with unusual anxiety, and, after striving in vain to shlake it off, turned his horse and galloped back. As lihe riode up to the door, his wifei came out to inquire what he wanted. He told her that he wished her and the children to accompany him to camp, for hlie felt very uneasy about leaving them behind. But she, knowing they would encumber his movements, smiled at his fears, saying there was no danger at all, and declined entirely to leave the house. In the meantime she went in and brought from the breakfast table a warm cup of coffee. While he sat on his horse drinking it, the enemy came in sight. Handing back the cup, and flinging her a hasty farewell, and commending her to the care and mercy of the God in whom they both trusted, lie struck his spurs into his horse and dashed away. He had not been gone long before she had cause to regret that she had not yielded to his entreaties, for columns of smoke rising in the distance-the screams of terrified women and children running through the streets, told her that the enemy wais on a raid, and murder and devastation were marking their passage. She saw at once that she was surrounded wvithl deadly perils, but calin as became the wife of a hero as well as clergyman, she took her infant and retired into a private room to commit herself and children in prayer to God. Arising from her devotions, she sat down upon the bed, and was pondering on her desolate condi tion, when the maid, who had accompanied her with the other children, stepped to the window to look out. As she did so, she saw a ” red coat” jump over the fence into the yard. Alarmed, she turned quickly and told Mrs. Caldwell.

The latter knew at once that evil was intended her, and arose from the bed either to watch the man’s actions or to pass out of the room, when the villain caught a glimpse of her through the window. He knew her at a glance, and, having conic on purpose to kill her, he raised his musket and fired at her through the window, when she fell amid her terrified children, pierced by two balls. In the midst of the alarm and confusion that followed, the torch was applied to the house, and soon the little parsonage was wrapped in flames. It was with great difficulty that some of the neighbors, whom the maid informed of the murder, were enabled to drag the body out of the burning building. But, having accomplished this, they were compelled to flee, leaving it exposed in the hot sun in the public street, where it lay for hours with no one humane enough to throw a covering over the pale and ghastly face. At length some of her friends obtained permission from the enemy to remove it into the only house left standing near by. Mr. Caldwell was at the “Short Hills,” with the army, while this murderous scene was being enacted at his quiet home. That evening passing by chance two soldiers who were talking in whlispers, he heard the name of I’ Mrs. Caldwell” repeated two or three times.

Suspecting at once that something was wrong, he asked them what they were talking about-if anything had happened to Mrs. Caldwell. They at first hesitated to reply, unwilling to break to him the painful Intelligence, but hlie besought them so earnestly to let him know the worst that 447

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448 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. they finally told him all. The good man staggered like a smitten ox under the sudden blow, and turned pI)ale as death. Rallying, however, lie murmured a broken prayer and turned away to weep alone. That was a painful night to the noble patriot, for not only did hlie mourn deeply over the tragical end of his wife, whom he loved tenderly, but he was filled with apprehension respecting his orphaned children, one of whom was an infant-now in possession of the enemy. In the morning lie procured a flag of truce and went over to “Connecticut Farmls.” The quiet little village was a heap of smoking ruins, with only here and there a solitary building standing as monluments to mark the desolation. In one of these lay the lifeless body of his wife, and in an adjoining apartment were grouped his weeping children. The enemy, after burning Connecticut Farms, kept on towards Springfield, with the intention of committing the same barbarous cruelties there. Mr. Caldwell, after seeing his wife buried and hi children placed in the care of one of his parishioners, hastened forward to join the army. At Springfield, a sharp engagement took place between the enemy and the American troops, and though the former were compelled to beat a hasty retreat, it was not till they had burned the village to the ground. Mr. Caldwell was in the hottest of the fight, and seeing the fire of one of the companies slackening for want of wadding, lhe galloped to the Presbyterian meeting house near by, and, rushing in, ran from pew to pew, filling his arms with hiymn books.

Hastening back with these into tlhe battle, he scattered them about in every direction, saying, as hlie pitched one here and another there, “Now, put Watts into thenm, boys.” With a laugh and a cheer, they pulled out the leaves, and ramming home the charges did give the British Watts with a will. The next year this patriotic, gifted man met the tragical fate of his wife, and sealed his devotion to his country with his blood. New Jersey remained comparatively tranquil after the raid of Knyphausen, and flags of truce were constantly passing to and fro to New York, and only soldiers enough were left in the State to act as sentinels at main points.

At this time there lived in New York a family by the name of Murray, who h-lad relatives residing in Elizabethtown, and who were much beloved by the people in the vicinity for their kindness to Jersey prisoners confined in the city. One of the family, Miss Murray, wishing to visit Elizabetlhtown, came to Elizabetlhtown Point on the 24th of November, under a flag of truce. Mr. Caldwell went down in a carriage to meet her, and accompany her to the town. The details of the events that followed, I will let Dr. Murray tell in his own language. “A sentry was kept up at that time at the fort. Tying his horse outside the sentinel, Mr. Caldwell proceeded to the wharf, and taking with him Miss Murray, placed her in his carriage, and then returned to the boat for a small bundle that belonged to her. Thus he passed three times the man who was keeping guard. With a small package he was returning a second time to his carriage, when the sentinel ordered him to stop, thinking, probably, that there was something contraband in the bundle. He replied that the bundle belonged to the young lady in his carriage. The sentinel said that it must be examined. Mr.

Caldwell turned quickly about to carry it back to the boat, that it might be opened there, when the fatal ball struck him. The captain of the guard, hearing the report of a gun, looked around, and saw Mr. Caldwell staggering before him. He ran and caught him in his arms and laid him on the ground, and without speaking a word he almost instantly expired4 the ball having passed through his heart.

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NEW JERSEY. ” The man who shot him was James Morgan, belonging to the Jersey militiaan Irishman by birth, and a man of the most debased and profligate character. He was always drunk when he could be; and liquor turned him into a savage. His family resided near a well in Elizabethtown, into which a child of his fell one day and was drowned. When lie returned, he found his child dead, and taking it by the arms he beat the broken-hearted mother with the dead body of her own child until her cries brought some of the neighbors to her rescue.” Whether Morgan was on duty as a sentinel when lie shot Caldwell is at least questionable. ]t is said that on his trial it was proved that he had just been relieved. Different motives are assigned for the murder. Some say that Morgan was angry because he had not received his regular wages, and, inasmuch as Caldwell was commissary, supposed “he was responsible for the lneglect;” others, again, say that he was bribed by the British, or Tories. Whatever the motives might have been that influenced him, he was, after a fair trial, convicted of murder, and hung the next January. The body of Mr. Caldwell was placed on some straw in the bottom of a wagon, and taken up to town, and the next Tuesday buried. A MUTINY IN THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. The situation of General Washlington was often, during the wvar, embarrassing, for want of proper supplies for the army. It was peculiarly so while at Morris. town, in 1780, where he had encamped during the winter. T’he cold was uncommonly severe, and the army suffered extremely. The following account of the state of the American army is taken from “Grinishaw’s History of the United States:” “The distress suffered by the American army did not arrive at its highest pitch until the present season. The officers of the Jersey line now addressed a memorial to their State Legislature, complaining, that four months’ pay for a private would not procure for his family a single bushel of wheat; that the pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse; and that a common laborer received four times as much as an American officer. They urged, that unless an immediate remedy was provided, the total dissolution of their line was inevitable; and concluded by saying, that their pay should be realized, either by Mexican dollars, or something equivalent. Nor was the insufficiency of their support the only motive to complaint. Other causes of discontent prevailed. The original idea of a continental army, to be raised, paid, and regulated upon an equal and uniform principle, had been, in a great measure, exchanged for that of State establishlments; a pernicious measure, partly originating from necessity, because State credit was not quite so much depreciated as continental. Some States, from their superior ability, furnished their troops not only with clothlling, but witlh many articles of convenience. Others supplied them with mere necessaries; whilst a few, firom their particular situation, could give little or perhaps nothing. The officers and men, in a routine of duty, daily intermixed and made comparisons. Those who fared worse than others were dissatisfied with a service that allowed such injurious distinctions.

Mutiny began to spread, and at length broke out among the soldiers at Fort Sclhuyler. Thirty-one privates of the garrison went off in a body. They were overtaken, and 13 of their number instantly killed. About th’e same time, two regiments of Connecticut troops mutinied, and got under arms, determined to return home, or gain subsistence by the bayonet. 449

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Their officers reasoned with them, and used every argument that could interest their passions or their pride. They at first answered, Our sufferings are too great, we want present relief;’ but military feelings were, in the end, trium)phant; after much expostulation, they returned to the encampment. It is natural to suppose that the British commander would not lose so favorable an opportunity of severing the discontented firom their companions, and attracting them to his own standard. He circulated a printed papelr in the Atmerican camp; tending to hei ghten the disor(ldein by exag,geration, and create desertion by promises of bounty and caresses. But, so great was tile firmness of the sol(liery, and so strong their attachment to taeir country, that on the arrival of only a scanty supply of’ mneat, for their immediate subsistence, military duty was cheerfully performed, and the rolls were seldom dishonored by desertion. The necessities of the American army grew so piressing that Washington was constrained to call on the magistrates of the adjacent counties for specified quantities of provisions, to be supplied in a given, number of days; and was compelled even to send out detachments to collect subsistence at the point of the bayonet. Even this expedient at length failed; the country in the vicinity of the army being soon exhausted. His situation was painfully embarrassing. The army looked to himl for provisions; the inhabitants for protection. To supply the one, and not offend the other, seemed impossible. To preserve order and subordination, in an army of republicans, even when well fed, regtularly paid, andl comfi’(:)rtably clothed, is not an easy task; but to retain them in service, and subject t’liei to the rules of discipline, when wanting not only the comforts but often the necessaries of life, requires such address and abilities as are rarely found in human nature. These were, however, comibined in Washington. He not only kept his army in the field, but opposed those dilfficulties with so much discretion as to command the approbation of both soldiers and people. i’ To obviate these evils, Congress sent a committee of its own members to the encampment of the main army. They confirmed the representations previously made of the distresses and the disorders arising from commissarial mismanageimeat, which everywhere prevailed. In particular, they stated that the main army was unpaid f(or five months; that it seldom had more than six days’

provision in advance; and was on different occasions, for several successive days, without meat; that the horses were destitute of forage; that the medical departnient had no sugar, tea, chocolate, wine, or spirituous liquors of any kind; that every department was without money and without credit; and that the patience of the soldiers, worn down by the pressure of complicated sufferings, was on the point of being exhausted. Misfortunes, from every quarter, were at this time pouring in upon the United States. But they seemed to rise inll the midst of their distresses, and gain strength fromnt the pressure of calamities. When Congress could obtain neither money nor credit for the subsistence of their army, the inhabitants of Philadelphia gave $300,000 to procure a supply of necessary provisions for the suffering troops; and the ladies of that city, at the same time, contributed largely to their immiiediate relief. Their example was generally followed. The patriotic flame whllich blazed forth in the beginning of the war was rekindled. The different States were ardently excited; and it was arranged that the regular armny should be raised to 35,000 effective men.” 450

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PENNSYLVANIA. Area,………. Population in 1500,……. Population in 1870.,…… THE State of Pennsylvania, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 39~ 43’ and 42~ 15’ N. latitude, and between 74~ 42’

and 80~ 35’ W. longitude. Its extreme length is about 310 miles, and its extreme width, from north to south, about 160 miles. It is bounded on the north by New York and Lake Erie, on the east by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware River, on the south by Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia and Ohio. TOPOGRAPHY. ” No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface than Pennsylvania. Though they do not rise to any great elevation (seldom above 2000 feet), its mountains spread over about one-fourth of the State in parallel ridges, in a direction generally from northeast to southwest, and occupy the southern, central, and eastern counties. Though all forming parts of the great Appalachian chain, they are known by various local appellations. Commencing below Easton, on the Delaware, we have the South Mountain; then in order, proceeding west or northwest, the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains (both entering the State from New Jersey, and passing southwest into Maryland), and the Broad Mountain, which lies south of the North Branch of the Susquehanna. We now cross the river just mentioned, but still have with us the Broad Mountain, under the name of the Tutscarora; passing which, we come upon another ridge, lying mostly 451 46,000 Square Miles. . 2,.906,115 / . 3,521,951

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. south of the Juniata River, known as Sideling Hill; which is succeeded in turn by the Alleghany Mountains proper, the dividing ridge between the Atlantic slope and the Mississippi Valley. Descending the very gradual Ohio slope, we cross two inferior but welldefined chains, known as Laurel and Chestnut Ridges. As before stated, these mountains do not rise to a great height; the South Mountain is within 1000, and the Blue Mountain within 1500 feet. Broad Mountain is said to rise higher above its immediate base than the Alleghany range, but to be inferior to them in elevation above the sea. These different ridges are separated by valleys, now contracted within narrow limits, and now spreading out to a width of from 15 to 30 miles. The entire belt in Pennsylvania spreads over a space of 200 miles-the greatest breadth the Alleghany range attains in its whole course fiom Maine to Alabama. In the northern part of the State the mountains become high and rugged hills; the west is also hilly, and the southeast and northwest moderately so, but occasionally level. The rivers of the western part of the State, cutting their way through the tableland, present sometimes precipitous shiores of several hundred feet in height, and many valleys bear evident marks of their having been formed by running water.” * The Delaware River washes the eastern shore of the State, and furnishes the principal means of access to the sea. The city of Philadelphia, the second in size in the Union, is situated on this stream, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. The Sutsquehanna is the principal river of the State. It is formed by two branches, the eastern rising in Otsego Lake, in central New York, and the western in western Pennsylvania. They unite and form the main stream at Northumberland, 60 miles above Harrisburg. Then flowing in a southeasterly direction, it enters the State of Maryland, and empties into Chesapeake Bay. The East, which is also called the North, Branch is 250 miles long, and the West Branch 200 miles. The length of the main stream is about 150 miles. They all flowv through a very beautiful and fertile country, which is also rich in mineral resources. A series of canals extends from the mouth of the river to Northumberland, and the navigation of its branches is improved in several places. The principal tributary of the Susquehanna is the Juniata, which enters it above Harrisburg, and which is famous for its beautiful and picturesque scenery.

* Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1453. 452

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PENNSYLVANIA& VIEW ON THE JUNIATA RIVER. The Alleghany River is the principal stream in the western part of tile State. It rises in Potter county, and flows northward into New York, after which it sweeps back into Pennsylvania, and pursuing a southwesterly course, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela (which rises in West Virginia and flows northward to Pittsburg), and forms the Ohio. It is navigable for small steamers for about 200 miles above Pittsburg. The Ohio lies in this State for the first fifty miles of its course. The Schuylkill is a beautiful river in the eastern part of the State. It empties into the Delaware at Philadelphia, and supplies that city with fresh water. The Lehighl flows into the Delaware at Easton. Lake Erie, already described in another chapter, is the only lake lying in the State. It washes the northwest part of Pennsylvania for about 50 miles. MINERALS. “Pennsylvania stands first among the United States in the abundance of her coal and iron. Though not possessing a great variety 4;53

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE SCHUYLKILL ABOVE PHILADELPHIA. of rare minerals, and none of the precious metals, she has those which have made England the wealthiest and most powerful nation on the globe, while Spain and Portugal, with their gold, silver, and diamond mines, have become poor in national wealth, and have sunk to a low degree of political influence.

Owing no doubt to her homely, but useful minerals, Pennsylvania has advanced, between 1840 and 1850, in a greater ratio in population than even the Etmpire State (New York), or that vigorous and youthful giant of the West, Ohio. The vast anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania lie mostly between the Delawvare and Susquehanna rivers, about the headwaters of the Lehiglh, Schuylkill, and Lackawana. In 1854 this region sent to market, 5,919,555 tons of coal; in 1864, the product had increased to 10,564,926.

Nearly half of this came from Schuylkill county. At Blossburg, in Tioga county, and in Clinton county, are mines of bituminous coal, said to be equal, if not superior, to the Newcastle coal of England; while the region around Pittsl)urg, the commencement of the coal field of the Mississippi Valley, abounds in coal of the same kind, but little inferior in purity.

Cannel coal of fine quality is found in Beaver county. The bituminous coal mined in western Pennsylvania, in 1864, was estimated at 3,000,000 tolls.

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AJ~AUCH CHUNK AND MIOUTNT PISGAH. The “Switzerland” of America.

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PENNSYLVANIA. MOUNT PISGAII AND THE COAL REGION. the western part of the State. The best evidences of the quantity and excellence of the iron of Pennsylvania is the fact, according to the census report of 1850, that nearly half of the pig, cast, and wrought iron manufactured in the UTnion Was fromn her forges and furnaces. This State also abounds in lime, marl)le, slate, and stones suitable for building. Marble is particularly abundant in Chester and Montgomery counties. The most important copper mines in Pennsylvania are in the same counties. Zinc is mined in the vicinity of Bethlehem, plumnbago in Bucks county, and lead in Chester and Montgomery counties. A bed of this mineral, of great richness, is reported to have been discovered recently in Blair county. Chromium occurs in Chester and Lancaster counties. Scattered( over the State are some of the foillowing minerals: titanium, plumbago, magnetic iron ore, iron pyrites, magnesia, talc, asbestos, barytes, zircon, tourmalin, mnarl, etc. Salt springs exist on the Monongallela, Kiskeminitas, and Beaver rivers, and in other parts of the State. Nearly 12,000,000 bushels of salt were manufactured here in 1860. Nitre or saltpetre has recently been discovered in an extensive deposit, and of great richness, 457

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458 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in the central part of the State. There are several medicinal springs, generally chalybeate, the most noted of which are Bedford, in the county of the same name; York, in Adams county; Doubling Gap, in Cumberland; Yellow Springs, in Chester; and Ephrata, in Lancaster countv.” * CLIMATE. The southern and eastern portions of Pennsylvania have a milder climate than the western part. In the latter, the winters are long and severe. The summers are very hot all over the State, and all parts are liable to sudden changes fiom heat to cold. The spring comes early in the southern counties, but is late in the others. As a whole the State is one of the healthiest in the Union. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of the State is good. That of the limtestone regions, and along the river valleys is excellent, and there are some fine lands in the mountain valleys. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in agriculture, being one of the first States in the Union, with respect to its productions. The system of farming is enlightened and progressive, and the people are amongst the most industrious in the world.

In 1870 there were 11,515,965 acres of improved land in the State, and 5,740,864 acres of unimproved land. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of the State for the same year was as follows: Cash value of farms……….$1,043,481,582 Value of farming implements and machinery, $35,658,196 Number of horses,… nmilch cows, working oxen, ” sheep,… “
swine,… Value of all live stock,. Bushels of wheat,.. i’ rye,.. Indian corn,. ” oats,……. ” barley,…. ” Irish potatoes, buckwheat,. Tons of hay,……. ……. …… Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1454. 460,339

706,437 - 30,048 1,794,301 867,548 $115,647,075 19,672,967 3,577,641

34,702,006 36,478,585 529,562 12,889,367 2,532,173 2,848,219 …….

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PENNSYLVANIA. Pounds of maple sugar,.. ” tobacco………. ” beeswax and lioney,…… wool……. ” butter,………. ” cheese……… Gallons of milk sold,……. Valuc of orchard products,…… ” market garden products,1.0 slaughtered animals,…. ” forest products………….

COMMERCE. The returns of the port of Philadelphia do not fairly exhibit the foreign trade of this State, since a large portion of its cornmmerce passes through the port of New York. The railroads and canals of the State transport immense quantities of freight every year, and the trade with the South and West, by the Ohio River, is enormous. The discovery of petroleum has greatly increased the foreign and domestic trades of the State. Tile export of this article from Philadelphia in 1868 was 40,505,620 gallons.

In the same year the petroleum trade of Pittsburg amounted to about $13,000,000. InI 1860 the State produced $21,266,906 worth of coal, which amount has been greatly increased since tlhen. In 1863, the tonnage of the State was 300,741, of which 94,305 was steam tonnage. In 1861, the total imports of the State amounted to $12,628,348, and the exports to $10,013,097. IANUFACTURES. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in manufactures, ranking in this respect amongst the most inmportanlt States in the Union. In 1870, there were 37,200 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 319,487
hands, a capital of $406,821,845; consuming raw material worth $421,197,673, and yielding an annual product of $711,894,344. There were 153 cotton mnills, employing a capital of $12,575,821, and 3881 male and 6105 female hands, consuming raw material worth $10,749,472, paying $3,510,534 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $17,565,028. There were 403 woollen factories, employing 5699 male and 5032 female hands, and a capital of $14,066,785; consuming raw material worth $17,325,849; paying $4,340,066 for labor; and yielding an The largest amount so invested in any State. 459 1,545,917 3,467,539 824,022 6,561,722 60,834,644 1,145,209

14,411,729 $4,208,094 $1,810,016 $28,412,903 $2,570,370

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460 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. annual product of $27,361,897. T] same year were valued as follows: Leather,……. Pig iron,…….. Rolled iron,…… Steam engines and machinery, Agricultural implements,.. Sawed and planed lumber,.. Flour………. Malt and spirituous liquors,. Boots and shoes……. Furniture,………. Jewelry, silverware, etc.,…

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the task of providing means of rapid and direct communication between her various points. The first great work ever undertaken in this country was the turnpike fromn Philadelphia to Pittsburg, which until the completion of thi( Erie Canal of New York, was the great highway between the East and the West. In 1825, the State began an extensive system of canals. This undertaking was badly managed, however, and slic did not at once derive the great advantages from them she had( expected. Many of these works were injudiciously located in parts of the State where there was no need for them. The consequence was that the profits of the paying lines had to be used to defray the expenses of these unprofitable routes, and in the course of time the State was burdened with a heavy debt on th(eir account.

The railroads have taken away the greater part of their business, and have thus greatly increased the burden to the State. The railroads of Pennsylvania are amongst the most important in the country. Philadelphia has direct railroad communication withi all the important towns of the State, with New York, Baltimore, and all parts of the Union. Seven or eight main lines centre in this city, and three or four in Camden, New Jersey, immediately opposite. These bring through freights and passengers from all parts of the Union to Philadelphia. In 1872, there were about 1100 miles of canal navigation in Pennsylvania, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. In the same year there were 5113 miles of completed railroads in the State. The cost of construction was about $250,000,000.

This makes Pennsylvania the first State in the Union with respect to the length and cost of her railroad system. other manufactures for the $28,899,396 32, C,36,410 57,976,471 29,248,153 3,652,295 35,254,590

49,476,245 11,692,528 16,864,310 7,981,560 2,011,431 …… ……

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PENNSYLVANIA. EDUCATION. The State has always been noted for the excellence of its schools. One of the first efforts of the original settlers was to provide for public education, and we find that the plan of Government drawn up by William Penn in ]682, provided for the establishment of public schools, and their control by the Governor and Provincial Council. The first Constitution of the State (1776) required the establishment of at least one such school in each county, and in 1786, the State made a donation of 60,000 acres of the public lands for the support of the public schools. In 1836, a permanent school fund was established. The educational system is under the control of a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is appointed by the Governor.

The State is divided into 2002 school districts, each of which is immediately controlled by six school directors, two of them being elected each year. They hold office for three years. They manage all the business affairs of the schools, appoint the teachers, select the textbooks, and make an annual report to the county superintendent. This officer is required to be an experienced teacher, and is elected for three years by the school directors of the county. It is his duty to make a thorough inspection of the schools in his county, to satisfy himself of the conmpetency of the teachers and the proficiency of the pupils, and to make an annual report of his observations to the State Superintendent. The Public Schools of the city of Philadelphia are distinct from those of the State, and are supported by the municipal authorities. Including these, there were 14,212 public schools in Pennsylvania in 1870. The number of teachers was 17,612, of pupils, 828,981. The whole amount expended during the year for public instruction was $7,771,761.20. In Philadelphia, in the year 1867, there were 374 schools, with a ferce of 1314 teachers. The total number of pupils was 129,226, the average attendance, 66,333. There are five normal schools; at Millersville, Mansfield, Edinboro, and Kutztown. The city of Philadelphia has a fine normal school of its own.

The law provides for the establishment of twelve such schools in the State, whenever they may become necessary. The present number of pupils is 2675. There are 13 colleges in Pennsylvania. One of these, the College of Agriculture, is a State institution. It is in vigorous operation, and is meeting with great success. The Medical School of the University 461

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical College, the former founded in 1765, and the latter in 1824, are amongst the best schools of their kind in the world. Besides these are 6 other Medical Colleges. There are 7 Theological Seminaries, 1 Law School, and 9

Colleges of Literature and Science in the State. The University of Pennsylvania and Girard College at Philadelphia; Dickinson College at Carlisle; Washington College at Washington; the Lewisburg University at Lewisburg; Franklin and Marshal College at Lancaster; and the Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg, are the principal institutions in the State. In 1870, there were 601 academies, seminaries, and private schools in the State, with 848 teachers, and 24,815 pupils. In 1860, there were 1416
libraries in Pennsylvania, containing 1,344,924 volumes. Of these, 529, with 761,299 volumes were public. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals published in the State was as follows: daily 29, semiweekly 3, triweekly 1, weekly 297, monthly 28, quarterly 6, annual 3,-total 367. Of these 277 were political, 43 religious, 25
literary, and 22 miscellaneous. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of this State have long been noted for their extent and excellence. The Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, at Philadelphia, the State Lunatic Hospital, at Harrisburg, and the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, near Pittsburg, are among the best establishments of their k itnd in the world. Besides these there are three incorporated hospitals, and several private establishments. The Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Duimb, established in 1820, and the Institution for the Blind, established in 1833, both at Philadelphia, are open to pupils from New Jersey and Delaware. Those States, consequently, contribute to the support of these establishments. The Training Schoolfor Feeble-minded Children is at Media. It is supported in part by the State. There are two Houses of Refuge. One, for Western Pennsylvania and located at Pittsburg, is maintained entirely, and the other, at Philadelphia, in part, by the State, which also maintains 39 schools and homes for the support and instruction of soldiers’ orphans. There are two great Penitentiaries in Pennsylvania-one at Philadelphia, and the other at Alleghany City. The Philadelphia peni 462

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PENNSYLVANIA. tentiary is one of the most complete establishments of its kind in the country. Both prisons are conducted on the silent system, and the prisoners are kept separate from each other. The discipline is mild but firm, and every effort is made to reform as well as punish the prisoner. In 1866 there were 569 convicts in the Philadelphia prison, and 418 in the Alleghany prison. REI,IGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Pennsylvania was $52,758,384. The number of churches was 5668. FINANCES. The total debt of the State in December, 1874, was $24,568,635. Tlhe funded debt was $24,371,884, and the unfunded debt $196,751. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30, 1874, amounted to $7,697,119, and the expenditures to $6,642,567. A large part of the debt was discharged in the same year. In September, 1874, there were 199 National Banks in operation in the State, with a capital of $52,000,000. GOYERNAIMENT. Every male freeman, twentyone years old, who has paid a State or County tax, within two years, (except in cases of male freemen between 21 and 22 years, who are not required to pay tax as a condition to this right,) and has resided in the State for one year, and in his election district ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The State Government is conducted by a Governor, Auditor-General, and Surveyor-General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 33 members, elected for 3 years, one-third retiring annually), and a House of Representatives (of 100 members, elected annually), all chosen by the people. There are, also, a State Treasurer, elected annually by the Legislature, and a Secretary of State, AttorneyGeneral, and Ad(jutant-General, and several other executive officers,,, appointed by the Governor. The Sapriemne Court of Peinsylvania consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Judges, elected by the people for fifteen years. The Judg,e who has tlhe shortest term to serve, is Chief Justice.

This is the High Court of Errors and Appeals. 29 463

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The District Courts are two in number, and are established at Philadelphia (for the City and County of Philadelphia) and at Pittsburg (for the County of Alleghany). Their jurisdiction extends over all civil suits in which the claim exceeds $1000, and in certain other cases prescribed by law. They are the principal commercial courts bfor the cities in which they are held. The Courts of Common Pleas are each presided over by one Judge, elected for ten years, and one or more Associate Judges, elected for five years. There is a court in every county. They are also Judges of Oyer and Terminer and general jail delivery in their respective counties. Besides these, there are police courts in the cities. For purposes of government, Pennsylvania is divided into 65 coulnties. Harrisburg is the capital of the State. HISTORY. In 1627, a colony of Swedes and Finns, well provided with means from Europe, settled along the lower part of the western shore of the Delaware. and in a short time spread their settlements to the mouth of the Schuylkill River. In 1655 they were compelled by the Dutchl to submit to the authorities of New Amsterdam, and in 1664 passed under the rule of the English. In 1681, Charles II. granted the territory west of the Delaware to William Penn, in payment of a debt due by the British Government to Penn’s grandfather. Penn colonized his grant at once with members of his own faith (Friends or Quakers), and in 1682 founded the City of Philadelphia. His grant included’ the present State of Delaware, which was then known as the “lower counties.” In 1699, Pennsylvania granted these counties a separate Assembly, but they continued subject to the authority of her Governor until 1776, when, upon the breaking out of the Revolution, they formed an independent establishment. Penn’s charter failed to define with exactness the boundaries of his grant, and this led to considerable unpleasantness with the neighboring provinces, which was not settled until 1767, when the surveys of Mason and Dixon definitely established the boundaries of the province. The first years of the colony were passed in peace with the Indians, whose friendship was won and retained by the wise and just policy pursued towards them. Upon the outbreak of the war of the Revolution, however, they waged upon the colonists a cruel and exterminating warfare, the character of which is well shown by the terrible massacre at Wyoming. 464

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PENNSYLVANIA. DEEP CUT, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. The lower counties of the State were settled by the Swedes originally, and after them by the Friends or Quakers. These thrifty people soon brou,ght the colony to a flourishing condition, and made it, perhaps, the most successful of all. They were joined in 1750 by a large number of no less thrifty Germans, who settled in the counties around and wvest of Philadelphia, in tile southern part of the State, to which they gave the peculiar characteristics which distinguish them to-day. The colonists contributed their full share to the wars with France, and gave a hearty support to the measures for securing American independence. Philadelphia was at this time the largest and most important city in America, and was the place at which the Continental Congresses first met. It continued to be the seat of Government until the occupation of the city by the British in 1777, compelled Congress to withdraw to York. The battles of Brandvwine and Germantown were fought in this State about the same time. The massacres of WVyoming and Paoli, in the same year, an(l the memorable winter at the’Valley Forge, are thrilling incidents in the reyolutionary history of Pennsylvania. 465

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466 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Convention which adopted the Constitution of the United States held its sessions in the city of Philadelphia, which had already been made memorable by the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The Whiskey Insurrection, to which we have already alluded, occurre(l during Washington’s administration. Tile State bore its share of the burdens of the war of 1812, and has since always maintained its position as one of the wealthiest, most 1)o,rcssive, and influential members of the Union. During the late Rebellion, it contributed (exclusive of militia) a force of 362,284 men to the army and navy of the United States. The southllern counties suffered very much -roin the incursions of the Confederates. In one of these raids the town of Chambersl)brg was burned. In June, 1863, the State was invaded by the Confederate armay under General Lee. This force was defeated at Gettysburg, in Adams county, on the 3d1 of July, in one of the most memorable and decisive battles of the war. In consequence of this defeat, General Lee retreated into Maryland, and recrossed the Potomac. CITIES AND

TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Philadelphlia, Pittsburg, Alleghany City, Scranton, Reading, Lancaster, Erie, Eastonl, Norristown, Pottsville, York, Allentown, Danville, Carlisle, Williatnsport, Chaimbersburg, West Chester, Oil City, Wilkesbarre, Johnstown, and Altoona. HIIARRISBURG, The capital, and sixth city of the State, is situated in Dauphin county, on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 106 miles west by north of Plhila:lelphlia, and 110
miles north of Washington. Latitude 400 16’ N.; long,itud(le 760 50’ W.

The city is beautifully located, and its elevated points command fine views of river and( mountain scenery. It lies in the mnidst of a fertile and healthy country, and is regularly laid oft: The business of the place is extensive, owing to the fact that it is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and has canal transportation to the tidewaters of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its proximity to the great coal and iron regions of the State also adds to its importance. It is already engaged in manufacturing enterprises to a considerable extent. Several extensive iron furnaces, rolling mills, a cotton factory, a mianufactory of railway cars, and other works aro

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PENNSYLVANIA. SUSQUEIIANNA ABOVE IIAPRISBURG. carried on. The city is rapidly growing in size and population, and promises to be a large and important inland city. The streets are wide and well paved, and the city is substantially built. In its general appearance it resembles Philadelphia, the buildings being generally of red brick trimmed with white marble. Front street, a handsome avenue, overlooks the Susquehanna, and contains many of the handsomnest residences in the city. The Public Buildings are few in number. The State House is an imposing edifice, and occupies a picturesque and commanding position upon a natural eminence, a little north of the centre of the city; and fromn its dome a fine view may be obtained of the broad and tortuous river, its beautiful islands, its bridges, and the adjacent ranges of the Kittatinny Mountains. The Land Office, a brick building, stands on the right of the State House; and the State Department, also of brick, on the left. To the south of the Land Office, is the State Arsenal. The Court House, on Market street, is a stately structure, built of brick and surmounted by a dome. The State House contains a large and valuable library. There are 9 public schools in the city, and 19 churches. There are 467

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468 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water from the river. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 23,109. The first white settlement made at Harrisburg was in 1719, by an Englishman named John Harris. He purchased from the proprietaries of Pennsylvania a grant of 300
acres of land near his residence, and bought of other grantees 500 acres adjoining. He carried on a considerable trade with the neighboring Indians. In 1753, the Penns granted to his son, John Harris, jr., the right to establish a ferry across the Susquehanna at this point, and the settlement became known as Harris’ Ferry. In 1784, the town was laid out.

It was made the seat of justice of the new county formed from Lancaster and called Dauphin, in honor of the heir to the Crown of France. The town itself was called Louisburg, in honor of Louis XVI. In 1791, it was incorporated as a town, and its name changed to Harrisburg. In 1812, it became the capital of the State; and in 1860, it was incorporated as a city, and divided into six wards. PHILADELPHIA, In the county of Philadelphia, the largest and most important city of the State, and the second city of the United States, lies between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 5 miles from their junction and nearly 100 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, following the course of the Delaware River and Bay. It is 136 miles northeast of Washington City, and 87 miles southwest of New York. The city proper is located in a perfectly level plain; but the recent additions, especially those on the northwest, are built on a fine rolling country, which abounds in picturesque views which offer a striking contrast to the uniform flatness of the old city. As originally laid out in 1701, the city was bounded by the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, and by Vine and Cedar streets. In 1854, the adjoining districts of Spring Garden, Penn, Northern Liberties, Kensington, and Richmond on the north, West Philadelphia on the west, and Southwark, Moyamensing and PassyLink on the south, were consolidated with the city in one municipal government. These constitute, with old Philadelphia, the city proper; but by a recent Act of the Legislature, the limits of the city of Philadelphia have been made coextensive with those of the county, which include an area of 120 square miles. The entire length of the city, from north to south, is 20 miles; and its greatest breadth, from

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FORT DELAWARE.

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PENNSYLVANIA. VIEW OF PIILADELPHIA FROML FAIRMIOUNT PARK. east to west, 8
miles. The suburbs are very beautiful, and are thickly built up with handsome country seats, villas, cottages, etc. They abound in exquisite scenery, especially in the vicinity of the Wissahickon. The most densely settled portion of the city is the southern part, between the two rivers, where the peninsula is only about 2 miles in width. Fromn this point it widens to the northward. Unlike New York, the population is not crowded into a few houses. The dwel lings contain one fanmily as a rule; and rarely more than two. They are small as a general thing, large mansions being the exception save in the richer portions of the city. The densely inhabited portion covers an area of about 9 square miles, extending for about 5 eliles along the Delaware, and 2 miles along the Schuylkill. The largest part of the business of the city is transacted between Vine and Spruce streets, east of 12th street. The wealthiest private section, that inhabited by the “fashion,” is south of Walnut, and west of 7th street, Walnut being considered the most desirable street in the city. Business is making considerable inroads upon this section. Hiere are to be found some of the most beautiful and elegant residences in the Union. Arch street, north of Market, and Broad street towards itd northern end, are among the handsomest and most desirable thoroughfares. Market street, which is entirely devoted to business, extends 471

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE WISSAHICKON AT CHESTNUT HILL.

throughout the city from east to west, beginning at the Delaware and crossing the Schuylkill. It is I 00 feet in width, and is lined with large warehouses, usually of brick. Broad street, 113 feet wide, extends from the northern to the southern limit of the city. Its northern portion is lined with elegant residences. The central and southern portions are devoted to business, and contain some of the handsomest buildings in the place. Philadelphia is laid out with great regularity. The original plan of Penn contemnplated a city with 10 streets running from river to 472

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PENNSYLVANIA. PHILADELPHIA SMIALL HOMES. river, and crossed by 25 other streets at right angles to them. Broad and Market streets were to divide this city into four nearly equal portions, a considerable area being reserved at the intersection of those streets for four large squares.

These constituted the famous Penn Square, whiichl has been recently stripped of its magnificent trees and shrubbery to make way for the new municipal buildings which are to occupy its four divisions. The streets are usually from 50 to 66 feet in width, with a few of greater breadth.

Those running from north to south are numbered, beginning at the Delaware or eastern side; those extending from east to west are named. In the old sections of the city, the sewerage is defective, in consequence of the flatness of the land, but the higher portions have nothing to complain of in this respect. Considering its size and importance, Philadelphia is remarkably deficient in good pavements. The streets are generally paved with cobble stones, but Belgian and wooden pavements are now beginniing to make their appearance. The general aspect of the city is bright and pleasing, mingled with a certain primness, however, due to its Quaker origin. Except in those portions along the water, it is very clean, and is healthy. Market street divides it into two 473

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. TIIE LEDGER BUILDING. portions, called north and south. The houses are numbered according to the streets between which they are located, 100 to a block. Thus 740 would be located between 7th and 8th streets. This system renders it comparatively easy to find a building in any part of the citv. That portion of the city lying east of the Schuylkill is called Philadelphia, and all west of that river West Philadelphia. As a rule the city is built of brick, but of late years many edifices of brown and free stone, iron and marble, have been erected.

Market street is the principal business thoroughfare, and is lined with immense stores, generally devoted to the wholesale trade. Chestnut street corresponds to Broadway in New York, and is the handsomest business street. It is quite narrow, but contains the most elegant buildings in the city, and is one of the handsomest and most attractive streets in the Union. It contains the principal hotels; Independence Hall; the Custom House; and the Post-Office. Third street is the great money centre, and is occupied for a considerable distance with the offices of bankers and brokers, many of which are handsome buildings. Now that Penn Square has been destroyed, there are 7 public squares in the city. These are Independence, Washington, Rittenhouse, Logan, Franklin, Jefferson, and Norris Squares. They cover each from 6 fb 8 acres, are enclosed with tasteful iron railings, and are ornamented with magnificent trees, shrubbery, fountains, etc. They are surrounded with large and elegant residences. 474

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PENNSYLVANIA. The principal pleasure ground is Fairmount Park, in the northwest portion of the city. This magnificent pleasure ground lies on both sides of the Schuylkill River, from the Fairmount water-works to the mtnouth of the Wissahickon, and along both banks of the latter stream to Chestnut Hill, a distance of 721 miles along the Schuylkill and 6 miles along the Wissahickon, making in all, a distance of 131-miles. The entire park comprises nearly 3000 acres, making it the most extensive pleasure ground in the world. Its great length enables it to include the most beautiful portions of the Schuylkill and the far-famed 47,5

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 476 TIIE WISSAIIICKON. Wissahickon, and it abounds inll views of landscape and river scenery unsurpassed in any portion of the world. It is rich in forest trees, on which the white man’s hand has never been laid. It is still in its infancy as a park, the work of improvement having been scarcely begun: but what has been accomplished gives promise of a judicious and tasteful assistance of nature. In its primeval state, this park

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PENNSYLVANIA. THE UNION LEAGUE. BROAD STREET. constituted one of the loveliest regions in America. Wlhen art and wealth have done their part, it will be indeed worthy of the pride of the people of Philadelphia. The Park contains the Fairmount water-works, and a number of interesting and historical localities. Small steamers ply on the SclIuylkill from Fairmount water-wvorks to the Falls, and carriages supplied by the Commissioners convey visitors to the principal points at a moderate rate of fatres. From the high grounds in the northern portion a fine view of the city and the surrounding country is obtained. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. Gisard Colle e, in the northern portion of the city, is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in the United States.

It is built of white marble, and is entirely fire-proof. There are two additional buildings on each side of the main building, all of which are of marble. The U. S. Custom House, on Chestnut street, also of white marble, is a magnificent structure in the Doric style. It is built on a raised platform, and both fronts are ornamented with noble colonnades of fluted Doric columns. The U. S. Mint, on Chestnut street, extends back to Olive street, 220 feet. It is built of marble, and is the principal establishment of tihe Federal Government for the coining of money. The 2~erchants’ E.xchange, at the intersection of Walnut, Third, and Dock streets, is a handsome building of white marl)le. The St(te Ihouse, or as it is 477 II

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NEW MASONIC TEIPLE, ON BROAD STREET. better known, Iadependence Hall, is a plain edifice of brick, remark, able only for its venerable appearance and its interesting history. It was in this building that the early sessions of the Continental Congress wvere held, and here was adopted the famous Declaration of Independence, on the 4th of July, 1776. The Union League House on Broad street, is a handsome edifice of brick, used as a club house by the Union League of Philadelphia. The JIasonic Temple, just completed, on Broad street between Market and Arlch, opposite to the new city buildings, is one of the most magnificent structures in the city. Many of the churches are elegant and imposing. The theatres are about 6 in number, and besides these there are a number of inferior places of amusement. The Academy of Jfusic on Broad street, is one of the largest and finest halls in the country; but the other theatres, though handsome, are not equal to those of the other large cities of America. The hotels are large, elegant, and well kept. The principal are the Continental, the La Pierre, the Girard, the Merchants’, the American, and Colonnade Hotel. The Continental is a splendid building, and in its internal arrangements is equal to any house of the kind in the Union. The city is well supplied with provisions by means of its excellent markets, of which there are 24. Some of these are handsome structures of brick”and iron; others are less pretentious; but the display of edibles of alL kinds to be seen in them is perhaps the finest in the 478

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PENNSYLVANIA. world. The great market garden regions of the Middle States lie so close to Philadelphia, that but a few hours intervene between the gathering of the articles and their delivery to the purchaser in the market. The Educational, Literary, and Scientific Institutions are numerous and of a very high order. The Public Schools have long been noted for their excellence. They are distinct from the State Schools of this kind, and are conducted by the city. There are about 375 free schools within the corporate limits, including two high schools. The average attendance of pupils is about 67,000. There are numerous private schools and academies, which are well attended. Philadelphia has always been famous for the care bestowed b y it s p eopl e up on th e education of the young, and no doubt owe s a larg e s hare ofi its prosperity to this care.

The University of Pennyl-. vania, Darby Road, West Philadelphia, emb ra ces four departments, viz.: the Academical, th e Collegiate, the Medical, and the Law. It ranks among the first institut ions of its kind in America, and its Medical College is th e old est in the Uni on. The Jefferson M edical College is also a famous and flourishing institution.

The I[emale ]ledi-HE.MILOCK GLEN ON THE WISSAHICKON. cal College is devoted to the object indicated by its name. The others are an Eclectic and oromeeopathie Medical College, a College of Pharmacy for the education of druggists and chemists, a College of Dental Surgery, a College of Physicians, which is one of the principal sources of the American Pharmacopoeia, and a Polytechnic College, organized on the plans of the Industrial Colleges of France and Germany. The IVagnei-Free Institute, the gift of Professor Wagner, is a fine institution. Girard College, in the northwest portion of the city, about two miles from the (.gaie House, was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France and 479

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NEW ACADEMIY OF NATURAL SCIENCES. a merchant of Philadelphia, who died in 1831. He bequeathed $2,000,000 for this purpose. The buildings were completed in 1847, and the institution was opened January 1, 1848. It is devoted to the “gratuitous instruction and support of destitute orphans.” The buildings, 6 in number, are of white marble. The American Philosophical Society has a valuable library and collection of minerals, fossils, and ancient relics. The Franklin’

Institute is a flourishing society composed of manufacturers, artists, mechanics, and persons friendly to the mechanic arts. It possesses a library of over 8000 volumes, and holds an annual exhibition in October.

The Academy of Natural Sieieices is one of the best institutions of its kind in the Union. It possesses a library of 26,000 volumes, and a remarkably fine collection of specimens, embracing over 200,000 subjects.

The Ilistorical Soeiety of JPeansylvania was founded for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of local history, especially in relation to the State of Pennsylvania. It has published a number of valuable workls on this subl)ject. It possesses a library of 18,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of contemporary documents and relics. The Philaddelphia Libirary was founded in 1731 through the influencee of Benjalniin Franklin. It numbers about 90,000 volumes, and is free to all who wish to use it. The 3iereantile Library is supported by the subscriptions of its members. It contains over 40,000 volumes. The At]ianceum Library numbers about 25,000 volumes. Connecte(I 480

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PENNSYLVANIA. -with it are a news and reading room and a chess room. The Appren tice’ Library contains 22,000 volumes; the Friends’ Library 7000
volumes; and the Law Association Library 7500 volumes. The Penmylvania Academy of Fine Arts possesses a valuable per  manent collection of paintings, and holds an annual exhibition of new’ works. The Artists’ Fund Society, the Nuniismatic Society of Phila delphia, and the School of Design for Women are the other art societies. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions number more than 100’ We can mention but a few of the most prominent. In respect to her institutions of this kind, Philadelphia is second to no city in the land. The =.. Pennsylvania Hospital is a noble institution, founded ‘in 1751. It possesses an anatomical museum, and a ,ibrary of n more than 10,000 vx;olumnes. The County Alnis House is an immense struc ture, situated in the mnidst of large grounds in West Philadelphia. Connected with it is a hospital with 600 beds. The Pennsylvania In8ane Asy’urn is in West Philadelphia. It is one of the best institutions ON TIlE WISSAIIICKO\ DPIVE. of its kind in existence. Its grounds cover an area of 114 acres. The main building is 430 feet long. The United States Naval Hospital, on the east bank of the Schuylkill, below Southl street, is for the use of invalid officers and seamen of the U. S. Navy. The Pennsyleania Institute for the Deaf and Dtuiib, the Penisylvania Institution for the Blind, the Preston.Retreat, the Hotse of Refuge, the House of Co}rI’ection, and TVills Hospital are noble charities. ThIe Prisons are well conducted. The Ectsteir State Penitentia,y occupies an area of 11 acres, enclosed by a stone wall, 30
feet high. It is built of stone;- and consists of an octagonal building in the centre, from which radiate wings, with rows of cells on each side, and a 30 481

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCHUYLKILL RIVER, FROM TIIE FALLS. passage way extending the entire length of each wing. It is a model ilnstitution in every respect. Thle Philadelphia County Prison is a massive })uilding of stone. It is used for the purposes of a penitentiary as well as a county jail and wvork-house. There are about 375 churches in the city. As a rule they are handsome and substantially built. The mneeting-louses of the Friends are generally plain breick structures, remarkable for their absence of display. They are 14 in number. Thile Cemeteries are, Laurel _till, Glenwood, Mount Vern)on, JlionumlcJ t, 17oo(dlanls, P]oeialdson’s, Odd Fellows’, and l]Iounut -Yoriah. They are noted for their beauty.

Laurel ITill is considered by many persons the most beautiful cemetery in the Union. It is located on the banks of the Schuylkill, in a lovely country, and contains many handsome tomIbs. Philadelphia is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, which is supplied at a reasonable rate to the citizens. The gas works are conducted by the city, and the consumers are secured the best quality of gas that can.be made, and are protected from the extortions of private companies. The total length of street mains is about 500 miles. 482

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PENNSYLVAN I,. CIIESTNUT STREET BRIDGE, OVER THE SCHUYLKILL, PHILADELPHIA.

The city is supplied withl water from the Schuylkill River. In 1812 the Fairmount Water Works were begun, and in 1827 water was introduced into the city. Since then the city has constructed -additional reservoirs. The Fairmount Water Works, on the Schuylkill River, in the northwest part of the city, are very interesting and constitute one of the chief attractions to visitors. The average amount used per diem exceeds 25,000,000 gallons.

Philadelphia is connected with the Jersey shore on the opposite side of the Delaware by six lines of steamr ferries. Numerous steamers ply on the Delaware between Philadelphia and the towns on that river. The street railway lines are 22 in number. They constitute the best system of street transportation in the Union. By the use of transfer tickets almost ally point within the city limits can be reached at a uniform fatre of seven cents. There are 9 bridges in and near Philadelphia. Some of these are uise(l exclusively by the railway lines entering the city. The bridge over the Schuylkill at Chestnut street is a beautiful structure of iron, 390
feet long, 42 feet wide, and 40 feet above high water. It cost $500,000.

The city is provided with a strong and efficient police force, a fire 483

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department, with more than 30 steam engines. It is divided into 24 wards, and is: governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. There are 10 daily, and 40 weekly newspapers, and about 50 periodicals, weekly and monthly, published in Philadelphia. A large share of the book publishing trade of the Union is carried on here. Philadelphia is largely engaged in manufactures. The district of Manayunk is almost wholly.engaged in these enterprises, devoting itself principally to cotton and woollen goods, and carpets. Sugar refining is carried on extensively in. the city. Large quantities of s h o e s, chemicals, medicines, paints, umbrellas, parasols, carts, wheel barrows, household furni ture, jewelry, iron manu factures of every descrip tion, steam engines, wa ter and gas pipes, military goods, flour, soap, ale and beer, glass, clothing, ca n dles, hosiery, etc., etc., are manufactured annually. The total capital invest ed in manufactures in Phila delphia is estimated at nearly $100,000,000.

Ship building is also carried on to a limited extent. arrivals The commerce of Phi PUBLIC FOU:NTAIN. ladelphia is large, and is growing rapidly. Its for eign trade passed principally through the port of Nw York. There is now direct comnunication between Philadelphi a and Europe wit h American iron steamships. In 1865, there were 541 arrivals from foreign ports. The city carries on an immense coasting trade, and its harbor is usually crowded with vessels. In 1865, there were 31,705
arrivals from American ports. The total value of exports from the port of Philadelphia in 1865 was, $11,278,603. The imports in the same year amounted to $7,164,744. The city also conducts a large trade with all parts of the country, and especially with the West, by means of its railroads. Immense quantities of coal and petroleum annually pass through Philadelphia, thus adding to its wealth. 484

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PENNSYLVANIA. Philadelphia is at present the fourth city in the Union in commercial importance, but it is making rapid progress towards a higherposition. The U. S. Navy Yard is located on the Delaware River in the southeastern part of the city. It covers an area of 12 acres, and contains 2 large ship-houses, and all the necessary works. Some of the best vessels in the Navy have been constructed here. It also con tains a sectional floating dock. In 1870, the population of Philadelphia was 674,022. In 1684, it had 2500 inhabitants, in 1778, 42,520; in 1820 (up to which time it was the largest city in the Union), 167,325; and in 1860, 565,529. The city of Philadelphia was founded by William Penn immediately upon taking possession of the grant of a province by Charles II. He sent out a body of colonists in August 1681, and in 1682, came over himself, and superintended the surveys of the new city. During the latter year, a large number of colonists arrived, the majority of whom were Friends or Quakers, and persons of respectability and wealth. Penn’s deliberate intention was to found a large city, and the general plan of the present city differs very slightly from his original design. The new settlement was named by him Philadelphia, partly from the city of that name in Asia Minor, but principally because of the signi ficance of the term. Penn’s first care was to make an equitable treaty with the Indians, who, on their part, carefully abstained from molest ing the new city, which prospered in a marked degree, and became the largest and most important place on the continent, which preelminence it held until about 30 years after the opening of the Revolution. Philadelphia bore its full share ill the events of the early wars of the country with the French and Indians, though it was itself never assailed. “In 1741, the city was divided into 10 wards.

In December 1719, aprinting press was set up, and Andrew Bradford began to publish the American Weekly 3fercury, which was continued until 1746. In 1728, the Gazette was begun, which fell to Franklin to conduct in 1 729.

In the latter year, the building of a State House was authorized, the site was selected in 1730, and the building begun in 1732, and completed in 1735. The bell tower was not erected till 1750; and on June 7th, 1753, the new’great bell,’ cast here, weighing 2080 pounds, with the mnotto,‘Proclaim liberty,’ etc., was raised to its place; this is the bell celebrated in connection with the Declaration of Independence, and now in Independence IHall. Tile first Colonial ‘Congress met in Philadelphia at Carpenters’ Hall, a building still in 48.’

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OUR COUNT’RY AND ITS RESOURCES. ifismifi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ___

INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. use as a hall, on September 4, 1774.

Congress held its sessions at the State House in 1776, and here adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence. Th-e British forces occupied the city from September, 1777, to June, 1778. A census was then taken by General Cornwallis, and there were found to he 21,767 inhabitants and 5470
houses, but the people were then much scattered. Congress resumned its&

486

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PENNSYLVANIA. sessions at Philadelphia after the British left it, and continued to make this the national capital until the removal to WXashington City in 1800. The battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777, was fought within the present chartered limits of the city, 7 miles northwest of the centre of the old city proper. The State Legislature removed its sessions to Harrisburg in 1800, simultaneously with the removal of the seat of the General Government to Washington. The foreign commerce and general trade of Philadelphia increased rapidly after the close of the Revolution. At the war of 1812 this commerce almost wholly ceased; in 1816, business and speculation revived, but the results were not fortunate, and direct external trade never recovered its former importance. Previous to 1839, the banking capital of Philadelphia was large, and for most of the period previous to 1836, it was the monetary centre of the country. The First Bank of the United States, established by Act of Congress, in 1791, with a capital of $10,000,000, was located here; and the Second Bank of the United States was established here in 1816, with a capital of $35,000,000. The subsequent failure of the bank under its State charter in 1839, and the loss of its large capital, greatly weakened the financial strength of the city, and the monetary centre was permanently transferred to New York. The revulsion of 1837, and the subsequent financial depression, fell heavily on the city and State, the recovery from them not being apparent until 1844. In 1793, the yellow fever made terrible ravages, nearly decimating the population, and driving numbers into the country; and again in 1798, it was epidemic. In 1832, the Asiatic cholera was very destructive, the victims numbering 770. More recently, there have been milder forms of epidemic cholera and yellow fever, but as a whole the city has from its foundation been conspicuously healthy.” The separate municipalities proved for many years the source of considerable trouble, and in 1854, they were all consolidated into one city, under the general name of Philadelphia. By the same enactment, the corporate limits of the city were made to embrace the entire county.

PIrTTSBURG, The second city in the State, is situated in Alleghany county, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which here form the Ohio River. It is 357 miles west of Philadelphia, and 223 northwest of Washington city. The city is located on the triangular plain enclosed by the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers, and by Grant’s Hill 487

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488 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and the other eminences at the eastern side of the plain. “The general outline and many other features of this city bear a striking resemblance to the lower part of New York. Along the Monongahela the. street were laid out at right angles to each other, and extend either parallel or perpendicular to the river. The same plan was also adopted on the Alleghany side, by which arrangement the cross streets meet obliquely a few squares south of the latter stream. The space included within these limits was found insufficient to meet the requirements of the rapidly increasing population, which soon extended itself to the opposite shores. Here have sprung up several large and flourishing towns, the most important of which are Alleghany City and Manchester, situated directly opposite the junction of the Alleghany River with the Ohio, and Birmingham, on the left bank of the Monongahela. In commercial and social interests, all these are identical with the city proper, and we should do Pittsburg injustice, not to consider themn as a part of the same community.” The situation of Pittsburg is exceedingly beautiful. The city lies in a plain surrounded by hills from 400 to 500
feet in height. At the base of these flow the three rivers we have named.

The hills are very rich in coal, iron, and limestone. The soil is fertile to the very summit of the hills, which are covered with picturesque forests, orchards, and gardens, thus giving an additional beauty to the landscape. An English traveller writes of the scenery as follows: “As regards scenery it is beautifuilly situated, being at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains, and at the junction of the two rivers Monongahela and Alleghliany. Here, at the town, they come together, and fornl the River Ohio. Nothing can be more picturesque than the site, for the spurs of the mountains come down close round the town, and the rivers are broad and swift, and can be seen for miles from heights which may be reached in a short walk. Even the filth and wondrous blackness of the place are picturesque when looked down upon from above. The tops of the churches are visible, and some of the larger buildings may l)e partially traced through the thick, brown, settled smoke. But the city itself is buried in a dense cloud. The atmosphere was especially heavy when I was there, and the effect was probably increased by the general darkness of the weather. The Monongahela is crossed by a fine bridge, and on the other side the ground rises at once, almost with the rapidity of a precipice; so that a commanding.yiewv is obtained down upon the town and the two rivers and the different bridges, from a height immediately above them. I

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PITTSBURGH

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PENNSYLVANIA. was never more in love with smoke and dirt than when I stood here and watched the darkness of night close in upon the floating soot which hovered over the house-tops of the city. I cannot say that I saw the sun set, for there was no sun. I should say that the sun never shone at Pittsburg, as foreigners who visit London in November declare that the sun never shines there.” The city is handsomely built, brick and stone being the principal materials used; but the dense smoke soon defaces the handsomest structure. In consequence of this the place has a black grimy appearance, which effectually mars the work of taste and wealth. There are many handsome residences in the eastern section. The suburbs are preferred for purposes of residence however. They are very picturesque in themselves, and are beautifully built up, and present a very marked contrast to the city ill cleanliness. The Public Buildings are among the handsomest in America. The Court House is situated on the summit of Grant’s Hill, and is a handsome edifice of granite, of the Grecian Doric order, with a noble portico. The summit of the dome is 148 feet from the ground. The new Custom House is built of freestone in the Grecian style.

It contains the Post Office. Besides these are several others which are worthy of notice. Some of the churches and commercial buildings are among the principal ornaments of the city. There are also 2 fine market houses, one of which contains a large public hall. The Educational Institutions are in a flourishing condition. The public schools are numerous, and are attended by about 20,000 pupils. Besides these the city contains a number of private schools. The Benevolent Institutions are the Mercy Hospital, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy, the United States Marine Hospital, the Homefor the Friendless, the Church Home, designed chiefly as a home for children of all denominations, the Pittsburg Infirmary, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum and a House of Refuge. In addition to these are the Western Pennsylvania Hospital (which has a dep)artment for the insane at Dixmniont, 8 miles from the city), and the House of Industry, situated in Alleghany City, but really to be regarded as among the institutions of Pittsburg. The Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania is located in Alleghany City. It is an immense stone building in the Norman style. There are about 110 churches in the city of Pittsburg, and about 30
in Alleghany City. Some of them are imposing structures and are admirably located. 491

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Pittsburg is supplied with pure water from the Alleghany River,. and is lighted with gas of an excellent quality. It is divided into 9, wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is well provided with street railways, which also connect its business centres with thesuburbs on both rivers. Four fine bridges connect it with Alleghany City, and two extend across the Monongahela to Birmingham.

Alleghany City is simply an extensive suburb of Pittsburg, and is divided from it by the Alleghany River. It is well built in the main, and contains many handsome residences, being a favorite residence of the people of the greater city, as it is very much cleaner.. It contains a large number of manufacturing establishments, and is a place of considerable importance.

Here are located the Wester Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church; the Theological Seminary of the Associate Reformed Church; and the Alleghany Theological Institute. In 1870 the population of Alleghany City was 53,181. The manufactures, etc., of the city will be treated of in connectioni with those of Pittsburg. Alleghany is a distinct corporation, and is governed by its own Mayor and Council. Birminghamn and Manchester are considerable suburbs. The former is situated on the south side of the Monongehela River, immediately opposite Pittsburg, and the latter is on the Ohio, 2 miles below the city. Mr. Geo. H. Thurston, in his Quarterly Circular, thus describes manufacturing Pittsburg: “Pittsburgh is not to be seen in a day, nor yet in a week; and while the simple fact that it is a great manufacturing city is generally acknowledged, yet the details of that greatness are but little understood. Many years ago, before the iron horse had crossed the Alleghanies, while yet the transportation of the merchandise for the West. was made in the old six-horse Conestoga wagons, the City of Wheeling claimed importance and coming greatness, inasmuch as that forty of those wagons had arrived in that city in one day. Since then Wheeling has grown into an active little competitor of Pittsburgh, the great parent of all western manufactures, and of which it, as well as a dozen other manufacturing towns, are offshoots, the natural outspringing and colonization of Pittsburgh’s growth. That growth has been so marked and so continuous that we have often, in the past few years, been tempted to remodel the language of Wheeling, and say: Forty miles of mills and factories every day in operation in Pittsburgh. This is no brag, but.

almtost literally a reality, although no doubt a terse explanation of’

what Pittsburgh really is like’ is rather startling to her 492

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PENNSYLVANIA. own citizens. The real fact is that actual measurement shows that in the limits of what is known throughout the country as Pittsburgh there are thirtyfive miles of manufactories of iron, of glass, of steel, of copper, of oil, of wools, of cotton, of brass, alone, not to include imanufactories in other materials, nor including any of less grade than manulfactories of iron chains in iron, or plows in wood. A measure ment of the ground also shows that these 35 miles of factories are so closely contiguous that were they placed in a single row each factory would have but about 400 feet of front space for its workings. “The statistics of this statement of the extent of Pittsburgh manufacturing power are these: From the point up the south bank of the Alleghany River to the Sharpsburg bridge is 5 miles; in that distance, between the river bank and Penn street, there are 115 factories of the classes designated. From Sharpsburg bridge down the north bank of the Alleghany River to Wood’s Run is 8
miles, and in that distance there are 67 manufactories. From Temperanceville to( Brownstown, up the west bank of the Monongahela River, is 4 miles, and in that distance there are 70 factories, between the river and Carson street. From the Monongahela bridge up the course of the Monongahela River, to a point beyond Brownstown, is 31 miles, and in that distance, b)etween Carson street and the hill, there are 43 manufactories.

From the Point to the Copper Works, on the east bank of the Monongahela, is 31 miles, and in that distance there are 55 factories. From Federal street out Ohio street to Duquesne Borough is 121 miles, and in that distance there are 15 factories. On. Butcher’s Run, in a distance of 2
miles, there are 32 factories. Along Liberty street, from the Point to the Outer Depot, there are 19 factories in a distance of 2 miles. On 2d and 3d avenues, from Liberty to Try streets, a distance of 1 mile, there are 18
factories. Along Pennsylvania avenue to Soho street, a distance of 21
miles, there are 17 factories. Between Ohio street and the base of the hill there are, in a distance of 3 miles, 24 factories. “Thus in a distance of 3521 miles of streets, there are 475 mantfactories of iron, of steel, of cotton, of oil, of glass, of copper, occupying an average of less than 400 feet front each. “Were these factories placed in a single row, it will be easily seenhow compactly they would be crowded, each occupying no more territory than was actually needed. They would be a continuous row” without interval; and show that in reality there are in Pittsburgh absolutely over 35 continuous miles of manufactures in daily operation 493

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “Pittsburghers, then, in answer to the question, what is Pittsburgh like? can readily answer-Like a row 35 miles long of factories twisted up into a compact tangle all belching forth smoke, all glow ing with fires, all swarming with workmen, all echoing with the clank of machinery. The territory over and around which this immense chain of machinery is strung, though all popularly known as Pitts burgh, is composed of the city of Pittsburgh and the city of Alleghany, the boroughs of Temperanceville, West Pittsburgh, Monongahela, South Pittsburgh, Birmingham, and East Birmingham. The whole forms, however, one compact city, in effect, divided only by the two rivers, which, running through the district, are spanned by numerous bridges, over several of which street railroads link, with their almost continuous lines of cars, in one mass, a population in this hive of in dustry numbering 200,000
souls. Although the name of Pittsburgh, and the term Pittsburgh manufactures, have been’as household words’ throughout the West, since the days of the earlier Western settlements, still its growth has been so equable with that of the West that but few realize the real magnitude of the community. “Called into existence by 1no sudden speculative rush of emigration, drawn primarily by some adventitious circumstances, Pittsburgh has accumulated its population through the course of years from the solid advantages each passing year renders but more apparent. In all past years Pittsburgh has been a point of departure for much of the emigration to the West, a position the city still maintains. Thus naturally Pittsburgh became a supply point for the West, and the West the chief market for her productions. The increase of the population of the West has told with unerring certainty upon the business and the population of Pittsburgh. “In 1800, the population of the States through and along which Pittsburgh enjoys river navigation, was 385,667, and that of Pittsburgh was 1565, or - little over a4 per cent., while the value of her business was, in 1803, but $350,000, or equal to 92 - per cent. of the population of the West.

“In 1810, there were in the same western territory 1,057,531 inhabitants, and in Pittsburgh 4876, or?9 per cent., being 0 over the necessary increase to preserve the ratio of our increase in the city’s population, in proportion to that of the West. The amount of business of the city was then estimated at $1,000,000, equal to 93 per cent. on the population of the territory indicated. “In 1830, there were 3,331,298 inhabitants in the section of the 494

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PENNSYLVANIA. Union before indicated, and in Pittsburgh there were 16,988, still showing the growth of the city was not in the same ratio of increase as the West, as in past periods, but a gain of - over what was necessary.

“In 1840, there were 5,173,949 inhabitants in the western and southwestern States, and the population of Pittsburgh was 38,931, being 2-1 per cent., showing not only the maintenance of the progressive ratio, but a gain over it of 20 per cent. “In 1836, the business of the city was estimated at $31,146,550, being something over 600 per cent., showing the business of the city had not only kept pace with the population of the West, as shown in previous ratios, but had compounded thereon 500 per cent. “In 1860, the population of the Mississippi basin and the western lake slopes (Pittsburgh’s market), was shown by the census of that year to be ill round numbers 17,000,000. At that date the business of Pittsburgh was estimated at over $100,000,000, showing the ratio of business on the population of the West, attained in 1836 and 1840, was still maintained.

“The population of the district considered and claimed as Pittsburgh, being the compact mass of population between and on both sides of the rivers to the city limits, was estimated at 140,000 in that year, showing that in population as well as business the ratio of Pittsburgh’s prosperity with the wealth of the West continues to be nmaintained. What the population of the West may be as shown by the census of 1870 we know not, but those who know the great growth of Pittsburgh in the last nine years, the vast increase in her rollingmnills and in her workshops, cannot doubt that the ratio of increase is still maintained. In the great swell of the population of the West, Pittsburgh seems not only to keep pace and to hold her trade, but that trade, like her population, seems to increase in arithmetical proportion with the growth of the country. Considering the competitors which have arisen for the market Pittsburgh supplies with her staples, this is worthy especial note as indicative of a natural force in her position and her resources not to be lost sight of in contemplating her future. “The force of Pittsburgh’s position is seen at a glance.

Distant only 300 to 400 miles from three of the greatest seaboard cities of the Union; but 200 miles from the great chain of inland seas, and reaching in all directions by continuous river navigation an area of country 1200 by 960 geographical miles, she is at the same time the 495

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. key point of a railway route nearer by 40
miles from New York to the West than any now constructed. Situated in the heart of a bituminous coal formation of the Appalachian field, and equally advantageously located as to deposits of iron ore, her geographical relations to the staples for manufacturing are unequalled. She stands in a geographical centre from which a circle with a radius of 400 miles embraces Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, Canada, parts of Illinois and South Carolina. This circle embraces every variety of climate, and nearly, if not quite all the staples of the United States and its valuable manufacturing minerals, over which she holds the magician’s wand in her unequalled supply of fuel. For’coal,’ says Vischers,‘is the indispensable aliment of industry. It is to industry what oxygen is to the lungs-water to the plant-nourishment to the animal.’ “The statistics of the coal by which Pittsburgh is surrounded shows how inexhaustible is this element of her force and her progress. The extent of the bituminous coal fields by which Pittsburgh is surrounded is equal to 8,600,000 square acres. The amount of coal contained in that area it is difficult to estimate. It has been stated that the upper seam, rating it at 8 feet, contains 53,51.6,430,000 tons, which at $2 per ton, or a little over 7
cents per bushel, would be worth $107,032,860,000-a sum which, could it be realized, would pay the national debt thirty times. Of course although centuries will not see it taken from the earth, the figures show what a mine of wealth Pittsburgh has to draw from; and how mighty is the magnet she possesses to attract to her boundaries minerals and staples of all the States, population and wealth. At the present time the coal trade of the city amounts to about $10,000,000 annually, and there are in the vicinity of Pittsburgh 103 collieries; the value of lands, houses, improvements, cars, etc., amounts to about $11,000,000. The amount of coal mined from these collieries in 1864 was 48,462,966 bushels, of which nearly 30,000,000 bushels were exported down the Ohio River alone. ” But not in coal alone is her strength shown. In those things which coal enables her busy artizans to produce, is her power equally apparent. As nearly as can be ascertained, onehalf of the glass factories in the United States are located at Pittsburgh, where there are 40 firms engaged in the manufacture of glass, who run 60 factories producing the various descriptions of green, window, flint, and lime 496

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PENNSYLVANIA. :glass, employing over 4000 workmen, and producing between four and five millions worth of glass. “In iron and steel, Pittsburgh claims and maintains to be the great market of the country. The exact money value of this great trade has always been difficult to arrive at.

Much of the iron is shipped by rail to various points, and much by river.

By figures we have at command of the shipments of plate, bar, shleet, and rod iron and steel from Pittsburgh in the year 1865, it would seem that there were ex ported, by rail alone, to 24 different States, over 143,000
tons, and 180,000 kegs of nails to 20 different States. These railroad exporta tions, it must not be forgotten, are not probably half the manufacture. That of castings there were shipped by rail alone 5,143,008
pounds in 1864, to 22 different States; and that by one railroad alone there were received in 1864, into the city, 107,000 tons of pig-iroll and blooms, exclusive of the yield of 6 or 8 filrnaces running in the city of Pittsburgh, or the imports by river and other railroads. It is estimated that of shipments made from Pittsburgh, at least as much is sent by river as by rail. There are over 30 iron rolling-mills in Pittsburgh, 6 steel mills, and between 50 and 60 iron founderies. These figures but feebly indicate the full extent of the great iron and steel trade of the city, of which the sales alone of articles made of iron subject to tax, made and returned to the city, was from March, 1865, to March, 1866, over $27,000,000. “Oil is another great staple, and there are in Pittsburgh 58
refineries, in which is invested a capital of nearly $8,000,000 in buildings and machinery; and in the tanks and barges necessary to the carrying on of the business, nearly $6,000,000 more. The oil trade of the city for the 5 years from January, 1863, to January, 1868, amounted to about $56,000,000, or an average of about $11,000,000 annually. “Other branches of Pittsburgh manufactures might be cited to show its force and solidity, but enough has been stated to partially show what Pittsbuirghl is like. To show that she is like a great city cf nearly 200,000
population; that she is a great arsenal for the supply of manufactured articles; that she grows with the growth, and increases in wealth with the prosperity of the West. Althoughl she has apparently grown but slowly, yet she has grown like the oak, and but counts her infancy in the years in which other cities spring and mature; and she stands like a sooty giant astride the head waters of the Ohio, rejoicing in the lusty strength of her fresh youth, while her powerful servant, the mighty Geni of the Mine, throughout the waters 497

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the Ohio, along the shores of the Father of Waters, around the borders of the great lakes, on either hand of the pathway of the iron horse, athwart the Western prairies, proclaims her the dusky Queen of Industry, and commands homage to her iron sceptre in threefourths of the States of the Union.” Its very location has placed an enormous trade in the hands of Pittsburg. Lying at the head of the Ohio River, it has water communication with every town on the navigable portion of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Being one of the principal railway centres of the West, it has railway connections with all parts of the Union. The principal harbor is furnished by the Monongahela River, which has a greater depth of water than the Alleghany. The Ohio is navigable to the confluence of those streams for boats of light draught, except at infrequent periods of very great dryness. The boats are generally built in such a manner as to adapt them to the lowest stages of water. Large side-wheel steamers also navigate the Ohio during the season of high water. By means of these steamers, a heavy trade is maintained with the States along the rivers we have mentioned. Pittsburg thus controls about 12,000 miles of water transportation, and can deliver its products withlout breaking bulk in over 400 counties of 17 States. In 1865, there were 159 steamboats owlled in the city. The number is much greater at present. Besides these, hundreds of steamers, owned in other States, trade with Pittsburg. In 1870, the population of Pittsburg was 86,235. In February, 1754, a party of English settlers built a stockade and established a trading post on the point of land lying between the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers at their confluence, on the site of the present city of Pittsburg. In April, they were attacked and driven away by the French, who claimed the country. The conquerors erected a fort on the spot, and called it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor of Canada. This fort at once became the centre of all the military operations of the French in this part of the country. To the French claim, which was based upon their discovery of the region, the English advanced a counter claim based upon a charter from the Crown, strengthened by a treaty with the Iroquois. The importance attached to the position by the French made it a matter of the greatest moment to the English to obtain possession of it. General Braddock was sent, in 1755, at the head of the largest force that had ever crossed the mountains, to recapture it. He was attacked 498

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PENNSYLVANIA. and defeated by the French and Indians, on the 9th of July of that year, at a point on the Monongahela, about 12 miles above the fort. On the 15th of October, 1758, a force of 800 men, under Major Grant, advancing to attack the fort, was defeated with terrible loss. On the 25th of November, 1758, the fort fell illto the hands of a force of 6000 men under General Forbes. The French and their Indian allies vainly endeavored to check Forbes’ advance, and failing in this, set the fort on fire and retreated on the 24thi, the dav before the arrival of the English. General Forbes rel)ulilt and strengthened the fort. It was completed in January, 1759, and was called Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English Minister.

Tile French made several efforts to recapture it, but without success. In 1764, the settlement of the town began, the houses being erected in the vicinity of the fort. In 1772, the fort was abandoned by the English, who had no further use for it as a military post. The site was claimed by Virginia under a charter firom James I. Pennsylvania also claimed it under a charter from Charles II. Virginia prepared to assert her claim by force, and on the 11th of August, 1775, threw a company of soldiers into Fort Pitt. The Revolution made this a minor question, however, and in. August, 1779, Commissioners, appointed by the two provinces, mnet in Baltimore, and agreed upon the existing boundary which was ratified by their respective Legislatures. The excise troubles of 1791-4, made Pittsburg the scene of considerable violence. In 1845, a fire destroyed the entire business portion of the city, causing a loss of $5,000,000. Pittsburg was incorporated as a borough in 1804, and as a city in 1816. SCRANTON, The fourth city in population in the State, is situated in Luzerne county, on the left bank of the Lackawanna River, 137 miles nortlheast of Harrisburg.

It is the terminus of several railway lines leadimg direct to Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and New York, and the centre of an immense coal trade. Iron ore is found in large quantities in the vicinity, and the city is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron w;ares of various kinds. The principal sources of its prosperity, however, are the rich coal mines which lie near the town. These mines are worked by the Pennsylvania and other companies, and employ large numbers of muiners of all nationalities. Scranton is a..well built town, containing about 4 public schools, 11 churches, and 2
newspaper offices. It is prettily situated,.and is 31 499

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS I’ESOUI;CES. SCRANTON. improving in its architectural pretensions. During the last few year.,, the population has increased with unprecedented rapidity. In 1860, the city contained 9223 inhabitants. In 1870, the population was 35,762. If Pittsburg and Alleghany are regarded as one city, Scranton is the third city in Pennsylvania. READING, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Berks county, on the left or east bank of the Schuylkill River, 52 miles east of Harrisburg, and 52 miles northwest of Philadelphia, with both of which places it is connected by railways. It has railway connections with other parts of the State. The Schuylkill Canal brings it in direct communication with the entire Schuylkill region. The river is here crossed by two bridges, one of which is 600 feet long. The city is beautifully situated on a sloping plain, which rises fronm the river, and. is terminated on the east by an eminence called Penn’s AMounlt. Thle city is well buiilt, brick being the principal material. 60oo

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PENNSYLVANIA. EASTON, In Northampton county, on the right bank of the Delaware River, at the junction withl that stream of the Lehigh River and Bushkill Creek, is a flourishing city. It is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, is well built, and is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water. It is finely situated in the midst of some of the most beautiful scenery of the State, and is in many respects one of the most picturesque cities in America. The Lehigh and Delaware are here crossed by fine bridges. The city possesses good waterpower, and is largely engaged in manufactures. Flour, oil, iron, lumber, cotton goods, and firearms are the principal articles produced. The city is connected with New York, Philadelphia, and all parts of the State, by railway. By means of these and the Delaware, Lehigh, and Morris Canals, large quantities of coal, lumber, and grain are received and shipped to the principal markets of the counltry. Easton is one of the most enterprising places in Pennsylvania, and is growing rapidly in population and importance. It contains the county buildings, several handsome churches, and several excellent schools. It is the seat of Lafayette College, a flourishing institution.

Five newspapers 501 EASTON.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS PRESOURCES. are p)ublished here. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 10,987. Easton was laid out in 1738, and was incorporated as a town in t789. The surrounding country is very beautiful, and is rich in iron ore and limestone.

MISCELLANIES. OLD TIME CUSTOMS IN PrIILA.DELPfIIA_. fir. Watson, in his “

Historic Tales of the Olden Time,” gives some interesting accounts of the customs of the people of Philadelphia prior to the Revolution. lle savs: They were distinguished for a frank and generous hospitality. They made iiany entertainments, but they were devoid of glare and show, and always al)undant and good. 1)r. Franklin, describing the state of the people about the year 1752, says they were all loyal, and submitted willingly to the government of the Crown, or paid for defence cheerfully. ” They were led by a thread. They not only had a resp)ect, but an affection, for Great Britain, for its laws, its customs, and its mannets, and even a fondness for its fashions,-not yet subsided. Natives of Great iBritain were always treated with particular regard; and to be’an Old England imai’ gave a kind of rank and respect among us. I The old people all testify that the young of their youth were much more re.erved, and held under much more restraint in the presence of their elders and l)arents, than now. Bashfulness and modesty in the young were then regarded .1s virtues; and the present freedom before the aged wAas not then countenanced. Young lovers then listened and took sidelong glances, when before their parents or elders.

It was the custom for the younger part of the family, and especially of the female part, to dress up neatly towards the close of the day, and sit in the street ]~orch. Sometimes they would go from porch to porch in neighborhoods, and sit and converse. Tea was such a rarity that it was measured( out for the teapots in smaall halnd-scales. Afternoon visits were not made, as now, at night, but at so c;rly an hour as to permit matrons to go home and see their children put to bed. Before the Revolution, no hired man or woman wore any shoes so fine as calfs.iin; coarse neats leather was their every day wear. lien and women then hiired by the year-men got 16 to 20, and a servant woman 8 to 10. Out of tbat it was their custom to lay up money, to l)uy before their marriage a bed and bedding, silver teaspoons, and a spinning wheel, etc. Among the roughl amusements of men might lee mentioned shooting, fishing, and sailing parties. These were frequent, as also mutton clubs, fishing, house and country parties were miuchl indulged in by respectable citizens. Great sociability prevailed among all classes of citizens, until the strife with Great Britain uent “every man to his own ways;” then discord and acrimony ensued, and the pIreviously general friendly intercourse never returned.

We afterwards grew anotller and enlai,bred people. Our girls in the daytime used to attend the work of the family, and in the even 502

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PENNSYLVANIA. ing paraded in their porch at the door. Some of them, however, even thlen, read novels, and walked withlout business abroad.

Those who had not housework employed themselves in their accomplishments, such as making shell-work, cornucopias, working of.l pocket books, with a close, strong-stitchled needlework. The ladies, seventy years ago, were much accustomed to ride on hlorseback fI)r recreation. It was quite common to see genteel ladies riding, with jockey capls. Boarding schools for girls were not known in Philadelphia until about tlhe ti ne of the Revolution, nor had they any separate schools for writing and ciphering, but were taughlt in common withli boys. The ornamental parts of female education were bestowed, but geography and gramnimar were never regarded for them, until a certain MIr. HI-orton-tlthanks to his name-prol)osed to teach those sciences to young ladies. Similar institutions afterwards grew into favor. It was usual, in the gazettes of 1760 to 1770, to announce marriages in wvor(ds like these, to wit: “Miss Betsey Lawrence, or MIiss Elizabeth Caton, a most agreeable lady, with a large or a handsome fortune.” In still earlier times, marriages had to be promulged by affixing the intentions of the parties on the court house or meeting house door; and when the act i:%,, solemnized, they should have at least twelve subscribing witnesses. The,le which imposed it was passed in 1700.

The wedding entertainments of olden times were very expensive and harassin:: to the wedded. The house of the parent would be filled with company to dinh( the same company would stay to tea and to supper. For two days, punch w,)as dealt out in profusion. The gentlemen saw the groom on the first floor, all.i then ascended to the second, where they saw the bride; there every gentlee’men, even to 100 in a day, kissed her. Even the plain Friends submitted to thes( thiings. I have known rich families whlich had 120 persons to dine-the same who had signed their certificate of marriage at the monthly meeting; these al:o partook of tea and supper.

As they formally passed the meeting twice, the sane entertainment waas repeated. Two days the male friends would call and( ta-l punch, and all would kiss the bride. Besides this, the married pair, for two entire weeks, saw large tea parties at their home, having in attendance every night the groomsman and bridesmaids. To avoid expense and trouble, Friends have since made it sufficient to pass but one meeting. Whlen these marriage entertainments were made, it was expected also that punch, cakes, and meats slhould-l be sent out very generally in the neighborhood, even to those who were not visitors in the family. Of articles and rules of diet, so far as it differed from ours, in the earliest tinie, we may mention coffee, as a beverage, was used but rarely; chocolate for morniing and evening,. or thickened milk for children. Cookery in general was plailer than now. In the country, mnorning and evening repasts were generally mad( of milk, having bread boiled tlherein, or else thickened with pop-robins- thiu. s made up of flour and eggs into a batter, and so dropped in with the boiling milk. A lady of my acquaintance thus describes the recollections of her early days, preceding the war of Independence: Dress was discriminate and appropriate, both as regarded the season and the character of the wearer. Ladies never wore( the same dresses at work and on visits; they sat at home, or went out in the morning, in chintz; brocades, satins, and mantuas were reserved for evening Yr dinner parties.

Roses or negligees, as they were called, were always womn in 50, ) 1)

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. full dress. Muslins were not worn at all.

Little Misses at a dancing school ball (for these were almost the only fetes that fell to their share in the days of (lscrimination) were dressed in frocks of lawn or cambric. Worsted was then thouglht dress enough for common days. 4 As a universal fact, it may be remarked, that no other color than black was ever made for ladies’ bonnets, when formed of silk or satin. Fancy colors were unknown, and white bonnets of silk fabric had never been seen. The first innova,tion remembered was the bringing in of blue bonnets. The time was when the plainest woman among the Friends (now so averse to fancy colors) wore their colored silk aprons, say, of green, or blue, etc. This was at a time when the gay wore white aprons. In time, white aprons were disused by the gentry, and then the Friends left off their colored ones and used the white. The same old ladies among Friends, whom we can remember as wearers of the white aprons, wore also large white l)eaver hats, with scarcely the sign of a crown, and which was indeed confined to the head by silk cords tied under the chin. Eighlt dollars would buy such a hlat, when beaver fur was more plentiful. They lasted such ladies almost a whole life of wear. They showed no fur. Very decent women went abroad and to churches with check aprons. I have seen those who kept their coach in my time to bear them to church, who told tie they went on foot, with a check apron, to the Arch street Presbyterian meeting in their youth. Then all hired women wore short gowns and petticoats of domestic fabric, and could be instantly known as such whenever seen abroad. In the lormer days, it was not uncommon to see aged persons with large silver buttons to their coats and vests-it was a mark of wealth.

Some had the initials of their names engraved on each button. Sometimes they were made out of real quarter dollars, with the coinage impression still retained-these were used for the coats, and the elevenpenny-bits for vests and breeches. Mly father wore an entire suit decorated with conchl-shell buttons, silver mounted. The articles of dress in those early times would at the present day not be recognized by their names. The following is an advertisement for the year 1745: “For sale. Tandems, isinghliams, nuns, bag and gulix (these all mean shirting), huckabacas (a figured worsted for women’s gowns), quilted lhumliums, turketees, grasscts, single allopeens, chllildren’s stays, jumps and bodice, whalebone and iron busks, men’s new market caps, silk and worsted wove patterns for breeches, allibanes, dickmansoy, cushloes, cliuckloes, cuttanees, crimson dannador, chain’d soosees, lemonees, byrampauts, mnoree, naffermamy, saxlingham, prunelloe, barragons, druggets, fiorettas,” etc., etc. It was very common for children and working women to wear beads made of Job’s tears, a berry of a shrub. They used them for economy, and said it prevented several diseases. Until the period of the Revolution, every person who wore a fur lat, had it always of entire beaver. Every apprentice, at receiving his “freedom,” received a real beaver at a cost of six dollars. Their every day hats were of wool, called felts. What were called roram hats, being fur Iaced upon wool felts, came into use directly after the peace, and excited much surprise, as to the invention. Gentlemen’s hats, of entire beaver, universally cost eight dollars. The use of lace veils to ladies’ faces is but a modern fashion, not of more than twenty to thirty years standing. Now they wear black, white, and green-the last only lately introduced as a summer veil. In olden time, none wore a veil but as a mark and’badge of mourning, and then, as now, of crape in preference to lace. .504

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PENNSYLVANIA. Ancient ladies remembered a time, in their early life, when the ladies wore blue stockings and party-colored clocks of very strikillng appearance..,lTy not that faslion, as an extreme ton of the upper circle in life, explaii the ad()lo,tion of the terlIll, “Blue-stocking Club?” I have seen, in possession of Samuel C’oates, Esq., the wedding silk stockings of his gTandmotlher, of a lively green, andt great red cloclks My grandmothler wore, in winter, very fine worsted green stockings, with a gay clock surmounted with a bunchl of tulips. The late President, Thomas Jefferson, wlen in Philadelplhia, on his first mis sih)n abroad, was dressed in the garb of his day after thlis manner, to wit: lie wore a long waisted white cloth coat, scarlet breeches and vest, a cocked lat, witlh a black cockade. Even spectacles, permanently useful as they are, have been subject to the capirice of iasliioa. Now they are occasionally seen of gold-c a thing, I never saw ill my youth; neither did I ever see one young man w-ithl spectacles-now so numerous. A putrblind or hlalf-si,ghted youth then deemed it his positive dispara,geieint to be so regarded. Such would have rather run against a street post six times a day than have been seen with them. Indeed, in early olden time they had not the art of using temple spectacles. Old Mrs. Shoemaker, who died in 1825, at thle agte of 95, said slhe had lived many years in Philadelphia before she ever saw temple sl)pectacles-a name then given as a new discovery, but now so(
comnn(on as to hlave lost its distinctive character. In her early years, tlhe only spectacles she ever saw were called “bridge spectacles,” without any side supp)ortters, and held on the nose solely by nipping the bridge of the nose. 3Iy grandmothler wore a black velvet mask in winter, with a silver mouth-piece to keep it on, by retaining it in the mouth. I have been told that green ones have been used in summer for some few ladies, for riding in the sun on horseback. Ladies formerly wore cloaks as their chief overcoats; they were used with some changes of form under the successive names of roquelaurs, capuchins, and cardinals. In IMrs.

Shloemaker’s time, above named, they hadcl no knowledge of umbrellas to keep off rain, but she had seen some few use kitisols-an article as small as present parasols now. They were entirely to keep off rain from ladies.

They were of oiled muslin, and of various colors. They were imported from India by way of England. They must, however, have been but rare, as they never appear in any advertisements. Dr. Chancellor and the Rev. Mr. Duche were the first persons in Philadelphia who were seen to wear ltlnbrellas to keep off the rain. They were of oiled linen, very coarse and clumsy, with ratan sticks. Before their time, some doctors and lniaisters used an oiled linen cape, hooked round their shloulders, looking not ‘u!llike the big coat capes now in use, and then called a roquelaur. It was only used for severe stormns. Al)(ollt the year 1771, the first efforts were made in Philadelphia to introduce tlhe use of umbrellas in summer, as a defence from the sun. They were tlhen scouted in the public gazettes as a ridiculous effeminacy. On the other hand, the physicians recommended them, to kleep of vertigoes, epilepsies, sore eyes, fevers, etc. Finally, as the doctors were the chief patrons, Doctor Chancellor and( Doctor Morgan, with the Rev. Parson Duchle, were the first persons who had the hardihood to be’so singular as to wear umbrellas in sunshine. Mr. Bilgham, when he returned from the West Indies, where he had amassed a great fortune 505

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06 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in the Revolution, appeared abroad in the streets attended by a mulatto boy bearing his umbrella. But his example did not take, and he desisted from its use. ItOW GENERAL BRADDOCK

WAS KILLED. There had long existed a tradition that Braddock was killed by one of his own men, and miore recent developments leave little or no doubt of the fact. A recent writer says: ” When my father was removing with his family to the west, one of the Fan setts kept a public house to the eastward from, and near where Uniontown now stands, as the county seat of Fayette, Pa. This man’s house we lodged in about the 10th of October, 1781, twentysix years and a few months after Braddock’s defeat, and there it was made anything but a secret that one of the family dealt the death-blow to the British general. “Thlirteen years afterwards I met Thomas Fausett in Fayette county, then, as he told hlie, in his 70thl year. To hinm I put the plain question, and received a plain reply,‘I did shoot him!’ He then went on to insist, that, by doing so, he contributed to save what was left of the army. In brief, in my youth, I never heard the fact either doubted or blamed, that Fausett shot Braddock.” Hlon.

Andrew Stewart, of Uniontown, says he knew, and often conversed with Tom Fausett, who did not hesitate to avow, in the presence of his firiends, that ihe shot General Braddock. Fausett was a man of gigantic frame, of uncivilized half’savage propensities, and spent most of his life among the mountains, as a hermit, living on the game which hlie killed. He would occasionally come into town, a.nd get drunk. Sometimes lie would repel inquiries into the affair of Braddock’s death, by putting his fingers to his lips and uttering a sort of buzzing sound; at others, lie would burst into tears, and appear greatly agitated by conflicting passions. In spite of Braddock’s silly order, that the troops should not protect themselves behind trees, Joseph Fausett had taken such a position, when l’raddock rodle u)p, in a passion, and struck him down with his swordl. Tom Fausett, who was but a short distance from his brother, saw the whole transaction, and immediately drew up his rifle and shot Braddock through the lungs, partly in revenge for the outrage upon his brother, and partly, as hlie always alleged, to get the general out of the way, and thus save the remainder of the gallant band, who had been sacrificed to his obstinacy and want of experience in frontier warfare. THE MASSACRE OF WYOMING. The year 1776 commenced a new era in the history of the Anieriican colonies, and in some measure gave peace to Wyoming in the midst of war. by removing from Pennsylvania the authority of the proprietaries, and royal governors.

During this interval of comparative repose, three companies of troops were enlisted at Wyoming for the service of the united colonies. They were attached to the Connecticut line, and made part of the troops of that colony. At this time, a full enumeration of the population at Wyoming was made, and the settlements were found to contain 5000 souls. Their militia at the same time amnounted to 1100 men, capable of bearing arms; and of this force about 300 enlisted to serve against the common enemy. After their march, the settlers continued to guard themselves with increased vigilance. Regular garrison duty was

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PENNSYLVANIA. performed in the several fortifications by classes of the militia in successive order; in addition to which, a patrol called the “Scout,” was established through the valley, which was on duty night and day ill succession, exploring all thickets and unfrequented grounds, in search of any lurking enemy which mlighlt have come to disturb their peace, or spy out the land. The firontier settlements of the different colonies were at this time continually harassed by incursive parties of British troops and Indianis fTrom Canada; and the surrender of General Burgoyne, which took place in (etober, 1,77, did not produce an abandonment of the system. Early in the si)i-ing of 1778, a force consisting of about 800 men, and composed of Britisli riegulars, tories, and Iin dians, under the command of Colonel John Butler, assembled at Niagara, and marched to the reduction of Wyoming. The Indians were in number about 400. and were commuanded by Brandt, a warlilke chief of mixed blood. At Tioga Point, these troops procured boats and rafts of wood, upon which they floated down the Susquehanna until they arrived about 20 miles above Wyoming Fort. Here they landed, the latter part of June. On the evening of the 2d of July, they took possession of a fort which the settlers had built on the bank of the river, about a mile below the head of the valley, called Fort Wintermoot. From thlis fort, which the British commander made his headquarters, were sent small scouIting parties in search of plunder and provisions, as well as to ascertain the situation:ind strength of the force which remained for the defence of the settlement. Upon the arrival of these troops, the settlers collected their principal forces in a fortification situated on the west bank of the river, at a large eddy in the strenlll below Monockonock Island, and about 3 miles above Wyoming Fort. This fort had been built and defended by 40 of the settlers in that vicinity, and had thence, obtained the name of “Forty Fort.” The garrison, now assembled here, coosisted of the most active of the settlers, and amounted to 3068 men, a small party b)eing left in the other forts for the protection of the settlement in their immediate vicinity. About a month previous, messengers had been sent froml the settlers to tihe continental army, to inform the commander-in-chief of their situation, and to request that a detachment might be sent to thleir assistance. On the morning of the 3d of July, the officers of the garrison at Forty Fort held a council to determine on the,propriety of marching from the fort, and attacking the enemy wherever found. The debates in this council of war are said to have been conducted with much warmth and animation. The ultimate determination was one on which depended the lives of the garrison, and the safety of the settlements. On one side it was contended that their enemies were daily increasing in numbers-that they would plunder the settlements of all kinds of property, and would accumulate the means of carrying on the war, while they themselves would become weaker; that the harvest would soon be ripe, and would be gathered or destroyed by their enemies, and all their means of sustenance during the succeeding winter would fail; that probably all their messengers were killed, and as there had been more than sufficient time, and no assistance arrived, they would probably receive none, and consequently now was the proper time to make the attack. On the other side it was argued, that probably some or all of the messengers may have arrived at headquarters, but that the absence of the commander-in-chief may have produced delay; that one or two weeks more may bring the desired assistance, and that to attack the enemy, superior as they were in number, out of the limits of their own fort, would produce almost certain destruction to the settlement and themselves, and captivity and slavery-perhaps 507

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.F)08 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. torture, to tlieir wives and children. While these debates were progressing, five men belonging to Wyomiing, but, who, at that time, held commissions in the continental army, arrived at the fort. They had received informnation tlhat a force from Niagara lla(l miarchled to destroy the settlements on the Susquellanna, and being, unable to bring with them any reinforcements, they resigned their appointients and hastened immediately to the protection of their families. They had heard nothing of the messengers, neither could they give any certain informlation as to the probability of relief. The prospects of receiving assistance became now extremely uncertain. The advocates for the attack prevailed in the council; and at dawn of day, on the morning of the 3d of July, the garrison left the fort, and began their lia’rchl up the river, under the command of Colonel Zebulon Butler. Ilavinlg proceeded about 2 miles, the troops lh-lted for the purpose of detaching a reconnoitering p)arty to ascertain the situation of the enemy. Colonel Butler rode along the flank of the column to invite volunteers for this service. Abraham Pike and an Irish coimpanion offered their services, and they being the only volunteers, were taccepted. The scout found the enemy in possession of Fort Winteirmoot, and occupying huts immediately around it, carousing in supposed security; but on their return to the advancing column, they met two strolling Indians, by whom they were fired upon, and upon whom they immediately returned the fire without effect. The settlers hastened their march for the attack, but the Indians had given the ilarm, and the advancing troops found the enemy already formed in order of battle a small distance from their fort, with their right flank covered by a swamp, and their left resting upon the bank of the river. The settlers immediately displayed their column, and formed in corresponding order; but as the enemy was much superior in numbers, their line was much more extensive.

Pine woods and bushes covered the battle-ground; in consequence of which, the movemnents of the troops could not be so quickly discovered, nor so well ascertained. Colonel Zebulon Butler had command of the right, and was opposed by Colonel John Butler at the head of the British troops on the left. Colonel Nathan Denison commanded the left, opposed by Brandt at the head of his Indians on the enemy’s right. The battle commenced at about 40
rods distant, and continued about 15 minutes through the woods and brush without much execution. At this time, Brandt, with his Indians, having penetrated the swamp, turned the left flatk of the settlers’ line, and with a terrible war-whoop and savage yell, made a desperate charge upon the troops composing that wing, which fell very fast, and were immediately cut to pieces with the tomahawk. Colonel Denison having ascertained that the savages were gaining the rear of the left, gave orders for that wing to f(al back, inl order to prevent being surrounded by the enemy. At the same time, Colonel John Butler finding that the line of the settlers did not extend as far towards the river as his own, doubled that end of his line, which was protected by a thick growth of brushwood, and having brought a party of his British regulars to act in column upon that wing, threw Colonel Zebulon Butler’s troops into some confusion. The orders of Colonel Denison for his troops to fall back having been understood by many to mean a retreat, the troops began to retire in much disorder. The savages considered this as a flight, and commenced a most hideous yell, rushed forward with their rifles and tomahawks, and cut the retiring line to pieces. In tliis situation, it was found impossible to rally and form the troops and the rout became general throughout the line. The settlers fled in every direc

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PENNSYLYANIA. tion, and were instantly followed by the savages, who killed or took prisoners whoever came within their reach. Some succeeded in reaching the river, and escal)ed by swimmling across; others fled to the mountains; and the savages, too much occupied with plunder, gave up the pursuit. Wllhen the first intelligence was received in the village of Wilkesbarre that the battle was lost, the women fled withl their children to the mountains, on their way to the settlements on the Delaware, where many of themll ait length arrived after suffering extreme hlardslhips.

Many of the men who escaped the battle, together with their women and children, who were unable to travel on foot, took reLfuge in Wyoming Fort, and on the following day, July 4th, Butler and Brandt, at the head of their combined forces, appeared before the fort and demanded its surrender. The garrison being without any efficienlt means of defence, surrendered the fort on articles of capitulation, by whichl the settlers, upon giving up their fortifications, prisoners, and military stores, were to remain in the country unmolested, provided they did not again take up arms. In this battle, about 300 of the settlers were killed or missing, and from a great part of whom no intelligence was ever afterwards received. The officers killed were, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 10
captains, 6 lieutenants, and 2 ensigns. A considerable number of thile inhabitants of thile different settleiments on the Susquehanna, who, from their attachment to the British cause, were denominated tories, joined thile British and savage troops previous to the battle, and exhibited instances of tile most savage barbarity in the manner in which they carried on thile war against their former neighbors and friends. One instance may serve to show the desperate feelings which those times produced. A short distance below the battle-ground, there is a large island in the river called “Monockonock Island.” Several of the settlers, while thile battle and pursuit continued, succeeded in swimming to this island, where they concealed themselves among the logs and brusliwood upon it. Their arms had been thrown away in their flight, previous to their entering thile river, so that they were in a manner delenceless. Two of them in particular were concealed near and in sighlt of each other. While in this situation, they observed several of the enenmy who had pursued and fired at them while they were swimming the river, preparing to follow them to tilhe island with their guns. On reaching the island they immediately wiped their guns and loaded them. One of them with his loaded gun soon passed close by one of these men who lay concealed from his view, and was imnmediately recogniized by him to be the brother of his companion who was concealed near lhim, but who, being a tory, had joined the enemy. He passed slowly along, carefully examining every covert, and directly perceived his brother in his place of concealment. He suddenly stopped and said, “so it is you, is it?” His brother finding that he was discovered, immediately came fonvrward a few steps, and falling on his knees, begged him to spare his life, promising to live with him and serve him, and eyen to be his slave as long as hlie lived, if lie would only spare his life.

“All this is mighty good,” replied the savage-hlearted brother of the supplicating mian, ” but you are a d-d rebel;” and deliberately presenting his rifle, shot him dead upon the spot. The other settler made his escape from the island, and ilaving related this fact, the tory brother thought it prudent to accompany the British troops on their return to Canada. The conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were ~ommitted by them.* The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of 23 houses, wa 509

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. burnt; men and their wives were separated from each other and carried into captivity; their property was plundered and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the Valley, and compelled to proceed on foot 60 miles thllrough,l tile great swamp almost without food or clothing. A number perished in the journey, principally women and chil(lilren-sollme died of their wounds, others wandered from the path in searclh of food and were lost, and those who survived, called the wilderness through which they passed, “The Shades of Death;” an appellation which it has since retained.

On their way through the swamp, the unhappy fugitives miet a detachment of regular trtoop from the c)lltienital army unicr the comandi of Captain Spalcing which, in consequence of the representations made by the messengers had been sent to the relief of the inhabitants at Wyoming; but as all was now lost. lley returned to the Delaware, and the remnant of the inhabitants proceeded to their former homes in Connecticut. THE SERMON

BEFORE THE BRANDYWINE. There are contradictory opinions about the following sermon, said to be delivered on the eve of the battle of Brandywine. Henlce I give it without comments, just as I find it. The name of the chaplain is said to have been Trout. “They t7hat take thbe sword shall perish by the sword! “-Matt. xxvi. 52. “SOLDIERS AND COU.NT1iYMEN!

We have met this evening, perhaps for the last time. We have shared the toil of the miarch, the peril of the fighit, the dismay of the retreat-alike we have endured cold and hlunger, the contumely of the internal foe, and outrage of the foreign oppressor. We have sat nilght after night, beside the same camp fire, shared the same rough soldiers’

fare;-we have together heard the roll of the reveille which called us to duty, or the beat of the tattoo which gave the signal for the hardy sleep of the soldier, withl the earth for his bed, and his knapsack for a pillow. And nonw, soldiers and brethren, we have met in the pearetful valley, on the eve of the battle, while the sunlight is (lying, away l)chind yonder hleights, the sunlight that to-morrow miorni will glimmer on scenes of blood. We have met amid the whitening tents of our encanmpment; in times of terror and gloom have we gathered together. God grant it may not be for the last time. ” It is a solemn moment. Brethren, does not the solemn voice of nature seC(iln to echo the sympathies of the town? The flag of our country droops heavily from yonder staff. The breeze has died away along the green plain of Chadd’s Ford the plain that spreads before us glistening in siunlighlt-the heights of hl(t Brandywine arise dark and gloomy beyond the waters of yonder stream, and all nature holds a pause of solemn silence on the eve ol’ the uproar of the bloodsll.,l and strife of to-morrow. “‘They that take the sword shall perish by the sword;’ and have they not taken the sword? “Let the blood-stained valley-the desolated homes-the burned farm housethe nmurdered farmner-let the whitening bones of our own countrymen answer!

Let the starving mother with the babe clinging to her withered breast, let her answer-with the death rattle mingling with the murmuring tones that mark the last struggle for life; let the dying mother and her lbabe answer! “It was but a day past, and our land slept in the light of peace.

War was not 1)10

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PENNSYLVANIA.1 here, wrong,was not here. F’raud, and woe, and miseiry-and want dwelt not among us. From the eternal solitude of the green woods, arose the blue smoke of the settler’s cabin; and golden fields of corn looked forth from amid the waste of the wilderness, and the glad music of human voices awoke the silence of the forest. ” Now! God of mercy! Behold the change. Under the shadow of a pretext, under the sanctity of the name of God-invoking the Redeemer to their aid, do these foreign hirelings slay our people. They throng our towns, they darken our plains, and now they encompass our posts on the lonely plain of Chadd’s Ford. “‘Thley that take the sword shall perish by the sword.’ Brethren! think me iiot unworthy of belief, when I tell you that the doom of the Britisher is near! Tlink me not vain when I tell you that beyond the cloud which now enshrouds us, I see gathering thick and fast, the darker cloud and the blacker storm of Divine Retribution! They may conquer us on the morrow! mighlt and wrong iaay prevail, and we may be driven firom the field-but the hour of Godcl’s ven geance will come! Aye, if in the vast solitudes of eternal space, if in the heart of the boundless universe, there throbs the being of an awful God, quick to revenge and sure to punish guilt, there will the man, George of Brunswick, called king, feel in his brain and in his heart the vengeance of the eternal Jello vali! a blight will be upon his life-a withered brain, an accursed intellect; a blight will be upon his children, and his people. Great God! how dread the I)unislhment! ” Soldiers! I look around upon your familiar faces with a strange interest. To-morrow we will all go forth to battle-for need I tell you that your unworthy minister will march with you, invoking God’s aid in the fight. We will march forth to battle. Need I exhort you to fight the good fight for your homesteads, your wives, and your children? Aind in the hour of battle when all around is darkness, lit by the lurid cannon glare, and the piercing musket flash, when the wounded strew the ground and the dead litter your path; then remember, soldiers, that God is withli you. The ceernal God is withl you, and fights for you. God! the awful, the infinite, fights for you, and you will triumph. ”’ They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.’ “You have taken the sword; but not in the spirit of wrong and revenge. You have taken the sword for your lhomes, for your wives, and for your little ones.

You have taken the sword for truth, for justice, and for righlt, and to you the promise is, be of good cheer, for your foes have taken the sword in defiance of all man holds clear. They shall perish by the swored. “And io\v, bret!l.ren and soldiers, I bid you all farewell. ANany of us may fill in the figtit of to-nmorrowv. God rest the souls of the fallen-many of us may live to tell the story of the fight of to-morrow, and in the memory of all will rest the quiet scenes of this autumnal night. “i:!olemn twilight advances over the valley; the woods on the opposite heights fling their long shadows over the green of The meadow-around us are the tents of the continental host-the suppressed bustle of the camp, the hurried tread of the soldiers to and fro among the tents, the stillness that marks the eve of battle. “lWhen we meet again, may the leng shadows of twilight be flung over a peaceful land. God in heaven grant it Amen.” 511

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUILRCES. THE BATTLE OF THE BRANDYWINE, SEPT. 11th, 1777. The American army, in order to encourage the partisans of independence and overawe the disaffected, marched through the city of Philadelphia; it afterwards advanced towards the enemy, and encamped behind White Clay Creek. A little after, leaving only the riflemen in the camp, Washington retired with the main body of his army l)ehind the Red Clay Creek, occupying with his right wing the town of Newport, situated near the Christiana, and upon the great road to Phlliladelphia; his left was at Hockesen. But this line was little capable of defence. The enemy, reinforced by the rear guard under General Grant, threatened with his ri,ght the centre of the Americans, extended his left as if with the intention of turniing their rilght flank. Washington saw the danger, and retired with his troops behind the Brandywine; he encamped on the rising grounds which extend from Chladsford, in the direction of northwest to southeast. The riflemen of Maxwell scoured the right bank of the Brandywine, in order to harass and retard the enemy. The militia under the command of General Armstrong, gua,rded a passage below the principal encampment of Washington, and the right wine’ lined the banks of the river higher up, where the passages were more difficult. The passage of Chladsford, as the most practicable of all, was defended by the chief force of the army. The troops being thus disposed, the American general waited the approach of the English. Although the Brandywine, being fordable almost everywhere, could not serve as a sufficient defence against the impetuosity of the enemy, yet Washington had taken post upon its banks, from a conviction that a battle was now inevitable, and that Philadelphia could only be saved by a victory. General Howe displayed the front of his army, but not however without great circumspection. Being arrived at Kennen Square, a short distance from the river, lie detached his light-horse to the right upon Wilmington, to the left upon Lancaster road, and in front towards Chadsford. The two armies found themselves within 7 miles of each other, the Brandywine flowing between them. Early in the mnorning of the 11th of September, the British army marched to the enemy. Howe had formed his army in two columns; the right commanded by General Knyphlausen, the left by Lord Cornwallis. His plan was, that while the first should make repeated feints to attempt the passage of Chladsford, in order to occupy the attention of the republicans, the second should take a long circuit to the upper part of the river, and cross at a place where it is divided into two shallow streams. The English marksmen fell in with those of Maxwell, and a smart skirmish was immediately engaged. The latter were at first repulsed; but being reinforced from the camp, they compelled the English to retire in their turn. But at length, they also were reinforced, and Maxwell was constrained to withdraw his detachment behind the river. Meanwhile, Knyphausen advanced with his column, and commenced a furious cannonade upon the passage of Chadsford, making all his dispositions as if he intended to force it. The Americans defended themselves with gallantry, and even passed several detachments of light troops to the other side, in order to harass the enemnly’s flanks. But after a course of skirmishes, sometimes advancing, and at others obliged to retire, they were finally, with an eager pursuit, driven over the river. Knyphausen then appeared more than ever determined to pass the ford; he stormed and kept up an incredibly noise. In this manner the attention of the Americans was fully occupied in the neighborhood of Chadsford. Meanwhile, Lord Cornwallis, at 512

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PENNSYLVANIA. the head of the second column, took a circuitous march to the left, and gained unperceived the forks of the Brandywine. By this rapid movement, hlie passed both branchles of the river at Trimble’s and at Jeffery’s fordls, without opposition, about 2 o’clock in the afternoon, and then turning short down the river took the road to Dilworth, in order to fall upon the right flank of the American army. The repul)lican general, howecver, received intelligence of this movement about noon, and, as it usually happens in similar cases, the reports exaggerated its im portance exceedingly; it being represented that General Howe commanded this division in person. Washlington therefore decided immediately for the most judi cious, tlhoughLl boldest measure; this was, to pass the river with the centre and left wing o)f his army, and overwhhelm Knypliausen by the most furious attack He justly reflected that the advantage lie should obtain upon the enemny’s right would amply compensate tihe loss that his own mighlt sustain at the same time. According ly lie ordered General Sullivan to pass thile Brandywine with his division at an upperl ford, and attack the left of Klnypliausen, while lie, in person, should cross lower down and fall upon the right of the general. They were both already in motion in order to execute this design, when a second report arrived, which represented what had really talkenl place as false, or in other words, that the enemy had not crossed the two branches of the river, and that hlie had not made his appearance upon the righlit flank of the American troops. Deceived by this false intelligence, Washington desisted; and Greene, who had already passed with the vangutard, was ordered back.

In the midst of these uncertainties, the commander-in-chlief at length received positive assurance, not only that the English had appeared upon the left bank, but also that they were about to fall in great force upon the right wing. It was composed of the brigades of generals Stephens, Sterling, and Sullivan; the first was the most advanced, and consequently nearest to the Englishl; the two others were posted in the order of their rank, that of Sullivan being next to the centre. This general was immediately detached from the main body, to support the former brigades, and being the senior officer, took the command of the whole wing.

Washington himself, followed by General Greene, approached with two stronig divisions towards this wing, and posted himself between it and the corps hlie had left at Chladsford, under General Wayne, to oppose the passage of IKnyphlausen. These two divisions, under the immediate orders of the commander-in-chlief, served as a corps of reserve, ready to march, according to circumstances, to the succor of Sullivan or of Wayne. But the column of Cornwallis was aready in sight of the Americans. Sullivan drew up his troops on the commanding ground above Birminl’ain meetinghouse, with his left extending towards the Brandywine, and both his flanks covered with very thick woods. His artillery was advantageously planted upon the neighboring hills; but it appears that Sullivan’s own brigade, having taken a long circuit, arrived too late upon the field of battle, and had not yet occupied the position assigned it, when the action commenced. The English having reconnoitred the dispositions of the Americans, immediately formed, and fell upon them with the utmost impetuosity. The engagemnent became equally fierce on both sides about 4
o’clock in the afternoon. For some length of time the Americans defended tlhemselves with great valor, and the carnage was terrible. But such was the emulation which invigorated the efforts of the English and Hessians, that neither the advantages of the situation, nor a heavy and well supported fire of small arms and artillery, nor the ujashaken courage of the Americans, were able to resist their r,)13

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPRCES. impetuosity. The light infantry, chasseurs, grenadiers, and guards threw them selves with such fury into the midst of the republican battalions, that they were forced to give way.

Their left flank was first thrown into confusion, but the rout soon becamle general.‘I he vanquished fled into the woods in their rear; the victors pursued, and advanced by the great road towards Dilwortlh. On the first fire of the artillery, Washington, having no doubt of what was passing, had pushed forward the reserve to the succor of Sullivan. But this corps, on approachlilg the field of battle, fell in with the flying soldiers of Sullivan and perceived that no hope remained of retrieving the fortune of the day. General Greene, by a judicious manceuvre, opened his ranks to receive the fugitives, and after their passage having closed them anew, he retired in good order; checking the pursuit of the enemy by a continual fire of the artillery which covered his rear. Having come to a defile, covered on both sides by the woods, he drew up lhis men there, and again faced the enemy. His corps was composed of Virgillians and Pennsylvanians; they defended themselves with gallantry; tihe foirmner especially, commanded by Colonel Stephens, made a heroic stand.

Kniyphlausen finding the Americans to be fully engaged on their right, and observing that the corps opposed to him at Chadsford was enfeebled by the troops which had been detached to the succor of Sullivan, began to make dispositions for crossing the river in reality. The passage at Chadsford was defended by anl intrencliment and battery. The republicans stood firm at first; but upon intelligence of the defeat of their right, and seeing some of the British troops who had penetrated through the woods, come out upon their flank, they retired in disorder, abandoning their artillery and munitions to the German general. In their retreat, or rather flight, they passed behind the position of General Greene, who still defended lhimself, and was the last to quit the field of battle. Finally, it being already dark, after a long and obstinate conflict, he also retired. The whole army retreated that night to Chester, and the day following to Pliladelphia.

There the fugitives arrived incessantly, having effected their escape through l)y-ways and circuitous routes. The victors passed the night on the field of battle. If darkness had not arrived seasonably, it is very probable that the whole Ameri(‘n1 army would have been destroyed. The loss of the republicans was coinI)llted at about 300 killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 taken prisoners. They also lost ten fieldpieces and a howitzer.

The loss in the royal army was not in proportion, being something under 500, of which the slain did not amount to one-fifth. ADAM POE’S F(-IGHT

WITH THE INDIANS. A REMINISCENCE OF THE EARLY HISTORY OF PITTSBURG. About the year 1782. six or seven Wyandotte Indians crossed over to the south side of the Ohio River, 50 miles below Pittsburg, and in their hostile excursions among our early settlers killed an old man, whom they found alone in one of th(c houses which they plundered. The news soon spread among the white people, seven or eight of whom seized their rifles and pursued the marauders. In this party were two brothers named Adam and Andrew Poe, strong and active men, and much respected in the settlement.

The Indians had frequently been over b)efore, had sometimes penetrated 20
miles into the country, and had always succeeded in recrossing the river without being overtaken by our people. The Poes and their companions were, therefore, particularly anxious not to let them escape It 514

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PENNSYLVANI A. on this occasion. They pursued them all night, and in the morning found them selves, as they expected, upon the right track. The Indians could now be easily followed by the traces left upon the dew. The print of one very large foot was seen, and it was thus known that a famous Indian of uncommon size and strength must be of the party. The track led to the river. Our people followed it di rectly, Adam Poe excepted, who feared that they might be taken by surprise, and broke off from the rest to go along on the edge of the bank, under the cover of trees and bushes, and to fall upon the savages suddenly that hlie might get them between his own fire and that of his companions. At the point where hlie sus pected they were, hlie saw the rafts, which they were accustomed to push before them when they swam the river, and on which they placed their blankets, tomlla hawks, and guns. Tile Indians themselves lie could not see, and was obl)liged to go partly down the bank to get a shot at thenm. As he descended, with his rifle cocked, hlie discovered two, the celebrated large Indian and a smaller one, sepa rated from the others, hlolditng their rifles also cocked in their hands. He took aim at the large one, but his rifle snapped without giving the intended fire. Tilhe Indians turned instantly at the sound. Poe was too near them to retreat, and had not time to cock and take aim again. Suddenly hlie leaped down uponi them, and caugholt the large Indian by the clothes on his breast, and the small one by thrlowiing an arm round his neck. They all fell tog,ethler, but Poe was uppermost. While hlie was struggling to keep down the large Indian, the small one, at a word spoken by his fellow savage, slipped his neck out of Poe’s embrace, and ranil to the raft for a tomahawk. The large Indian at this moment threw his arms about Poe’s body, and held him fast that the other might come and kill him. Poe watched the approach and the descending arm of the small Indian so well that at the instant of the intended stroke lie raised his foot, and by a vigorous and skilfui blow knocked the tomahawk from the assailant’s hand. At this the large Indian cried out with an exclamation of contempt for the small one. The latter, how ever, caught his tomahawk again, and approached more cautiously, waving his arm up and down with mock blows to deceive Poe as to the stroke which was intended to be real and fatal. Poe, however, was so vigilant and active that he averted the tomahawk from his head, and received it upon his wrist, with a con sideral)le wound, deep enough to cripple, but not entirely to destroy the use of his hand. In this crisis of peril, he made a violent effort, and broke loose froiii the largle Indian. He snatched a rifle and shot the small one through the breast as hlie ran up a third time with his lifted tomahawk. The large Indiani was now on his feet, and, grasping Poe by the shoulder and the leg, hurled him in the air heels over head upon the shlore. Poe instantly rose, and a new and nmore desperate struggle ensued. Thile bank was slippery, and they fell into the water, where eaclh strove to drown the other. Their efforts were long and doubtful, each alternately under and half strangled, till Poe fortunately grasped, with his uilwounded hand, the tuft of hair upon the scalp of the Indian, and forced his lhei(l into the water; this appeared to be decisive of his fate, for soon he manifested all the symptoms of a drowning man bewildered in the moment of death. Poe relaxed his hold, and discovered too late the stratagem. The Indian was instantly upon his feet again, and engaged anew in the fierce contest foi life and victory. TCley were naturally carried further into the stream, and the current, becoming stronger, bore them beyond their depth. They were now compelled to loosen their hold upon each other, and to swimn for mutual safety. Both sought tlhe shore to seize a gun, but the Indian was the best swimmer, and gained it first. 515 I” 0,

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Poe then turned immediately back into the water to avoid a greater danger, meaning to dive, if possible, to escape the fire. Fortunately for him, the Indiai caught up the rifle which had been discharged into the breast of his smaller com-n )anion. At this critical juncture, Andrew, his brother, returned in haste, having left the party who had been in pursuit of the other Indians, and who had killed all but one of them, at the expense of three of their own lives. IHe heard that Adam was in great peril, and alone in the fight with two against him.

One of our people, following not far in the rear of Andrew, mistook Adam in the water with his bloody hand foibr a wounded Indian, and fired a bullet into his shoulder. Adam cried out to his brother to kill the big Indian on the shore, but Andrew’s gun had been discharged and was not again loaded. The contest was now between the savage and Andrew. E-acli labored to load his rifle first. The Indian, after putting in his powder, and hurrying his motions to force down the ball. drew out his ramrod w-ithl suclh vio)lence as to throw it some yards into the water. While lie ran to pick it up, Andrew gained an advantage, and shot the Indian just s hlie was raising his gun to his eye for a deadly aimtn. Andrew then jumped into the river to assist his wounded brother to the shore; but Adam, thlinking more of carrying the big Indian home as a trophy than of his own wounds, urged Andrew to go back and prevent the struggling savage from rolling himself into the current and escaping. Andrew, however, was too solicitous lor the fate of Adam to allow him to obey, and the Indian, jealous of his honor as a warrior even in death, and knowing well the intention of his white conquerors, succeeded in retaining life and action long enough to reach the current, by which his dead b)ody was carried down beyond the chance of pursuit. This native was the most distinguished among five celebrated brothers belonging to the royal family of the tribe of Wyandottes. Notwithstanding he was cngaged in this predatory expedition, lie was acknowledged by all to be peculiarly magnanimous for an Indian, and had contributed, more than any other individual, to preserve and extend the practice which was known to prevail in his tribe, that of not taking the lives of prisoners, and of not suffering them to be treated ill. Th1is practice was an honorable distinction for the Wyandottes, as was well ulnderstood by the white people who were traders with the Indians, and by those of our early settlers and brethren who had been made prisoners in war. It was a common remark among themi, “If we become the prisoners of the Wyandottes, we shall be fortunate.” The death of this large Indian and of his four brothers, who were all in the party, was more deeply lamented by the tribe, as was afterward learned, than all the other losses sustained during the hostilities carried on b)etween them and us.

There was a universal, solemn, and distressing mourning. Adam Poe recovered from his wounds, and gave this account in person to James Morrison, Esq., from whomn we have received it, and by whom we are assured that it is correct. The courage and enterprise, the suffering and fortitude, the decision and perseverance of the early settlers of this western country, by whose labors we are now so peaceful and happy, ought not to be forgotten, but may well be related from time to time to excite in us the spirit of similar virtues, and to teach us how to consider the slight privations whllichll we are, or may be, called to meet. Gratitude is more appropriate to our condition than discontent. 516

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D E LAWAR 1. A r e a……….. 2,120 Square Miles Population in 1860………112,216 Population in 1870………….. 125,015 Tar. State of Delaware, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38~ 28’ and 39~ 50’ N. latitude, and 75~ and 75~ 45’ W. loingitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east bv Delaware River and Bay (by which it is separated from New Jersey) and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and west by Maryland. It is about 96 miles long, from north to south, and 37 miles wide, from east to west. TOPOGRAPHY. The northern part of the State is a fine rolling country, healthy and beautiful; but the southern and central counties are low and generally sandy. The lower part of the State is occupied by a large cypress swamp. Just north of this swamp, is a slight elevation running north and south. It is occupied with swamps, in which rise the waters flowing into the Delaware Bay. This State and the eastern shore of Maryland, lying between the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, form a low peninsula, over which the salt air sweeps with but little to interrupt it. The Delaware River, whilch washes the eastern shore of the State, had been described. It is the principal stream. The Brandywine, which enters the State from Pennsylvania, on the north, and flows into the Delaware at Wilmington, is a fine mill stream. Indian River, which flows into the Atlantic in the southern part of the State, is the largest stream lying wholly within the limits of Delaware. A num 517

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~~~~OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ber of creeks flow into Delaware Bay and the Atlantic, and the Nanticoke and Choptank rivers of Maryland rise in the southwestern part of the State.

Delaware Bay is a large arm of the sea, separating the States of Delaware and New Jersey. It is 13 miles wide at its mouth. Cape Henlopen, on the southwestern side, is in Delaware; and Cape May, on the northeast side, in New Jersey. The bay is 60 miles long, from the capes to the mouth of the Delaware River, and is 25 miles wide at its broadest part. It is considerably obstructed with shoals, which make its navigation difficult in many places. It offers the only harbor between New York and the Chesapeake; and for the purpose of p)rotecting it, the Government has erected, at a cost of over $2,000,000, a mnagnificent breakwater consisting of two sides, extending out fromnt the Delaware shore at Cape Henlopen. The upper side protects the harbor thus formed from floating ice, and the lower side guards it from the violence of the waves of the sea. The breakwater is built of massive stone, and is one of the best in the world. MINERALS. Delaware is almost without mineral resources. Bog iron ore exists in the southern swamps; and a finle white sand, used in making glass, is found near the head of Delaware Bay. Large quantities of it are shipped to New England. CLIMATE. The sea breeze, which sweeps over the entire State, renders the climate mild and pleasant, as a general rule; but the winters are sometimes severe and trying. The southern and central portions are afflicted with ague and fever, and are consequently unhealthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the southern portion of the State is sandy; in the centre it consists of a mixture of clay and sand; and in the northern part it is a fine, fertile loam. Since the census of 1860, the State has made great progress in agriculture, and the cultivation of fruit has increased beyond the most sanguine expectations.

The abolition of, slavery has drawn into the State a considerable emigration of small farmers from. New Elngland, and it is becoming one of the most productive sections of the Union. The peach crop is rarely a failure in 518

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DELAWARE. this State, and its small fruits, melons, and sweet potatoes have made it famous throughout the country. In 1869, there were 637,065
acres of improved, and 367,230 acres of unimproved land in Delaware. The other products for the same year were as follows: Cash value of farms (estimated),……$ Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated)…………… Number of horses,…………. asses and mules…….. ” milch cows,………. ” young cattle,………. “
sheep…………. ” swine…………. Value of domestic animals,…….

Bushels of wheat,…………. ” rye………….. ” Indian corn,……….. oats………….. ” peas and beans,……… “
potatoes……….. ” barley,………….. ” buckw heat,…….. Pounds of butter……………… ” cheese,…………….. v ” beeswax and honey,……. Tons of hay………….. COMMERCE. Delaware has but little direct foreign trade, almost the entire busness of the State passing through the ports of Philadelphia and Baltimore. In 1863, the tonnage owned in the State amounted to 25,963. Delaware exports large quantities of fruit to the northern States, together with a considerable quantity of lumber from her swamps. MANUFACTURES. The only manufacturing town in Delaware is Wilmington; but manufacturing establishments are located in various parts of the State Ill 1870, the State contained 800
establishments devoted to manufactures. They employed 9710 hands and a capital of $10,839,093, consumed raw material worth $10,206,397, and yielded an annual product of $16,791,382. The following is a detailed statement of the value of the principal manufactures in 1870: 519 $820,000

25,160 4,112 24,198 35,340 19,540 51,360 $5,144,706 830,000 35,000

3,200,000 1,723,000 8,438 200,000 6,000 12,000 1,430,502 6,579 68,130

30,000

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cotton goods…….. Woollen goods,…….

Leather,………… Steam engines and machinery, Agricultural implements,.. Sawed and planed Lumber,.. Flour,…………. Boots and shoes,……. Carriages,……….. The railroad cars and gunpowder of Wilmnington rank high amongst the products of the State, but no estimates of them are at hand. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The principal public work in the State is the Canal, extending entirely across the State and connecting Delaware and Chesapeake bays. It is 16 miles long, 66 feet wide at the surface, 10 feet deep, and is provided with two lift and two tide locks, 100 feet long by 22 feet wide. It was completed in 1829, cost $2,750,000, and affords riland steam communication between Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Near the eastern end of the canal, is the famous “deep cut,”

an excavation 90 feet deep, and 6 miles long, through which the canal passes. A railroad from Philadelphia to Baltimore, the main line of the through travel between the North and the South, extends across the northern part of the State. The Delaware Railroad extends from Wilmington through the centre of the State to the lower part of the eastern shore of Maryland. A branch road leads off from the main stem to Easton, Md., and another into the eastern part of Sussex county. Owing to the extreme narrowness of the State, the Delaware road brings every part of it below Wilmington within direct railroad communication with all parts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 227 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of ab)out $7,000,000. The Delaware road, it should be added, connects with steamers for Norfolk at Crisfield, Md., and thus forms the most direct route from Norfolk to Philadelphia and New York.

EDUCATION. There is no regular public school system in Delaware, as in the other Middle States. The counties and towns are left to themselve in their efforts to provide public instruction. The State makes an 520 …..

$1,060,898 ….. 569,721 ….. 2,050,846 ….. 839,428 ….. 41,325 …..

466,941 …… 2,037,401 ….. 490,698 ….. 842,176

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DELAWARE. annual apl)ropriation for this purpose, of 50 cents for each pupil in Sussex and Kent counties, and 20 cents for each pupil in Newcastle county. In 1870, there were 326 public schools in the State, with 17,835 pupils. The number is about the same at present. A State Normal School was established in 1866. Besides this, there are two colleges in the State with about 90 students. Delaware C(ollege is located at Newark, and St. Mary’s College at Wilmingtoiin. The schools being closed to colored children, about 24 colored schools have been opened in various parts of the State. In 1870, the State contained 473 libraries, of which over 200 were public. There were 14 political papers-1 daily, 10
weekly, and‘3 semiweekly-and 1 literary paper (a weekly) published in Delaware. They had a total annual circulation of 1,607,840 copies. PUBLIC

INSTITUTIONS. Delaware maintains its insane, (leaf, dumb, and blind, in the institutions of other States, and has no such establishments of its own. The State is also without a penitentiary. Criminals are confined ill the county jails. Until within a year or two, many offences were punished by whipping at the public whipping-post, and standing ill the pillory. As late as the 5th of December, 1868, a scene of this kind occurred at Newcastle. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Delaware was $1,823,950. The number of churches was 252. FINANCES. At the beginning of the year 1871, the aggregate indebtedness of the State of Delaware amounted to $1,632,000, an increase of $176,000 inii two years.

The State has investments amounting to $1,074,150, which is $224,000 more than it held at the beginning of 1869. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1870 were $120,577. In 1868, there were 11 National Banks in Delaware, with an aggregate capital of $1,428,185. GOVERNMENT. In this State.every free male citizen, 22 years of age, who has resided one year in the State, and for the last month of this year in tho 521

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. county, and who has paid a county tax assessed at least 6 months bee fore the election, is entitled to vote; but free male citizens between 21 and 22 years of age may vote without paying taxes, provided they have comrt)lied with the other conditions. The Government is conducted by a Governor, and Legislature consisting, of a Senate (of 9 members) and a House of Representatives (of 21 members), all elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and serves for 4 years. The AttorneyGeneral is appointed in the same way, and holds office 5 years. The State Treasurer and Auditor are elected by the Legislature for 2 years. The Governor serves fo)r 4 years, and the members of the Legislature for 2 years. The Legislature meets once in two years. Tile Judiciary consists of a Court of Errors and Appeals, Superior Court, Court of Chancery, Orphans’ Court, Court of Oyer and Terminer, Court of General Sessions of the Peace and Jail Delivery, Register’s Court, and -Justices of the Peace. The Chancellor is the principal Judge of the State. Dover, in K(ent county, is the capital. For purposes of government, Delaware is divided into three counties, viz: Newcastle, IKent, and Sussex. HISTORY. The first settlements in this State were made by the Swedes and Finns, in 1627. As we have shown in the sketch of Pennsylvania, they were conquered by the Dutch, in 1655, and turned over to the English when New York passed into their hands, in 1664.

Delaware formed & part of the territory granted to William Penn, in 1682; and from that time until the Revolution, continued to form a part of Pennsylvania. It was allowed a separate Assembly about the year 1701, but remained subject to the authority of the Governor of Pennsylvania until 1776, when it was granted an independent existence. It adopted a State Constitution, on the 20th of September, 1776, and was received into the Union of the States. The province bore its full share of the burdens of the wars with France; and in the Revolution, the Delaware regiment was known as one of the most efficient in the army. On the 7th of December, 1787, the State ratified the Constitution of the United States; and in 1792, a new State Constitution was adopted. In 1865, slavery was abolished in the State by the ratification of an 522

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DELAWARE. amendment to the Federal Constitution. The number of slaves was 1798 in 1860, but had been considerably reduced by 1865. CITIES AND TOWNS.

Wilmington is the largest town in the State. The other places of importance are, Smyrna, Dover, Newcastle, Delaware City, Seaford, and Lewes. DOVER, The capital of the State;-is situated in Kent county, on Jones’ Creek, 5 iniles above the Delaware River. It is 50 miles south frotn Wilnington, and 114 northeast from Washington City. The town is prettily situatel onl high ground, and is built mostly of brick. The streets are wide and cross each other at right-angles, and are prettily shaded with trees. The town contains a fine State Inuse, and the buildings devoted to the public offices, all of which face an open and tastefully ornamented square. The railway from Wilmington to Crisfield, Md., passes through Dover, which is thus brought in communication with all parts of the State. There are several flourishing schools in Dover, 4 churches, and 1 newspaper office. Many of the residetices are hlandsome and attractive.

In 1870, the population was 1913. WILMINGTON, The largest and most important city of the State, is situated in Newcastle county, on Christiana Creek, just above its junction with the Brandywine, and within 2 miles of the Delaware River. It is 28 miles southwest of Philadelphia, and 108 miles northeast of Washington City. It is built on the southern slope of a hill, the summrnit of which is 110 feet above tidewater. The upper portions of the city command excellent views of the Delaware River and the surrounding country. The general plan of Wilmington is regular, with wide, straight streets intersecting each other at right-angles. Thile buildings are principally of brick, and give to the city a substantial air, which is being greatly improved of late by the frequent introductioni of stone ill the more modern edifices. The principal business thoroughfare is Market street, about a mile in length. It extends from the Christiana to the Brandywine, intersects the other streets at right-angles, and crosses each of the creeks named by a handsome bridge. Street railways connect the principal points of the city. 523

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. PEACHI FARM. The Public Buildings are the 7own Hall, the Custon House, a fine graniite structure, and the Institute.

The Roman Catholic College, about 10 public schools, and 7 or 8 private schools constitute the educationial establishments. The Institute contains a spacious hall, a scientific lecture-room, and a library of over 8000
volumes. The city also contains a large hospital, an almshouse, and about 30 churches; is supplied with pure water from the Brandywine, and is lighted with gas. It has a well organized police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. Five newspapers are published here. Wilmington is accessible to steamers and ships, and is connected with Philadelphia and Baltimore by railway. It is also the northern terminus of the Delaware Railway. It is a place of considerable trade, and is also largely engaged in manufactures. The principal of these are iron steamboats, railway cars, steam engines, railroad wheels, locomotive and car springs, mill machinery, other iron goods, powder, carriages, flour, leather, shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and agricultutral implements. 524

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THE SOUTHERN STATES. MARPYLAND. Area,………….. 9,356 Square Miles.*

Population in 1860,………687,049 Population in 1870………… 780,894

THE State of Maryland, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38~ and 39~ 44’ N. latitude, and 75~ 10’ and 79~ 20’ W.

longitude. It is 190 miles long from east to west in the extreme northern part, and 120 miles wide from north to south in the extreme eastern part.

Its width, however, varies greatly in different localities. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware, on the south by Virginia and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia. It is separated from the two Virginias on the south by the Potomac River. The District of Columbia, the seat of the Federal Government, lies on the banks of the Potomac, in the southwestern part of the State, and originally formed a part of the State of Maryland. TOPOGRAPHY. The Chesapeake Bay divides the State into two unequal portions, called the Eastern and Western Shore. The Western Shore is about twice the size of the Eastern, and comprises the more important part of the State. The Eastern Shore is mostly level, or at the best slightly rolling. The surface of the Western Shore rises as it recedes from the bay, and west of Baltimore is rugged and mountainous. The Alleghany Mountains cross the State in the western part, and are known as the Southeast Mountain, Sugar Loaf Mountain, Catoctin, Blue Ridge, Kittatinny, Ru(gged Mountain, and Will’s Mountain. * This estimate. is exclusive of the area occupied by the Bay. Including the Chesapeake, the area of the State is about 11,124
square miles. .*~~~ a~~525 -4_

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The State is not over 6 or 7 miles wide in the greater part of this re gion, but it is rich in magnificent scenery.

The Chesapeake Bay lies in the eastern part of the State, and di vides it, as we have stated, into two unequal portions. It receives the waters of the Susquehanna at its head, the Elk, Chester, Sassafras, Choptank, and Nanticoke rivers from the Eastern Shore, and the Patapsco, Patuxent, and Potomac from the Western. The bay is about 200 miles long, and for 120
miles lies entirely in Maryland. The lower part, from the mouth of the Potomac, lies in Virginia. Its northern point is called Cape Charles, and its southern Cape Henry. The width between these capes is 12 miles. Above this the bay varies in width from 10 to 40 miles. Its shores are thickly studded with inlets, many of which are fine harbors. It is navigable for the largest ships nearly to its head, and for steamers into the Susquehanna. It is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the world.

After passing the southern boundary of Maryland, it receives the waters of the Rappahannock, York, and James rivers, of Virginia, on its western side. It connects Alexandria, Norfolk, and Richmond, in Virginia, Washington City, in the District of Columbia, and Baltimore, in Maryland, with the sea. An immense trade is carried on over its waters. The Chesapeake is famous for the abundance and variety of the game which it furnishes. Its oysters are world-renowned, and seem inexhaustible. The bay and inlets abound in a variety of the finest fish and terrapin, and other salt-water delicacies are found all along its shores. These waters supply the principal markets of the Eastern States with such delicacies. “There is,” says Dr. Lewvis, in the “American Sportsman,” “no place in our wide extent of country where wild fowl shooting is followed with so much ardor as on the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, not only by those who make a comfortable living from the business, but also by gentlemen who resort to these waters from all parts of the adjoining States to participate in 4he enjoyments of this far-famned ducking ground. All species of wild fowl come here in numbers beyond credence, and it is really necessary for a stranger to visit the region if he wishes to form a just idea of the wonderful multitudes and numberless varieties of ducks that darken these waters, and hover in interminable flocks over these famed feeding grounds.

It is not, however, the variety or extraordinary numbers of ducks onl the Chesapeake that particularly attract the steps of so many shooters to these parts, as there are other rivers 526

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MARYLAND. OYSTER FISHING. and streams equally accessible where wild fowl also abound. But the great magnet that makes these shores the centre of attraction, is the presence of the far-famed Canvass-Back, that here alone acquires its peculiar delicacy of flavor, while feeding upon the shores and flats of these waters.” “The canvass-backs,” says Dr. Sharpless, of Philadelphia, in a paper contributed to “Audubon’s Birds of America,”

“pass up and down the bay, from river to river, in their morning and evening flights, giving, at certain localities, great opportunities for destruction. They pursue, even in their short passages, very much the order of their migratory movements, flying in a line of baseless triangle: and when the wind blows on the points which may lie in their course, the sportsman has great chance of success. These points or courses of the ducks are materially affected by the winds; for they avoid, if possible, an approach to the shore; but when a strong breeze sets them on to these projections of the land, they are compelled to pass within shot, and often over the land itself. In the Susquehanna and Elk rivers there are few of these points for shooting, and there success 527

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. depends on approaching them while on their feeding grounds. After leaving the eastern point at the mouth of the Susquehanna and Tur key Point, the western side of the Elk River, which are both mode rately good for flying shooting, the first place of much celebrity is the Narrows, between Spesutic Island and the western shore.

These Narrows are about 3 miles in length, and from 300 to 500 yards in breadth. By the middle of November, the canvass-backs, in particu lar, begin to feed in this passage, and the entrance and outlet, as well as many, intermediate spots, become very successful stations. A few miles down the western shore is Taylor’s Island, which is situated at the mouth of thie Rumney and Abbey Island, at the mnouth of Bush River, which are both celebrated for ducks, as well as for swans and geese. These are the most northerly points where large fowl are met with), and projecting out between deep coves, where immense numbers of these birds fee* they possess great advanltages. The south point f Bush River, Legoe’s Point, and Robbins’ and Pickett’s points, iear Gunpowder River, are famous localities. Immediately at the mouth of this river’ is situated Carroll’s Island, which has long been known as a great shooting ground. Maxwell’s Point, as well as some others up other rivers, and even further down the bay, are good places, but less celebrated than those mentioned. Most of these places are let out as shooting grounds for companies and individuals, and are esteemed so valuable that intruders are severely treated.” Norfolk, Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, at the lower extremnity of the bay, is the depot for the receipt and sale of the game taken in the Chesapeake, and there the best purchases can be made. The sport, as all who hlave joined in it full well know, is not without its difficulties and its dangers. Says the learned doctor from whom we have already quoted: “Notwithstanding the apparent facilities that are offered of success, the amusement of duck-shooting is probably one of the most exposing to cold and wet; and those who undertake its enjoyment without a courage’screwed to the sticking-point,’ will soon001 discover that’to one good a thousand ills oppose.’ It is, indeed, no parlor sport; for, after creeping through mud and mire, often for hundreds of yards, to be at last disappointed, and stand exposed on points to the’pelting rain or more than freezing cold,’ for hours, without even the promise of a shot-would try the patience of even Franklin’s’glorious nibbler.’ It is, however, replete with excitement and charim. To one who can enter on the pleasure with a system formed for polar cold, and a spirit to endure the weary toil of 528

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MARYLAND. many a stormy (lay, it will yield a harvest of health and delight that the roamer of the woods can rarely enjoy.” The rivers of the State are little more than arms of the bay. The Patapsco River rises in Carroll county, in the northern part of the State. It florws southward as far as the line of Balltimore and Anne Arujidel counties, where it turns to the east, forming the boundary between those counties, and emptying into the Chesapeake, 14 m-iles east of Baltimore City. It is about 80
miles long. Until it reaches the border of Anne Arundel county, it flows through a hilly country, and, being broken by numerous falls, forms a fine mill streamn. It flows into the bay through a wide estuary about 14 miles long, and 3 niles wide, whichl is navigable to Baltimore for the largest shil)s. The Patuxcnt Piler rises about 18 miles southeast of Frederi(k City, and flowing south-souttleast between the counties of Montgomery, Prince George’s, Charles, and St. Mary’s, on the right, and Howard, Anne Artundel, and Calvert, on the left, empties into Chesapeakle Bay, through a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide. The river is 90 miles long, and is navigable for about 48 or 50 miles front its mouth. It flows through a fine agricultural region. The Choptank riter rises in Kent county, Delaware, and flows into the Chesal)eake Bay, between Dorchester and Talbot counties, on the Eastern Shore of MAIaryland. About 20 miles from its mouth, it spreads out i,ito a b)road estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide, which affords some of the finest water scenery in America. It is about 100 miles long, is navigable for steamers for about 40 miles, for sloops for 10 or 15 miles higher, and lies for the greater part in Maryland. The other rivers are the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Pocomoke, and Nanticoke. These, with the bay itself, cut up the Eastern Shore into so many inlets that vessels can lie alongside the shores of the majority of the farms in that part of the State and receive the crops on board. Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, opposite Annapolis, forms a part of Queen Anne’s county, and is famous as having been the site of the first English settlement in the State. MINERALS. Coal and iron are found in large quantities in the western part of the State, and of the very best qualities. Copper is found in Frederick and Carroll counties, where important mines are located.

Cobalt is found along the Patapsco, and traces of nickel have been discovered 4 529

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OUR COUNTRY AND iT’S RESOURCES. in some of the copper mines. Lignites occur in quantities in Anne Arundcl county, mixed with amber and iron pyrites. Alum, porcelain-clay, limne, chrome, manganese, magnesia, barytes, marble, marl. and ochlircs are also found, and gold has been discovered. CLIMATE. Lying between the Northern and Southern States, Maryland does not share the extremes of the temperature of either section, but possesses a climnate noted for its evenness and mildness. The breezes from the bay sweep over the greater part of the State, and add much to this effect. The country along the bay and its tributaries, however, is sickly, being afflicted with chills and fevers. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the eastern shore is sandy in the lower part, but consists of mixtures of clay and sand above the Choptank River. The lands of Talbot county are among the finest in the State. The southern counties of the western shore have also a sandy soil, but that of the other counties is very fertile. That of Frederick county will compare in productiveness with any in the Union. The agriculture of the State is backward. Manures have been but little used, although lime and marl exist in considerable quantities in the State. A clhaInge for the better has taken place of late, however. The abolition of slavery has opened the way for the small farmers of New England and the Middle States, who are settling in the State, especially upon the eastern shore, in great numbers. Great attention is being paid to the growing of fruits, to which this State is peculiarly adapted. Large quantities of peaches and small fruits are annually sent to northern markets. Tobacco also forms an important staple.

The land is easily brought to a high state of fertility, and in the eastern counties the winters are short and mild. Horses in the sandy counties do not require to’ be shod, and many of the farms having water boundaries need little or no fencing. In 1869 there were about 3,002,269
acres of improved, and 1,833,306 acres. of unimproved land in the State.

The other products for the same year may be stated as follows: Number of horses,………….., . asses and mules,…… milch cows,….. “.Do li 99,112 11,310 100,030

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MARYLAND. Number of young cattle,.. ” sheep,…. ” swine,…. Value of domestic animals,. Bushels of wheat…. rye,….. ” Indian corn,, oats…… ” peas and beans,. ” potatoes,… barley,…… ” buckwheat,..

Hhlds of tobacco…. Pounds of wool (estimated), ” butter,… e cheese,…. Tons of hay…….1 COMMERCE. Baltimore is the chief commercial city of the State, an(i is actively engaged in an important trade with the Southern and Western States, and with Europe. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 288,860. During the same year the exports of the State amounted to $12,089,072, and the imports to $4,484,399. The coal of this State is conling into considerable prominence as ftiel for steamers, and an important trade is carried on with all parts of the world in canned fruits, vegetables, oysters, etc., prepared in the Bay counties and in Baltimore. MANUFACTURES. Maryland is extensively engaged in manufactures. In 1870 there were 5812 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, lmining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $36,438,729 and 44,860 hands, consumed raw material worth $46,897,032, and returned an annual product of $76,593,613. The value of the principal manufactures for 1870 was as follows: Cotton goods,……. Woollen goods……. Leather,…….. Pig iron,……… Rolled iron,…… Steam engines and machinery,6 Agricultural implements,.. Sawed and planed lumber,.2 Flour,………. 33 531 170,110 160,211 398,120 $15,667,853

7,733,000 182,000 12,300,000 7,100,000 39,407 1,050,000 24,000 150,000

25,000 500,000 5,265,295 8,342 191,000 $4,852,808 390,036 2,084,696

2,143,089 3,573,212 954,866 549,085 1,976,328 6,786,4,59 ……

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Copper……………$1,026,500 Spirituous and malt liquors,……. 1,555,004 Boots and stloes………..3,111,076

Furniture,…………………………1,399,488 Soap and candles……….. 521,439 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Maryland was one of the first States in the Union to engage in internal improvements. Her first effort was to build the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, between Washington City and Cumberland. This work cost her over $7,000,000, but has never been a source of profit to her. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, extending from Baltimore across the mountains to the Ohio River, at Wheeling, West Va., is one of the most important lines in the Union, and was the first ever opened in this country for purposes of general travel. Baltimore is connected with all the important towns of the State, and with all parts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 820 miles of conmI)Ieted railroads (including a few miles in the District of Columbia), constructed at a cost of about $45,000,000. The total length of canals in the State is about 200
miles. EDUCATION. Until recently the public school system of Maryland was not in keeping with the traditional enterprise and public spirit of the State. Since the close of the war, however, the system has been reorganized and established upon a much better plan. The supervision of schools is rested in a State Board, County Boards, azid Schllool District Boards. The State Board consists of four members, appointed by the Governor. The principal of the State Normal School is ex-oicio a membor of this board. The State Board has the general control of the educational system of the State. Each county is in charge of a Board of County School Commissioners, appointed by the judges of the Circuit Court, and consisting of three members. Each District Board consists of three persons, appointed by the C6unty Schoel Commissioners. The County Commissioners appoint County Examiners, who have power to grant to teachers, after examination, certificates of two grades, which are good for three years, but ino longer. A State tax of 10 cents on each one hundred dollars of tax7:.I)le property throughout the State is to be levied annually for the support of the schools.

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MARYLAND. The State Normal School is located in Baltimore, and was opened in January, 1866. In September, of the same year, a Model School was added to it. A liberal provision is made for a system of colored schools thoughout the State. The schools of the city of Baltimore are distinct from those of the State, and are controlled by the municipal authorities.

They have long been noted for their excellence. The school system in the city is of far older date than that of the State. In 1870 Maryland contained 1347 public schools, exclusive of those )f Baltimore City, attended by 75,402 children. The total amount exl)end(led upon the public schools in the same year was $751,310. The principal collegiate institutions are Washington College, at Chestertown; St. John’s College, at Annapolis; St. MIary’s College, at Baltimore; St. Charles’s College, at Ellicott’s Mills; Mount St. MarNy’s College, at Enimittsburg; the College of St. James, in WashingtonI county; St. John’s College, at Frederick City; St. Mary’s Theological Seminary, at Baltimore; the Medical School of the Un)iversity of Maryland, Washington Medical College, the College of Dental Surgery, and Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore; and the State Agricultural College, in Prince George’s county. They are all prosperous.

During the war some of them were temporarily closed, but all are again in operation. The State supports the Agricultural College, and assists St.

Johln’s College, at Annapolis, WasitingtonI College, at Chestertown, and the Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore City. There were in Maryland, in 1870, about 3353 libraries, containirng 1,713,483 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals published in the State was as follows: daily 8, triweekly 1, weekly 69, miscellaneous 10. In the same year several literary and religious papers were published in the State. The political journals had an aggregate annual circulation of 31,858,514 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The city of Baltimore is well provided with penal and charitable establishments of its own. Those of the State are the Penitentiary and the Hospital for the Insane. The Maryland Penitentiary is located at Baltimore. Extensive additions have been made to its buildings, of late, but there is still at 53:’ )

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OUR COUN1TRY AND ITS RESOURCES. deficienccy in the accommodations provided for the prisoners. In No. vecmber, 1867, the number of inmates was 679.

The JMaryland Hospital for the Insane, at Baltimore, is an excellent institution, and is liberally supported by the State. In January, 1868, it contained 113 patients. Two classes are received hereState patients, and those who pay their own expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Maryland was $12,038,650. The number of churches was 1389. FINANCES. In 1874, the public debt of the State was $11,095,019. The re ceipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30th, 1874, were $2,842,012, and the expenditures $2,276,906. In 1868, there were 32 National Banks, with a total capital of $12,790,202, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. in this State every male citizen of the United States, twentyone years old, who has resided one year in the State and six months in the county, is entitled to vote at the elections. The first Constitution of Maryland was adopted in August, 1776.

It has been changed several times, the present Constitution having been adopted in 1867. lhe Government is vested in a Governor (elected by the people for four years), a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 24
members, (elected for four years, onehalf going out of office every two years), an1d House of Delegates (of 86 members, elected for two years), a C()mp)troller, and Treasurer, elected for two years, a Secretary of State, an(l an Attoriney-General and Superintendent of Labor and Agriculti:re, elected for four years. The Governor, Legislature, Comptroller, AttorneyGeneral, and Superintendent of Labor are chosen by the people, the Treasurer by the Legislature, and the Secretary of State and other officers appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. No person holding an office under the United States, and no minister of the gospel is eligible to a seat in either house. The Legislature meets biennially.

The general election is held in November. The Court of Appeals consists of the Chief Judges of the first seven judicial districts of the State, and a judge from the city of Baltimore, 534

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MARYLAND. who is specially elected for that purpose. The Chief Justice is nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. Four of the judges constitute a quorum, but a decision cannot bc rendered without the concurrence of at ]east three. The judge who tried the cause in the lower court, is not allowed to participate in the decision in this court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only, but that ill all parts of the State. The other courts are the Circuit Courts of the counties, Orphans’

Courts, and Justices’ Courts, held by justices of the peace. Besides these are the several courts-Superior, Circuit, and Criminal  of Baltimore City. Annapolis, in Anne Arundel county, is the capital. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. The first settlement in the State was made on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, in the year 1631, by Captain William Clayborne, with a party of men from Virginia. On the 20th of June, the terri tory of Terra Marise, or Mary’s Land, so named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria of England, was granted by Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Calvert sent out a colony in two vessels, the Ark and the Dove, in November, 1633. This expedition reached St. Clement’s Island on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th founded the settlement of St. Mary’s (in what is now St. MAary’s county), on the mainland. The expedition was composed mainly of Catholic gentlemen, their families, and followers, and was in charge of Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, who was app)ointed Governor. As soon as the colony was firmly established, other emigrants came from En,gland in considerable numbers, and Clayborne, having refused to submit to the authority of the Governior, was driven from Kent Island. The Indians gave the settlers some trouble, but were promptly made to keep the peace. The first Legislative Assembly met in 1639. In 1642, a band of Puritans, expelled from Virginia for refusing to conformn to the worship of the Church of England, settled in Maryland, and were not long in giving evidences of their determination to disregard the authority of the rightful government of the province. Clayborne also came back and regained possession of Kent Island. The Governor made an effort to expel him, but he and his followers, aided by the Puritan settlers, not only defeated this effort, but seized 535

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OUR COU NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the government of the province, and forced Calvert to fly into Virginiia, in 1644. Clayborine held the control of affairs until 1646, \vllcn Calvert entered the province at the head of a considerable force, and reestablished the authority of the proprietary. In 1649, the Assemibly enacted this wise statute: “Whereas the enforcing of the coinscience in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of (langerous consequences ill those Commonwealths where it has been l)ractised, and for the more quiet and peaceful government of this Province, and the better to preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this Province, professing to believe iii Jesus Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested, or discounteiianced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof.” The Puritans gave great trouble to the colony. They had founde(d the town of Providence, which was afterwards called Annapolis, and were centred mainly in that part of the State. Finally they were granted the county of Charles. Upon the establishment of the Comnmonwealthli in England, they insisted that the colony ought to submit to it, but the authorities proclaimed Charles II. When the Assembly met again, it was found that the Puritans were largely in excess of the followers of the Proprietary. In 1652, the Commissioners sent out from England by the Parliament arrived, and completely established the authority of the Commonwealth. Governor Stone, the representative of Lord Baltimore, was removed. One of the Cominissioners referred to was no other than Clayborne, the old enemy of Lord Baltimore. Kent Island was given up to him, and he was also assigned Palmer Island, at the mouth of the Susquehanna River. In 1654, Lord Baltimore made a vigorous attempt by force of arms to regain his rights. A bitter contest was begun, and continued with alternate success and failure until March 25th, 1655, when Lord Baltimore’s forces made an attack on Providence (Annapolis), and were repulsed with terrible slaughter by the Puritans, the whole force being killed or captured. Governor Stone was among the prisoners, all of whom were condemned to death. It is known that at least four of them were executed. The Puritans continued to hold the governinent until 1657, when Lord Baltimore’s rights were restored, and his brother Philip Calvert appointed Governor. His family continued to hold the government until 1688, when William and Mary, having co(me to the throne of England, assumed the control of the Province. From this time the Governor was appointed by the Crown, until 1714, when Benedict Charles Calvert, the lineal heir of the first pro 536

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MARYLAND. prietor, was granted the government again. Unlike the rest of his family, he was t Protestant, which was the cause of his succession to his hereditary rights. Ill 1691, the seat of government was transferred to Providence, the name of which was changed to Annapolis. In 1695, a post iroute, the first in America, was established from the Potomac, through Annlapolis, to Philadelphia. In 1729, the town of Baltimore was folidled, Frederick City in 1745, and Georgetown (now in the District of Columbia) ill 1751. By 1756 the population of the colony had increased to 154,188
souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The colony also increased in material prosperity. By the year mentioned above, the annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, all(l, in spite of the efforts of the home government to prevent it, there, were 8 furnaces and 9 forges for smelting copper in operation iii the province. During the wars with France, Maryland contributed lit)berally to the common cause. Between 1754 and 1758, her western frontier suffered severely from the savages, whose outrages were stopped only by the capture of Fort Duquesne. The colony offered a spirited resistance to the injustice of the home Government, and promptly made common cause in this matter with the other provinces. The outbreak of the Revolution caused the overthrow of the proprietary government, which patriotically sll)mitted to the necessity, and in August, 1776, a Convention of the people adopted a State Constitution, which went into immediate operation. The State made liberal contributions of men and money for the maintenance of the war. The “Maryland Line” won a name in this struggle, which is one of the most precious legacies they have left to their children. Congress assembled at Baltimore, and afterwards at Annapolis, towards the close of the war, and it was at the latter place that Washington resigned his commission, on the 23d of December, 1783. Upon the close of the war, great and successful efforts were made to settle the western part of the State. Maryland ratified the Federal Constitution April 28th, 1788. During the war of 1812, the shores of the Chesapeake Bay were brutally ravaged by a British fleet commnanded by Admiral Cockburii. Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Frederictown, and Georgetown werel sacked and burned. The militia of the State were defeated at Bladensburg, where they attempted to arrest the march of the Britist upon Washington City, in 1814. They repulsed the same force .5.37

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. North Point, near Baltimore, on the 13th of September, 1814, and killed the British Commander, General Ross; and on the 14th re p)ulsed the attack of the enemy’s fleet upon Fort McHenry, which protected the entrance to the city of Baltimore. When the question of establishing a seat of Government was brought up, near the close of the last century, Maryland granted to the United States 60 square miles of her territory, lying near the falls of the Potomac. Virginia united with her, and added enough of her own territory to make the grant consist of 100
square miles. The offer was accepted by the United States, and the District of Columbia was erected. The seat of Government was transferred to it in 1800. At the outbreak of the late war, it was generally supposed that Maryland would secede from the Union, and join the other States of the South in their attempt to establish a new Confederacy. This course would undoubtedly have been pursued, had the State been free to act as it wished; but at the first opening of the struggle, it was promptly occupied by the forces of the General Government. During the war, it was nominally allowed to control its own affairs, but was really held down by force until the cessation of hostilities. It was invaded three times by a Confederate army, and, with the District of Columbia, formed the base from which the operations of the Federal Army of the Potomac were conducted.

The battles of South Mountain and Antietam, or Sharpsburg, and Monocacy Bridge, near Frederick City, were foughlt in the western part of the State; and Maryland Heights, opposite Harper’s Ferry, on the Potomac, bore a prominent part in the military operations around that place. Raiding parties entered the State repeatedly from Virginia, penetratilg upon one occasion beyond Baltimore, and a number of minor conflicts occurred between these parties and detachments of the Union army. During the war, the State furnished a considerable force to the army and navy of the United States; but a much larger number of native Marylanders crossed the Potomnlac and entered the Southern army. Slavery was abolished by a State Convention in 1864. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the most important cities and towns in the State are, Baltimore, Frederick, Cumberland, Cambridge, Easton, and Chestertown. 538

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MARYLAND. ANNAPOLIS, The capital of the State, is situated in Anne Arundel county, on the south or right bank of the Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is beauttifully located in full view of the bay, of which it commands extensive and picturesque views. It is 30
miles south by east fromn Baltimore, and 37 miles east by north from Washington. It is one of the oldest towns in the country, and bears marks of its antiquity on every hand. The buildings are gene rally in the style of a century ago, though the city contains many handsome modern edifices.

As a rule the town is well built. The plan of the city bears some resemblance to that of the National Capital, all of the streets radiating from two points, the State House and the Episcopal church. The city bears ample evidence of the wealth and prosperity which it once possessed in many ancient and extensive mansions, with large ranges of offices and stables, now gone to decay, and in some cases unlinhabited. The State Hfouse stands near the centre of the city, and is a venerable edifice of brick, with a lofty dome and cupola. It is situated in a small park on the highest point of the city, and contains the halls of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor and Secretary of State, and the State Library. The hall now occupied by the State Senate was used for the sessions of the Continental Congress near the close of the Revolution, and( it was here that Washington resigned his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the American armies. The hall is now ornamented with a large painting commemorating that event. It is from tile pencil of Mr. Edwinr White, of New York. To the east of the State House stands the official mansion of the Governor of Maryland, who is obliged to reside here during his term of office. Annapolis is li,ghted with gas, but many of the buildings still use oil lamps. It is connected with Baltinmore and Washington City by a railway, and with the former city by a line of steamers. It was formerly a place of considerable trade, but is now important only as the capital of the State. It contains 6 churches, and 2 newspaper offices, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 5744. The city is well supplied with public and private schools. St. John’s College is a flourishing institution, supported in part by the State. It was closed during the civil war, but is now in a fair way to regain its former prosperity. 539

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540 OUR COUN TRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Annapolis is the seat of the Naval Academy of the United States, established during the administration of President Polk, the Hon. Geo. Bancroft being Secretary of the Navy. It is located in the northeast part of the city, immediately on the shore of the Severn, and is desig,ned for the education and training of officers of the United States Navy. Annapolis was founded about 1649, and was at first called Providence. The events of its early history have been already related in the sketch of the history of the State. In 1708 it was chartered as a city, and named Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne, who had bestowed several valuable presents upon the town. It was for many years the most important city in Maryland, but was at length surpassed by Baltimore, to which city its large trade was transferred. BALTIMORE, The largest and most important city of the State, and the sixth city of the United States, is situated in Baltimore county, on the north side of the Patapsco River, about 12 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is 38 miles northeast from Washington, 98 miles southwest from Philadelphia, and 200 miles from the ocean by the course of the Chesapeake. The city is built partly along the river shore, and partly along a range of hills overhanging the Patapsco and commanding distant views of the bay. Below Baltimore the river widens into a broad estuary, several miles in width. Some portions of the city are 100 feet above tide water, and the view of Baltimore from the river is very beautiful and attractive. This rolling character of the ground enables the city to provide the best system of sewerage in the country, and does much to render Baltimore a remarkably clean city. “Perhaps no city in the United States has such a picturesque sight as Baltimore, covering as it does a number of eminences, which, however inconvenient they may be for the residents, furnish a pleasant variety for the stranger. If the visitor ascends the Washington Monument, in the northern part of the city, on a hill, itself 100 feet above tide, he has one of the finest panoramas furnished by any city in the Union. Immediately beneath and around him are some of the most capacious streets, lined with residences rarely equalled in elegance, size, and position. To tl,e north and northwest are the newer and finer buildings, constituting the fashionable part of the city, while.to the south lies the great centre of trade; a little to the southeast is the harbor, and beyond it Federal Hill; while far in the

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MARYLAND. BATTLE MONU.MENT. distance, but nearly in the same direction, stretches the beautiful arm of tile bay on which Baltimore stands. To the east and southeast, across Jones’ Falls (a small creek which divides the city into two l)ortions), lie the Old Town and Fell’s Point; and to the west the newer portions, which are extending rapidly. The view is varied by the dome of the Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian church, and the Exchange, by the Shot-tower, by the Battle Monumient, and by the steeples and towers of the various churches scattered in all directions; the whole girt on the northwest and east by beautiful hills crowned with a natural growth of trees. Although the site of the city is such as to cause irregularity in some of the streets, the different sections are laid out with great uniformity. Baltimore street, the fashionable promenade, and seat of the retail and jobbing business, divides the city into two nearly equal portions, the larger part lying to the north. Charles street, crossing this at right angles, also divides the city into two nearly equal parts, the portion called North Charles street being mostly occupied with elegant residences, and South Charles street, between Baltiinore and Lomrbard streets, with extensive wholesale warehouses. 541

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “From the number and prominence of its monuments, Baltimore has been denominated the’Monumental City.’ The most remarkable of these is the Washington Monument, standing in a small, open area at the intersection of Charles and Monument streets. Its base, 50
feet square and 20 high, supports a doric column 17621 feet in height, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of Washington, 16 feet high, giving its summit an elevation of 31221 feet above the level of the harbor. The shaft, 20 feet square at the base, and 14 at the top, is ascended by means of a winding stairway within. The whole is constructed of white marble, and cost $200,000. Battle Monument, also a beautiful structure of mnarbl)le, is situated in Monument Square, in Calvert street, near Lexington street. From the base, which is square and ornamented with various devices, rises a facial column, 18 feet high, on the bands of which are inscribed the names of those who fell while defending the city from the attack of the British, September 12th, 1814. This is surmounted by a beautiful statue of the Goddess of Liberty, 721 feet high, making the entire height of the monument 521 feet. Another object of much interest to strangers is the Merchants’ Shot-tower, the highest, it is said, in the world, having an elevation of 246 feet.” * The public buildings are handsome. The City Hall, on Holliday street, is a magnificent building of white marble, covering an entire square; the U. S. Court House, on Fayette street, is a fine granite structure; and the U. S. Custonm House and Post Office, on Lombard and Gay streets, the City Jail, the Iariyland and Peabody Institutes, the latter of white marble, and the Masonic EHall, also of white marble, are inmposing structures. The depots of the Baltimore and Ohio and the Northern Central Railways are among the handsomest buildings of the city. There are also many elegant buildings of stone, iron, and marble, used for mercantile purposes, which must be included among the ornaments of the city. Many of the churches are also worthy of notice in this connection. The educational, literary, and scientific institutions of Baltimore have always been amongst the best in the land. The public schools were famous when those of the other large American cities were striving for the excellence they have since attained.

In 1870, the city contained 119 schlools,.attended by 23,913 pupils. In the same year the city paid $26,322 for schools for colored children. The private * Lippincott’s Gazetteer. 542

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MARYLAND. schools are numerous, of a high character, and are well attended. The higher schools are the University of Maryland, the Medical Department of which was founded in 1807; Loyola College; the Theological School, formerly connected with St. Mary’s (R. C.) College; the Baltimore College of Pharmacy; and the College of Dental Surgeons. The Peabody Institute, on Charles and Monument streets, is the gift of George Peabody, and is devoted to literary and scientific purposes. It contains a good and growing library, and a gallery of fine arts. The Athanceum, St. Paul and Saratoga streets, contains the Mercantile Library, about 20,000 volumes, and the Baltimore Library, 15,000 volumes. It is also occupied by the Historical Society of Maryland, which possesses a library of 1000 volumes, and a collection of papers and other relics. An annual exhibition of paintings is held in the rooms of this society. The V,aryland Institute occupies a large building on Baltimore street near Jones’ Falls. The lower part is used as a market. The upper part is an immense hall, in which an annual exhibition of the mechanic arts is held. It possesses a fine library. The reading room belonging to the Board of Trade is supplied with newspapers from all parts of the world. The benevolent and charitable institutions are the Maryland Hospital for the Insane, situated on a hill in the eastern part of the city; the Montest Hope Institution, for the same purpose, under the charg(, of the Sisters of Charity; the Baltimore Infirmary, with beds for 300 patients; the Maryland Institution for the Instruction of the Blind; the Church Home and Infirmary, connected with the Episcopal Church; the Union Protestant Infirmary; the Aged Women’s Home; the Old Mlen’s H-ome; the Home of the Friendless; the House of the Good Shepherd, for the reformation of fallen women; the Almshouse, and four Dispensaries. The prisons and reformatory establishments are the State Penitentiary, the City Jail, a handsome granite structure, and the House of Refuge, for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. The hotels of Baltimore are good. The principal are the City Hotel (Barnum’s), and the Gilmore and Eutaw Houses. Baltimore is very far behind its eastern rivals in many things. The streets are badly paved, cobble stones predominating, and the sidewalks are of brick. While the city contains a large number of magnificent buildings, its principal thoroughfare, Baltimore street, cannot compare with the corresponding streets of either New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, or St. Louis. In the private portions, the 543

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. BALTIMORE STREET. principal material used is brick, with white marble trimmings. Brownl stone is now becoming common in the wealthier sections. The citv is noted for the large number of small dwellings which it contains. These furnish homes for the working classes, who live in greater comfort and privacy than in almost any other large city in the world. Few houses contain more than one family. The more fashionable quarters are beautifully built up, and will compare favorably with any citv in the country. Street railway lines connect the various parts of the city. The cars of every line touch Baltimore street below Calvert an(l above Gay street, and thus bring all points in connection with the business centre. Siiil,ilr ines connect the city with its principal suburbs. There are between 160 and 170 churches in Baltimore.

Some of these are very costly and beautiful. Baltimore is the See of a Romaii Catholic Archl)isIlop, who is the Primate of the United States. The (ity contains several parks and pleasure grounds. These are Union, Franl.!in, and Lafayette squares, and Patterson and Drui(l Hill parks.

Patterson Park contains 36 acres, and embraces the 544

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MARYLAND. earthworks thrown up for the defence of the city in the war of 1812. Druid Hill Park contains 550 acres, and abounds in fine trees and shrubbery. It is naturally one of the mnost beautiful of the American parks, and has been greatly improved an(l ornamented since its purchase by the city. It is situated in the northern suburbs of the city, beyond the extreme end of Madison Avenue. The cemeteries are Greeninount, Loudon Park, Baltimore, Mount Olivet, Mount Carmel, and the Western. Greenmount is very beautiful, and contains many handsome monuments. The theatres of Baltimore are behind those of the other large cities of the Union. The principal are the Holliday Street Theatre and the Concordia Opera House.

Baltimore is the terminus of five railway lines, which connect it with all parts of the country. The Baltimore and Ohio Railway is one of the great trunk lines to the West, and one of the finest works in the world. By means of these it conducts an enormous trade with the West, and with the interior of the State of Virginia. Steamboats ply between Baltimore and the principal towns on the Chesapeake Bay and the rivers emptying into it, and a large coasting trade is carried on from this port. A line of firstclass steanmers connects the city with the port of Bremen, in Germany, and is bringing a large portion of the emigration from that country through the port of Baltimore. Baltimore enjoys very great facilities for commerce from its situation, and needs but the energy and enterprise of its former days to be a more important commercial city than it is. In 1864, the arrivals at the port of Baltimore, not counting the bay craft, were :143 steamers, 38 ships, 137 barks, 197 brigs, 1025
schooners, mak;ng a total of 2540 vessels. In the same year, the foreign imnports ,f Baltimore were $6,076,300; and the exports were $12.,362,448.

The registered tonnage for the same year was 45,198; enrolled and licensed, 203,497; mraking a total of 248,695 tons. By means of the Baltimore and Ohio a(nd-l Northlern Central Railways, a heavy coal trade is carried on through Baltimore. Large quantities of this are shipped from Locust Point. Baltimore is largely engaged in manufactures, Jones’ Falls furnishing excellent waterpower. Some of’ the largest machine shops in the country are located here. The principal manufactures are cotton and iron goods, machinery, steam engines, agricultural implements, and flour.

The city is abundantly supplied with water from Swann Lake and 545

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Jones’ Falls. The water is brought a distance of seven miles to the city reservoirs, which are from 110 to 150
feet above tidewater. The city is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, and is provided with a police and fire alarm telegraph, an efficient police force, and an admirable steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 267,354. In the year 1729, the General Assembly of Maryland took measures for “erecting a town on the north side of the Patapsco in Baltimore county.”

The site had been settled as early as 1682, by David Jones, who gave his name to the small stream which now flows through the city of Baltimore, dividing it into “old” and “new” town. On the 12th of January, 1730, a towi) of 60 acres of land was laid out by the county surveyor and commissioners, and called Baltimore in honor of Cecilius Calvert Lord Baltimore. “In the same year, William Fell, a ship-carpenter, having purchased a tract east of the falls, called it Fell’s Point, after his own name, which it still bears. In 1732, a new town of 10 acres in 20 lots was laid out on the east of the falls, and called Jonestown, in honor of David Jones, the first settler. The name has long been forgotten, and as a settlement existed there before that of Baltimore, it was called’old town.’ Jonestown was united to Baltimore in 1745, dropping its own name, and two years afterward Baltimore, which properly lay up about the head of the’basin,’ near the foot of the present South Charles street was extended as far eastwardly as Jones’ Falls, under an express provision that there was nothing in the Act recognizing a right to’elect delegates to the Assembly as representatives from the town.’ This was the earliest manifestation of that singular jealousy, which has ever since been shown in the Legislature by the Maryland county members against the city of Baltimore.” In 1755, Baltimore contained but 25 houses and 2.00
inhabitants. In 1767, it was made the county seat. In 1769, the first fire engine was introduced. In 1773, William Goddard began the publication of the “Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser.’ In the same year a line of stage coaches and a line of sailing packets were established between Baltimore and Philadelphia; and a theatre was built on Albemarle street.

In 1775, Baltimore contained 564 houses, and 5934 inhabitants. In 1776, Philadelphia having fallen into the hands of the British, Congress removed to Baltimore, and held its sessions in a building on the southeast corner of Baltimore and Liberty streets. In 1784, the streets were lighted with oil lamps, and 546

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MARYLAND. S,’.,>………….AN…RAI* SC(ENE ON BALTI31ORE AND OII0

RAILWVAY. ) constables and(l 14 watchmen were appointed “for the security of the tonI.” In 1796, Baltimore was incorporated as a city, the popillation )ein, about 2(),000. In 1800, tl-he population was 26,514. The citv was now highly prosperous, and was possessed of a large :ad thriving trade with all parts of the world. In 1814, it was attacked bvy the British, who were repulsed at North Point and at Fort McHelnry, by bothi land and water. In 1829, the first public sclhool was opened. In 1813, the first steamboat, called the Chesa)eake, was placed upon the line to Philadelphia via Frenbchtown and Newcastle, Del. On the 4th of July, 1828, the cornerstone of the great Baltimiore an(l Olhio Railway was laid by the venerable Charles Carroll of Carrolltonl. MIISCELLAN IES. ‘I’flE

BALTI,MOriE RI OT. A few days after the declaration of war, the town of Baltimore was seriously dlisturbed. Some harsh strictures on the conduct of Government having appeared in a newspaper of tlat city, entitled the Feder(l Repubica.n, the resentment of the opposite party was shown by destroying the office and( press of that establish 34 547

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ment. The commotion excited by this outrage had, however, in a great measure subsided, and the transaction was broulght before a criminal court for investiga tion. But events more alarming and tragical shortly afterwards succeeded. On the 2Gth of July, Mr. Hanson, thie leading editor of the obnoxious journal, who had deemed it prudent to leave the disordered city, returned, accompanied by his political adherents; amongst whom was General Henry Lee, of Alexandria, an officer distinguished in the Revolution for his bravery in partisan warfare at the head of a legion of cavalry, afterwards Governor of Virginia, and a representa tive from that State in the Congress of the Federal Government. Determined to recommence the paper, by first printing it in Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and then transmitting it to Baltimore for distribution, a house was for this purpose occupied in Charles street, secured against external violence, and guarded(l by a party well provided for defence. On the 28thl, papers were accordingly issued. These contained severe animadversions against the Mayor, police, and the people of Baltimore, for the depredations committed on the establishment in the preceding month, and were generally circulated throughout the city. In the course of the day it became known that Mr.

Hanson was in the new oflice in Charles street, and it was early whispered that the building would be assailed. A number of citizens who espoused his opinions went, therefore, to the house, and joined in its protection.

Towards the evening, a crowd of boys collected, who, after using opprobrious epithets to those within, began to throw stones at the windows; and about the same time a person on the pavement, endeavoring to dissuade the youths from mischief, was severely wounded by something ponderous thrown from the house. They were cautioned from the windows to desist; but still continued to assail the place with stones. Two muskets were then fired from the upper story; charged, it was supposed, with blank cartridges, to deter them from further violence; immediately the crowd in the street greatly increased; the boys were displaced by men; the sashes of the lower windows Adere liroken, and attempts made to force the door.

Muskets, in quick succession, were discharged from the house; some military arrived to disperse the crowd; several shots were fired in return; and at length a Dr. Gale was killed by a shot from the office door. The irritation of the mob was increased. They planted a cannon against the house, but were restrained from discharging it by the timely arrival of an additional military force, and an agreement that the persons in the lhouse would surrender to the civil authority. Accordingly, early in the following morning, having received assurances on which they thought themselves safe in relying, they surrendered, and were conducted to the county jail, contiguous to the city. The party consisted of about 20
persons; amongst whom were General Lee, General James Linlgani, and Mr.

Hanson. The Mayor directed the Sheriff to use every precaution to secure the doors of the prison, and the commander of the troops to employ a competent force to preserve the peace. In the evening everything bore the appearance of tranquillity; and the soldiers, by the consent of the magistrate, were dismissed. But shortly titer dark, a great crowd of disorderly persons reassembled about the jail, and manifested an intention to force it open. On being apprised of this, the Mayor hastened to the spot, and, with the aid of a few other gentlemen, for a while prevented the execution of the design: but they were at length overpowered by the number and violence of the assailants. The Mayor was carried away by force, and the turnkey-compelled to open the doors. A tragedy ensued, which cannot be described: it can be imagined only by those who are familiar with scenes of 548

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MARYLAND. ‘,l,)od. General Lingan was killed; eleven were beaten and mangled with weapons ti every description, such as stones, bludgeons, and sledgehammers, and then tlirown as dead, into one pile, outside of the door. A few of the prisoners fortuiiately escaped through the crow.d: Mr.

Ilanson, faintig from his repeated wounds, was carried by a gentleman (of opposite political sentimenerts), at the lihzard of his own life, across the adcljoining river, whence hlie with difficulty ‘eached the dclwelling of a friend. No effectual inquisition was ever made into this signal violation of the peace, nor punishment inflicted on the guilty. The leaders, on both sides, underwent trials; but, owing to the inflammation of public feeling, they were acquitted. ANECI)OTE’ OF (H ARI,ES CARROLL.

The name of Carroll is the only one on the Declaration to which the residerise ()f the signer is appended. The reason why it was done in this case is understood to be as follows: The patriots who signed that document, did it, almnost literally, with ropes about their necks, it being generally supposed that they would, if unsuccessful be hung as rebels. When Carroll had signed his name, somne one at his elbow remarked, “You’ll get clear-there are several of that nlame-they will not know which to take.”-” Not so,” replied he, and immedi. ately added, “of Carrollton.”

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DIST’RTICT OF COIUMBIA. Area,,…………. 60 Square Mliles Poul)tltio)iI ill li,;*i…… 75,080 l’ol)Ulztio1 il 17i)……. 131,706 TIlE I)istrict of 1 iIoriginally e1il)raced an area of ten miles s(luare, l)it thle portion ce( d h, \Virginia wNas restored to that State ill 1846, s) tllalt the )present District comIl)rises only the grant miade to the General GovernmiienIt l)y the State of Maryland. It lies onil tlhe east side of’

tle I’otolnmic at the llead of tide water, 160 miles fromi tlhe iouthl of thle river. It includes tihe cities of AW,ashingiton and Georgetown%, an(l is thle seat of tlle e(eerl Governmeiit of the Republic. In its physical features it is lilke tllose p)ortions of the State of Maryland iimmiediately surroul(li llg it. Until recently it was,overi-ed exclusively l)y Congress, and had 110o voice ill its oWl ali airs. Early in the year 1871, however, the two Houses of (oligress )assed a l)ill, vlwhich received the signlatlure of the President onl tlhe 21st of Fetbrriary, making great chalnges in the affairs of tile District. B3y tlhis law the District of Coluibllia has l)een given tlle ilaniagelleent of its onii aflhirs. The District is organized as a rTe-ritor, wiitli a GoveIIIIleit, consisting of a Governlor and an Assemblvy. The Governor is a)pp)ointed by the Presidenlt of the United( States l)v and withl the advice and consent of the Senate. IHie holds oi(Ce for four years anld until his successor shlall be appointed alnd qualified. Hle nmust be a citizen of the District for at least 12 months previous to hlis apl)ointlilelnt, and have thle qualifications of a voter. Ijis duties alld powvers are similar to those of the (GoNerniior of a Ferritory of thle Unite(l States. Thle Assembly , 551

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. consists of a Council and a Houtse of Delegates. The Council is composed of 11 memnbers, of lwhom 2 are residents of the City of Georgetown, 2 residents of the District outside of \Vashingtoil an(l Georgetown, and 7 residents of the City of Washington. They are appiointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They must have the qualifications of voters to be eligible to their officee. They hold office for two years, five and six going out on alternate years. The House of Delegates consists of 22
members, 2 firom each of the 11 districts into which the District of Columbia is divided. Thley are elected by the people, and must have the qualifi cations prescribed for members of the Council. The right of suffrage is conferred upon all male citizens of tlhe UT,nited States above the age of 21 years, who have resided in the Dis trict for a period of 12
months previous to an election, except persons of unsound mind an(l those convicted of infamous crimes. Th( Assembl)ly has no power to abridge or limit the right of sffirage. The Government must confine itself entirely to the al-hirs of the District of Columbia. The illlnhabitants of the District do not vote for President or VicePresident of the United States.

They send one delegate to Congress, who is entitled to the same rights and privileges in that body as are exercised and enjoyed by the Delegates from the several Territories of the United States to the House of Representatives. He is by virtue of his position a member of the House Committee for the District of Columbia. His term of office is 2 years. All the acts of the Legislative Assembly are sut)ject at all times to repeal or modification by the Congress of the United States, which body retains its powers of legislation over the District as formerly. By this law the charters formerly held by the Cities of Washington and Georg,etowvn are repealed, and all offices of those corporations abolished. The cities are b)rought directly under the control of the District Government, which succee(ls to the possession of the municipal property. The cities retain their namies and boundaries, but no longer exist as separate corporations, the government of both being confided to the authorities of the District.

The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia is the highest judicial tribunal. It consists of four justices (one of whom is designated as the Chief Justice), appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The other Courts are the District and Criminal Courts, below which are the Justices of the Peact, 552

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DIST’RICT OF COLUMBIA. Alrea,,…………. 60 Square Miles Populiatio(i i1ii l’i…. 7….. 5o0S l’ol)llltatio iii 1S7……. 131,706 TIIE

I)iistrict of (oltfrn i)i, originally ecmb)raced an area of ten nmiles sq(uare, I)tit the p)ortioin ceded by Virginia wNas restored to that State ill 1846, so that tlhe )Iresent District comll)rises only tlhe grant ilade to the Ge,cral (Govxerninient l)y the State of Marylan1. It lies onl the east side of tle l’otolinac at the lhead of tide water, 160 nuiles from tlle tnolthl of tlhe rivier. It in(ludes the cities of ABrashington and Georgeto(wn, an(l is tlhe seat of tlhe Federal (3overnment of the Republic. In its physical features it is lile tliJ)se )ortions of the State of Maryland inmmediately surronll(liig it. Until recently it was governed exclusively l)y Congress, and had no voice ill its oWll aflairs.

Early in the year 1871, however, the twNo Houses of (Congress p)assed a bill, whichl received the signature of the P’resident on the 21st of Febrtiary, making great changes iii the affairs of thle District. By this law\ the District of Colubitiia hlas l)een given tlhe imnaiavellenit of its ow\nii afiirs. The District is organized as a Teiritorv, wvitlh a Governimeiit, Consisting of a Govelrnlor and an Assemly. Tlhe Governor is a1q)ointed by the President of the United( Stat(s l)V and w\ithl tlhe advice and consent of the Senate. He holds offi(e for four years and until his successor shlall be appointed and qualified. He nmust l)Ce a. citizen of the District for at least 12 months prevrious to lhis a)l)oiint-lent, and hlave tlhe qualifications of a voter. His duties and )owvers are similar to those of the Governior of a rerritor’y of thle United States.

TlIe Assemibly 5~~~~~~~~~~t51

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______ ___~  Ut3IBIAN DEAF AND DUMB INSTITUTION.

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NG OF THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION,

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. HISTORY. After the close of the Revolution, Congress continued to meet in the City of Philadelphia. Ill June, 1783, a band of mutinous sol(licis broke into the hall where Congress was in session, and ill a grossyinsulting manner demanded the ” back pay” due them, wlicli amounted to a considerable sum. This insult was felt deeply by the members, ald it was agreed by comnmoii consent that it would be better for the seat of Government to be removed to a part of the country where the danger of a repetition of the occurrence would not be so imminent.

Elbridge Gerry introduced a resolution authorizing the building of a Federal City, on the banks of the Delaware or Potomac, and the erection of buildings suitable for the use of Coiigress, provided a good location and the proper amount of land could be obtained on either of those rivers.

This resolution was carried ol the 7thl of October, 1783, but was amended by a provision for buildings on both rivers, and was repealed on the 26thli of April, 1784. Congress met at Trenton, N. J., in October, 1784, and appointe(l three commissioners, who were authorized to lay out a district betweel two and three miles square onii the Delaware, for a Federal City. Thl next January, Congress met in New York, and efforts were made t(, locate the district on the Potomac, but without success. In September, 1787, the present Constitution of thie United States was adopted, vwhich provides that Congress shall have power “to exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of p)articular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the United States.” This clause of the Constitution fixed definitely the size of the newv district, and was the first real step towards its acquisition.

Appreciating the advantage of having the Capital within its limits, the State of Mlaryland, through its Legislature, on the 23d of December, 1788, offered to Congress “any district (not exceeding ten miles square) which the Congress may fix upon and accept for the seat of Government of the United States.” The matter was debated in Congress in 1789. It was agreed on all sides that the district ought to be located in a section of the country easy of access from all parts of the Union, and oughlt to be as central as was consistent with tihe wealth and population of the section chosen. The North and the South-for the sec 555

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The great question which at that time occupied the attention of the people, was the funding of the public debt. Congress was divided upon the subject. An amendment had beenr presented to the House, and lhad been rejected, providing that the General Government should assume the State debts to the amount of $21,000,000. This questioln had become very closely interwoven with that of selecting a Federal district.

The Northlern members were in favor of the assumption, ])ut did not desire the location of the district in the South; and the Southern members, while divide(d upon the assumption question, were to a man in favor of hlaving tlle offers of Maryland and Virginia .accepte(-d. Matters were at a dead halt, and the future seemed oiui lious. Jefferson was at this time Secretary of State, and Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury. Both were anxious to avert the danger whielc the vexed questions threatened, and after discussing the miatter confildenltially, came to the conclusion that a comipromnise was necessary. HIamilton urged that the South should consent to the assumption of the State debts by the Government, and declared that hle felt sure if thley would (do this, the Nortlh woutld agree to locate the cIapital on tlle Potomac. It was decided that Jefferson should ask the memnbers whose votes would accomplish this, to dine with him the next da-y, and lav the matter before them. The dinner was given, the plan proposed by Hamilton discussed, and a sufficient inumber of votes )ledged for the assumption bill. Hamilton undertook to win over the Northern memnbers to the capital scheme, and succeeded. The assumption bill became a law, and Congress definitely accepted the offers of Mlaryland and TVirginia. On the {3d of March, 1791, Congress amended the orig,inal Act so as to include the city of Alexandria in the district, and the following, proclamation was issued by President Washington, establishing the new district: ” Vhereas, By a proclamation, bearing date the 14thl of January of this present year, and in pursuance of certain Acts of the States of AMarvlaInd and Virrginia, an(T of the Congress of the United States, tllerein mentioned, certain lines of experiment were directed to be ruin ini the neigll)orhood of Georgetown, in Maryland, for the purpose of (letermining the location of a part of the territory of ten miles square, for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States; and a certain )part was directed to be located within the said lines of experiment, oll l})o:l sides of the Potomac, and above the limits of the Eastern Brauch, prescribed by the said Act of Congress; 5,57

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “And Congress, by an amendatory Act, passed on the 3d day of this present month of March, have given further authority to the President of the United States to make any part of the said territory, below the said limit, and above the mouth of Hunting Creek, a part of the said District, so as to include a convenient part of the Eastern Branch of the lands lying on the lower side thereof, and also the town ()of Alexandria; “Now, therefore, for the purpose of amending and completing the location of the whole of the said territory of ten miles square, in conformnity with the said amendatory Act of Congress, I do hereby declare and make known that the whole of the said territory shall be located and included within the four lines fo)llowing, that is to say: “Beginning at Jones’ Point, being the upper cape of Hlunting Creelk, in Virginia, and at an angle in the outset of 45~ wiest ot’ north, and running in a direct line ten miles, for the first line; then beginning again at the same Jones’ Point, and running another direct line at a right angle with the first, across the Potomac, ten nmiles, for the second line; then, from the terminations of the said first and second lines, running two other direct lines, of ten miles each, the one crossing the Eastern Branch aforesaid, and the other the Potomac, and meeting each other in a point. “And I do accordingly direct the Commissioners named under the authority of the said first-mentioned Act of Congress to proceed fortlhwith to have the said four lines run, and by proper metes and bounds d(efined and limited, and thereof to make due report under their hands and seals; and the territory so to be located, defined, and limited, shall be the whole territory accepted by the said Act of Congress as the District for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States. “In testimony whereof, I have caused the seal of the United States -to be affixed to these presents, anid signed the samne with mny hand. Done at Georgetown aforesaid, the 30Oth day of March, in the year of our Lord, 1791, and of the Iindependence of the United States, the fifteenth. GEORGE

WASHINGTON.” The District was laid out by three Conmmissioners, appointed by the President, in accordance with the Act of Congress, in January, 1791. These Commissioners were Thomas Johnson, David Stuart, and Daniel Carroll. On the 15th of April, in the same year, they superintended the laying of the cornerstone of the District, at Jones’ 558

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Point, near Alexandria. This act was performed with the ceremonies prescribed by the Masonic ritual. The District was named Columbia, in honor of the great discoverer of the continent. Having thus acquired a Federal District, and having definitely located its boundaries, the next step was to lay off the new city whicih was to he the capital of the nation. This task was confided to Major L’Enfant, a distinguished engineer, who was informed by the Conmmissioners that the new city would bear the name of ” Washington.” In February, 1871, the Government of the District was reorganized, as has been already described. The cities of the District are Washington and Georgetown. WASHING’RON CITY, The capital of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac River, between that stream and a tributary called the East Branch, a few miles belowv the head of tide water. It is 295 miles from the ocean, 226 miles southwest of New York, 432 miles south west of Boston, 544 miles northeast of’ Charleston, 1203 miles north east of New Orleans, 497 miles east of Cincinnati, 763 miles southeast of Chicago, 1200 miles northeast of St.

Louis, and 2000 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco. The Capitol, which is nearly the centre of the city, is located in 38~ 52’ 20”

AN. latitude, and 77~ 0’ 15” W. longitude from Greenwich. The city has connections by railroad and steamboat with all parts of the continent, and telegraphic lines extend from it all over the world. The Potomac is navigable for ships of the largest size as far as Greenleaf’s Point, the site of the Arsenal and Penitentiary. The British fleet anchored here in 1814, and the frigate Minnesota was launched at the Navy Yard some years ago, and carried down the stream after being equipped. The situation of the city is advantageous in many respects. Its front is washed by the Potomac, on the east is the East Branch, and on the left a stream called Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown. “The general altitude of the city plot is 40 feet above the river, but this is diversified by irregular elevations, which serve to give variety and commanding sites for public buildings. The plot is slightly amphitheatrical, the President’s Hlouse, on the west, standing on one of the sides, and the Capitol on the other, while the space between verges towards a point near the river. The President’s Hiouse and the Capitol stand centrally with regard to the whole, though situated at the distance of a mile and a half from each other. the former 44 fees*. 559

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. above the Potomac, and the latter 72 feet.

Tile summnit of the hill on which the Capitol stands is the commencement of a plain stretching east, while that to the north of the President’s House tends westward.” Washington is laid off in a peculiar manner.

According to the original plan, the Capitol was designed to be the centre of the city, and the starting point of the whole system of streets. This plan has been adhered to in the main, though it has been altered in some respects. The streets running east and west are designated by letters.

They are divided into two classes or sets-those north of the Capitol, and those south of it. Thus, the first street north of the Capitol is A Street North, and the first street south of it, A Street South; the next is B

Street, North or South, and so on. The streets running north and south are numbered. Thus, the street immediately east of the Capitol is First Street East, and that immediately west of it, First Street West, and so on. These distinctions of North, South, East, and West are most important, as forgetfulness of them is apt to lead to very great blunders. The streets are laid off at regular distances from each other, but for convenience, other thoroughfares, not laid down in the original plan, have been cut through some of the blocks. These are called “Half streets,” as they occur between and are parallel with the numbered streets. Thus, Four-and-a-half Street is between Fourth and Fifth streets, and runs parallel with them.

The avenues run diagonally across the city, cutting the streets at right-angles. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware avenues intersect at the Capitol, and Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, and Connecticut avenues intersect at the President’s house. Pennsylvania Avenue is the main thoroughfare. It is 160 feet wide, and runs the entire length of the city, from the Eastern Branch to Rock Creek,-which latter stream separates Washington from Georgetown. It was originally a swampy thicket. The bushes were cut away to the desired width soon after the city was laid off, but few persons cared to settle in the swamp. Through the exertions of President Jefferson, it was planted with four rows of fine Lombardy poplars,-one on each side and two in the middle,-with the hope of making it equal to the famous U)ter den Linden, in Berlin. The poplars did not grow as well as was hoped, however, and, when the avenue was graded and paved by order of Congress, in 1832 and 1833, were removed. The street is now well paved and lighted. It is handsomely built up, and contains some buildings which would do credit to any city. The 560

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. view from either the Capitol or the President’s House along the ave nue is very fine. There are 1170 blocks or squares, bounded by 22 avenues ranging fromn 130 to 160 feet in width, named, as far as they go, after the different States; and 100 streets, from 70 to 100 feet wide. The cir cumference of the city is 14 miles. There are 199
miles of streets, and 65 miles of avenues. The paving and grading of the streets has been done almost entirely by the citv. The Government claims every privilege accorded to it by the original design, but steadily refuses to carry out the part assigned it by that sanme plan. Were it not for the Public Buildings which it contains, Washington would be a most uninteresting city; but these have made it one of the principal attractions of the country. With the single exception of the City Hall and the Smithsonian Institute, these buildings are owned and used by the Federal Government of the United States. The Capitot is the grandest and most majestic edifice in the New AVorld, and one of the finest on the globe. It stands on the western brow of a commanding hill, and overlooks the city and the surrounding country. Tile site was chosen by Washington, who was greatly impressed with its advantages. The cornerstone of the original building was laid by Washlington, on the 18th of September, 1793.

This edifice was finished in 1811, and was burned by the British army, in 1814. Its reconstruction was begun immediately after the close of the war, and the l)uilding was completed according to the original design in 1825.

In 1851, workl was begun on the Capitol for the purpose of enlarging and beautifying, it. The principal additions consist of a massive dome over the central building, and a wing at the northern and southern extremities of the old structure. The building is not quite finished at present, but will require only a few years to complete it. The extension consists of two wings, each of which has a front of [42 feet 8 inches, and a depth of 238 feet 10 inches, not including the porticoes and steps. The porticoes front the east, and have each 22 monolithic fluted columnns. They “extend the entire width of the front, having central projections of 10 feet 4
inches, forming double porticoes in the centre, the width of the gable.

There is also a portico of 10 columns on the west end of each wing, 105
feet 8 inches wide, projecting 10 feet 6 inches, and like porticoes on the north side of the north wing and south side of the south wing, with a width of 121 feet 4 inches..The centre building is 352 feet 4 inches long and 121 feet 6 inches deep, with a portico 160 feet wide, Of 24 columns, 561

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. with a double fagcad(le on the east, and a projectionl of 83 feet on the west, embracing a recessed portico of 10
coupled columns. The en tire length of the Capitol is 751 feet 4 inches, and the greatest depthi, including porticoes and steps, is 324 feet. The ground actually cov ered by the building, exclusive of the courtyards, is 153,112 square feet, or 652 feet over 31 acres. ” The material of which the extension is built, is a white marble slightly variegated with blue, and was pro cured from a quarry in Lee, Massachusetts. The columns are all of white marble obtained from Maryland. The principal story of the Capitol rests upon a rustic basement, which supports an ordonnance of pilasters rising to the height of the two stories above. Upon these pilasters rests the entablature and beautiful frieze, and the whole is surmounted by a marble balustrade. The main entrances are by the three eastern porticoes, being made easy of access by broad flights of stone steps with massive cheek-blocks, and vaulted carriage-ways be neath to the basement entrances.” The building faces the east, and the rear is in the direction of the principal part of the cite. This location was made under the impres sion that the neighborhood of the Capitol would be first settled in the growth of the new city; but the designs of the projectors not having l)been realized, the building now faces the wrong way. Standing in front of the edifice, and at a distance sufficient to take in the whole view, the effect is indescribably grand. The pure white marble glitters and shines in the sunlight, and the huge structure towers above one like one of the famed palaces of old romance. The b)road flights of steps of the wings and central buildings have an air of elegance and lightness which is surprising when their massive character is considered. The pedirnenlts of the porticoes will contain magnificent groups of sculpture. The central pediment is decorated with a group sculptured in alto-relievo. The Genius of America, crowned with a star, holds in her right hand a shield bearing the letters U. S. A., surrounded with a glory. The shield rests on an altar inscribed with the date, “July 4, 1776,” encircled with a laurel wreath. A spear is behind her within reach, and the eagle crouches at her feet. She is gazing at Hope, who stands on her left, and is directing her attention t,) Justice, on her right, who holds in her right hand a scroll inscribed, ” Constitution of the United States,” and in her left the scales. The group is said to have been designed by John Quincy Adams, and was executed by Signor Persico. The northern pediment contains Crawford’s famous group, representing the progress of civilization in the United States..America stands in the centre of the tympanum, in 562

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. tile full light of the rising sun. On her righlt hand are War, Com ilerce, Youth and Education, and Agriculture; on her left the pio rieer backwoodsman, the liunter, the Indian and his squaw with an iifant in her arms, sitting by a filled grave. The southern pediment lias not yet been filled. It is said that the design adopted for it is by AVilliamn R. Barbee, and represents the discovery of the country by Columbus. The cheek-blocks of the steps to the central portico are ornamented by two fine groups of statuary. The group on the right of the steps represents the discovery of America, and is by Persico. Columbus, landing in the Nerw AWorld, holds aloft in his right hand(l a globe, symbolic of his discovery. lie is clad in armor, which is said to be a faithful copy of a suit woorn by him. An Indian maiden crouches beneath his uplifted arm, her faice expressive of the surprise and(I terror of her race at thIe appearance of the whites. The group oii the left is called “

Civilization,” and is by Greenough. A terror stricken mother, clasping her babe to her breast, crouches at the feet of a stalwart Indian warrior, whose arms, raised in the act of striking her with his tomahawk, are seized and pinioned by the husband and father, who returns at the fortunate moment, accompanied by his faithful dog, which stands by ready to spring to the aid of his master. The entire cost of the Capitol and its improvements, when completed, wvill be over $12,000,000. The interior of the Capitol is in keeping with the exterior. The lRotunda, which is the central portion of the old building, is surniounLted by a grand dome, the ceiling of which is beautifully frescoed with allegorical designs. The walls are adorned with paintings and statuary, illustrating the history of the country. The effect of the whole is very beautiful. On the east side of the central building, opposite the main entrance, is the Library of Congress, a magnificent hall, filled with a collection of nearly 200,000
volumes. The copyright laws require a copy of each and every copyrighted book published in the United States to be deposited in this library. The library is free to the public for use within the hall, but only Members of Congress and certain other persons are privileged to take the books from the hall. On the north side of the Rotunda is the portion of the building used by thie Supreme Court of the United States, its officers, and its library, numbering between 25,000 and 30,000 volumes. A handsome corridor leads from this portion to the new North Wing, used by the Senate of the United States and its Committees. The base 563

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. mnienit of this wing is exquisitely frescoed with illustrations bt)elonging to the natural history of Northl At-neri(c, the (ldesiigis )ein piinted from life. The C(oiomnittee rooms in tllis wvillg Ire iln(lsoame apartmenits, elegantly fitte(l pl). The coIriri,(ois are beautiflil, aldi are mostly of marble, withl-floors of encaustic tiles. Two handsome marble stairways lea(d firom the basernent to the secolnd(l, or main floor. They are situated in the soutliecastein and soutlhwevstern ends of the wing: They are continuled, on at rni(h more magnificent scale, from the second floor to tile gallerie(,s nti(l rooms of the tlird( floor. This portion of tlhe two wvilig,s is onl a level with the floor of the Rotunda, and contains the principal apartments of the (ail)tol. The nmain entrances are )vy the magnificent North and South Plorticoes, which are now ornaamente(l with the stp(rb broInze (loors designed for them. Th-e doors of the Senate portico illstrate the events of the life of Washing ton. The retiring rooms of the Senate, and( thle rooms use(l by the President a,i(d VicePresident of the VUnited States are gorgeous apartments. The 1’resi(lent’s room is aldornel wvith friesco portraits of \Washington’s first (_’ainet. Iyiig, between the President’s an(d Vie-PIresi(ldent’s roolas is a sutite of su,iptuous apartments-the most i,an(meifi(ent in the l)uildiniig-knowni as the Marble Room. The total len(gti of the three rooms is about 85 feet, the width 21-1 feet, andl the heiglht 19feet. The floor is ian exquisite piece of mosaic in marbt)le, tnlfl( the ceiling is in panels of slightly colored Italian niarble, nnl(l rests l)onl-i a series of magnificent white Italian nmarble pillars with elaborate ea)pitals. The walls are adiorned withi large and suplerb) mirrors, and are veneere(l vitlh the finest specimens of Tennessee marble in the cll ntry. The windows are richlly curtained, the furniture is exquisite, an(l tile aI)-artmlenit is lighlted( by a large brass chandelier. lThe suite is isied by the Senators as a retiring and private reception rooni. IT )riin(ipal apartment in this wing is the Senate Chamber, a mitgnificent ]all, 112 feet in length, 82 feet wide, and 30 feet higlh.‘lie ceiling is constructed entirely, of east iron, deeply panelled, witlh stained glass sKylirl.ts, l and ornamented with foliage,.Cnl(ldants,:(1 (1 dops, of the rictiest and mIost elaborate description. The walls (1,n ceiling are painted with strong, brilliant colors, an(d all the iroii work is b)ronzed and gilde(l. A cushioned gallery exten(lds entirely around the hall. That portion immediately over the chair of the VicePresident of.thle United States is assigned to the reporters of the press, an(l a seetion enclosed by handssome iron railings, and irinedtiately , C) 4

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DISTRICT OF COLUM1BIA.6 ficillg the Chair, is for the use of the members of the D)iplomatic (‘orp)s. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for ladies and 4,*ntlemenl. A fine view of the hall can be obtained from any part of it. The space under the gallery is enclosed, and used as cloak-rooms, etc. The gallery will seat one thousand persons.

Immiediately opposite the main door of the Chamber is the chair of the VicePresi(lent of the Unite(l States, who presides over the Senate. It is placed on a platform of pure lwhite marble, and behind a desk ,tf the same material. Just below this is a similar but larger deslk, used by the Secretary of tlhe Senate and his assistants, and at the foot o)f this table are the chairs of the short-l-hand reporters of the (lebates. The floor rises in the form of an amrnphitheatre fromni the space in fiont of the Seeretary’s desk to the rear. Along, these rows of steps, the registers are built in the floor, and keep the temperature of the Chamber at a fixed heat. The desks of the Senators are of oak, of a handsome and convenient pattern, and are arrange(l in three semi(ircular rows facing the Chair. A comfortable armchair is provided f(r eachli desk; and sofais and( chairs for the convenience of Senators an(l those entitled to the privileges of the floor, are arranged around the sides of the hall. The choice of seats is determined by drawing ],)tt. DtLuring the day the glass ceiling allows a soft and pleasant light to l)ass into the chamber, and at night the gas jets, which are arranged al)ove the skylights, shed through the beautifill hall a radiance vlwhich (aan scarcely be distinguished from the light of the sun. In the South Wing of the old building, and opening upon the Rotunda, is the old( Hall of the House of Representatives, ()ne of the most beautifiul apartments in the Capitol. In accordance with the popular wish this hall is preserved in its original state, and is now used as a gallery of Statuary. A fine corridor, ornamented with a pair of bronze doors, leads to the new South Wing, now used by the House of Representatives and its officers. These doors are the work of Ran(lolph Rogers, an American artist, and are said to be the finest works of their kind in the world. They illustrate the principal scenes in the life of Columbus. The basement of the South Wing contains the Committee rooms of the House of Representatives. These are equal in magnificence to those of the Senate. The corridors are not as handsome as those of the Northl Wing, but are still very beautifiul. The first floor is reached by an elegant stairway of marble at each end of the wing. 35 565

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. These stairways are continued to the second floor on a more magnificent scale, and are ornamented with fine paintings by Leutze and otlher artists. The corridors contain several statues of the great men of Amcerica. The Speaker’s Room, used by the presiding officer of the I-ouse of Rep)resentatives, is a beautiftll apartment, and is ornamented with portraits of nearly every Speaker since the organization of the Government. Thle Hall of the House of Representatives occupies the central portion of the wing. It is 139 feet long, 93 feet wide, and 36
feet high. It is of sufficient size to afford comfortable accommodations for the increased number of members a century hence. It has an area of 12,927 square feet. The galleries extend entirely around it, and will seat 1200 persons. The seats are cushioned, and present a handsome appearance.

That portion opposite the Speaker’s chair is ornamented with a magnificent bronze clock. Immiediately over the Speaker’s chair is the Reporters’

Gallery, which is for the exclusive use of the Press. It is furnished with handsome private deslks, one of which is ass,igned to the accreditaJ
reporter for some particular journal for the entire session. Some 25 or 30
of the leading newspapers of the land are represented here. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for the members of the Diplomatic Corps, for ladies, and for gentlemen unaccompanied by ladies. These are separated from each othler by iron railiings. The ceiling is of cast iron, and is similar to that of the Senate Chamber, but handsomer. In the centre is a large skylight containing a number of panels ornamented with the coats of arms of the various States and Territories of the Union. The hall is lighted by means of this skylight. “An arrangement of movable metallic plates, on the principle of Venetian blinds, is placed under the sunny side of the respective roofs of the House and Senate, so that the same amount of light may be admitted all the time.” The arrangemnent of the gas lights is similar to that of the Senate Chamber. Fifteen hundred burners are placed over the glass of the ceiling, at a distance of an inch apart.

Over each one of these passes an incombutstible wire. The gas is turned on, an electric current flashes along the wire, and in an instant the hall is filled with a soft, pleasing light, which resembles that of the sun.

Opposite the principal door, are three desks of pure white marble, ranged one above the other. The highest is occupied by the Speaker of the house, the next by the Clerk of the House and his assistants, and the lowest by the official reporters of the debates. The registers for warming the hall are built 56.6

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DISTRICT OF COLULMBIA. in the sides of the different steps into which the floor is divided, and openings in the wall permit the heated air to pass off. The engines which work the heating and ventilating apparatus are situated in the basement, and are of such power that the air of tile entire hall is re newed every five minutes. The ceiling is magnificently painted, and the walls below the galleries are laid off in large panels, which are to be ornamented with paintings in fresco illustrative of the principal events in the history of the country. One of these panels has already been filled with a magnificent fresco, by Brumidi, illustrating an event which occurred at the Siege of Yorktown. On the right and left of the Speaker’s chair are full-length portraits of WaslJinigton and Lafayette. The portrait of Washington was painted by Vanderlyn, by order of Congress, and that of Lafayette was presented to Congress by the great Frenchman himself, on the occasion of his visit to the United States, in 1825. Both pictures were among the ornaments of the old Hall of Representatives. The floor rises from south to north, like an amphitheatre. The seats and desks of the members (which are similar to those of the Senators) are arranged along this amiphi theatre, in successive circles, facing the Speaker. There are at present 236 of these deskls and seats in use. The desks and chairs are all of a handsome pattern, and make a very showy appearance. Seats are chosen by lot at the beginning of every session. The desk of tile Sergeant-at-Armns is on the Speaker’s right, that of the Door-keeper on his left. The space under the galleries is enclosed and occupied by two cloak rooms for \Members, a Barber Shop for Members, a Folding Room, and Document Room. The Capitol grounds cover an area of several acres, and are handsomnely ornamented witli statuary, fountains, shrubbery, etc. The dome of the Capitol is surmounted by Crawford’s statue of Freedom, a magnificent work of bronze.

It is placed at an altitude of 300 feet from the ground. From the gallery below the base of the statue magnificent views of the city, the Potomac, and the surrounding country may be had. The Executive Jlansion, or, as it is more commonly called, the TWhite I-ottse, is the official residence of the President of the United States. It is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, near the western end of the city, and is surrounded by the Treasury, State, War, and Navy Departments. The grounds in front are handsomely ornamented, and in the rear a fine park stretches away to the river. The location is attractive, and commands a magnificent view of the Potomac, but it e567

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. UNITED STATES TREASURY. is not heaIthy.

Ague and fever prevail in the spring and fall, an(l render it anythinLg but a desirable place of residence. The building is constructed of freestone, painted whiite-hence its most common name, tlhe “; White Ilouse.” It was designed by James Iloban, and( was modelled after the palace of the Duke of Leinster. The cornerstone was laid on the 13thl of October, 1792, and the house was ready for occupancy in the summer of 1800. It was partially destroyed by the British in 1814. It has a front of 170 feet, and a depth of 86 feet. It contains two lofty stories of rooms, an(l the roof is surrounded wiith a handsome balustrade. The exterior walls are ornamented with fine Ionic pilasters. On the northl firont is a llandsome portico, with four Ionic columns in front, and a projecting screen with three columns. The space between these two rows of pillars is a covered carriage way. The main entrance to the lhotise is froma this portico through a massive dloorway, which opens into the main hall. The garden front has a rusticated baserment, which gives a third story to the house on this s;ide, and by-a semicircular projecting colonnade of six coltumns, withl two flighlts of steps leading frot the ground to the level of the prin 568

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DISTRICT OF COLIUMBIA. cipal story. The interior is handsome, but simple, and contains the state apartments, or rooms used for public receptions, the Executive offices, and the private residence of the President and his family. The United States Treasutry is located on Pennsylvania avenue, at the corner of Fifteenthl street west, fronting G street. The old building was coimmenced in 1836, and was constructed of inferior brown sandstone, painted in imitation of granite. In 1855, the extension was begun. It is now nearly completed. This extension has more than doubled the size of the original edifice, and has made the whole building one of the handsomest and most imposing in the country. The old building extended along Fifteenth street, and was ornamented with an unbroken Ionic colonnade, 342
feet long, which, though showy, was inconvenient, as it excluded the light from the rooms. The plan of the extension flanks the old building at each end with massive granite masonry, and makes beautiful terminations of the north and south fronts, which serve to relieve the dreary monotony of the long colonnade, besides providing a large new building at each end. “There are two inner quadrangles formed by the old rear building, extending back from the eastern entrance. These courts are eachl 130 feet square. The Nwalls of the extension are composed of pilasters, resting on a base whilch rises some 12 feet above the ground on the southern or lower side.

Between the pilasters or ante are belt courses, beautifully nmoulded, and the facings of the doors and windows are fine bold mouldings in keeping.

In the centre of the southlern, western, and northern fronts are magnificent porticoes. The west front has also the projecting pediments at the ends, corresponding with those on the east side, and each supported by square antie at the angles, with two columns between. The whole building is of the Grecian or Ionic order, and is surmounted by a massive balustrade. The new structure is of the best and most beautiful granite in the world, brought from Dix Island, on the coast of Maine. The antae and columns are monolithls. The large, solid antie waeigh nearly 100,000
pounds, and the columnns some 75,000. The facility with which the immense masses are hewn out of the qluarries, swung on board vessels, brought to the capital, and raised to the positions which the architect in his studio designed them to occupy, conveys a high idea of American art and enterprise. The Treasury Building, as extended, is 465 feet long, exclusive of the porticoes, by 266 feet wide.” The courts are ornalmented with handsome fountains. A very beautiful one adorns the space in front of the western portico, at the ens 569

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. trance to the President’s Park, and another is now being constructed before the north front. The entrances are through massive gateways. The yard on the north and west sides is lower than the street, and broad flights of steps lead to it. A handsome granite balustrade extends along the north wall. The interior arrangements are unusually fine. The architecture ranks next to that of the Capitol in its mnagnificence, and is peculiarly American in its details. Unlike most of the public buildings, the offices are large, airy, and handsome, presenting the appearance of splendid saloons, and affording a greater degree of comfort to the occupants than the narrow, cell-like apartments of the old Treasury. The Departneltt of State will soon be located in the Treasury Extension, where elegant and convenient apartments are being prepared for it. The Patent Office, or, as it is sometimes called, the Departmnent of the Interior’, is used by the Secretary of the Interior and his clerks, but was designed originally for the use of the Bureau of Patents. This bureau is entrusted withl the duty of granting letters patent securing a profitable reward to any person inventing articles beneficial to civilization. The building, known as the Patent Office, occupies two whole squares, and fronts south on F street, north on G
street, east on 7thi street west, and west on 9th street west. The length of the building, from 7th to 9th streets, is 410 feet, and the width, firom F to G streets, is 275 feet. It is built up along the four sides, with a large interior quadrangle about 265 by 135 feet in size. It is constructed in the plainest Doric style, of massive crystallized marble, and though devoid of exterior ornament, is one of the most magnificent buildings in the city. It is grand in its simplicity, and its architectural details are pure and tasteful. It is ornamented with massive porticoes, one on each front, which add much to its appearance. The eastern portico is much admired. That an the south front is an exact copy of the portico of the Pantheon of Rome. The interior is divided into three stories. The ground and second floors are arranged in offices for the accommodation of the business of the Interior Department, but the third floor is occupied by an itmmense saloon extending entirely around the quadrangle. This is used as the Model Room, but partakes, as far as the south hall is concerned, of the character of a museum. The models and other articles are arranged in glass cases on each side of the room, ample space being left in the centre for promenading. There are two rows of cases, one above the other-the upper row be 570

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 571 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. iig placed in a handsome light gallery of iron, reached by tasteful iron stairways, and extending entirely around the east, north, and wvest halls. The halls themselves are paved with handsome tiles. The ceiling is supported by a double row of imnposing pillars, which also act as supports to the galleries, and both the walls and ceilings are finished in marble panels and frescoes. A more beautiful saloon is not to be found ia America.

Connected with the Patent Office is a valuable library, and the most interesting museum of American antiquities, etc., in the country. The General Post Office is used by the Postmaster-General of the United States, and his assistants. It covers an entire block, almost directly opposite the Patent Office, and is bounded by E and F streets north, and 7th and 8th streets west. It is 300 feet long, from north to south, and 204 feet wide, from east to west. It is built of whito marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture, and is the best representation of the Italian palatial ever erected upon this continent. It is rectangular in form, with a spacious interior courtyard, 95 by 194 feet in size. On the 7th street side there is a vestibule, which consti

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tutes the grand entrance into the building.

The ceiling is composed of exquisitely ornamented marble panels, supported by four marble coluLmns; and the wvalls, niches, and floor, are of marble, the floor being richly tesselated. On 8th street there is an entrance for mail wa,gons, handsomely ornamented. The City post-office is in the F
street side of the building, and is tastefully arranged. Tle 1Tta Depairtn,ent is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, west of tlhe President’s House. It is a plain, oldfashioned edifice of b)rick, painted in lead color. It contains the offices of the Secretary of War and his assistants.

The ATStvy Depotitmeitt is situated immediately in the rear of the War Department, and fronts on 17th street west. It is a plain building of l)rick, and contains the offices of the Secretary of the Navy and his clerks. It is proposed to erect new and handsome edifices for tile War and Na.vy departments. Tlhe Bitieatt of Agiicultture stands upon a portion of the Smithsonian Reservation. Tlhe grounds about it comprise about 20
acres, and llave been laid out with much taste.. The building is of pressed brick, four stories higih, and(l is surmounted with a French roof.

It contains the offices of the Comnmissioner of Agriculture and his assistants, vlwhose business it is to overlook and )premote the agricultural interests of the country, and to receive and plu)lish statistics conlcernlilg thel. This is one of the most, interesting departments of the Governmnent. The -lcti.y Yacid, situated on the Eastern Branch, at the foot of 8th street east, covers an area of 20 acres, enclosed by a high brick wnall. It is one of the princi)pal establishments of the Government, and contains several ship lhouses, and machine shops for the manufacture of everything needed for the building, equippiing, and fitting-out of shiii)s of war. Tlhe ArseHcal stands at the extreme southern end of the city, oln Green’lcaf’s Point, at the mouth of tlhe Eastern Brancll of the Potonmac. It is quite an extensive establlis-hment, and is one of the iFrin ipal Arsenals of Construction inl tlhe country. It is interesting as hlaving been the scene of the trial and( executiol of tlhe persons concerned il the assassination of President Lincoln. The iUVatio?ta ObservCtoi’y is situated upon an elevated site, southlwest of the President’s mansion, near the Georgetown line, and conlma(nds a fine view of b)oth cities and of the Potomnac River as far down as Fort 1ashligton and MAiount Vernon. It is under the control of the jNavy Department, and is in cllarge of a corps of naval officers selected 572

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. for their ssLet-ific abilities. It ranks high amongst the Observatories of the world, that of Russia only being superior to it. It is in clarge of all the nautical books, maps, charts, and instruments belonging to the Navy. The Snmithsotian ]lnstitutioit stands on a part of the portion of the public grounds extending wvestward fromn the Capitol to the Potomac River, and called “The Yfall.” The grounds extend from 7th street west to 12th street west, and from the Canal (whichl forms the north erm boundary) to B street south. They are very extensive, coIl )rising an area of 52 acres, and were laid out by the distinguished llorticuLlturist and landscape gardener, Andrew Jackson Downing, who died while engaged in this work. A handsome mionument to his memory stands in the grounds. It consists of a massive vase resting on a.pedestal, the whole being executed of the finest Italian miarble. The building stands near the centre of the park. The site is about 20 feet above the average level of Pennsylvania avenue, and the cenltre of the building is exactly opposite 10th street west. The structure is in the style of architecture belonging to the last half of the twelfth century, the latest variety of rounded style, as it is found immediately anterior to its merging into the early Gothic, and is known as the Norman, the Lombard, or Romanaesque. The semticircular arch, stilted, is employed throughout-in doors, windows, and other openings. The main building is 205
feet long by 57 feet wide, and, to the top of the corbel course, 58 feet high. The east vwing is 82 by 52 feet, and, to the top of its l)attlement, 421 fecet highl. The west wing, including its projecting apsis, is 84 by 40 feet, an(l 38 feet high. Each of the wings is connected wvithl the miain building by a range, which, including its cloisters, is 60 feet long b)y 49 feet wide. This makes the length of the entire building, from east to west, 447 feet. Its greatest breadth is 160 feet. The north front of the main building is ornamented with two central towers, the loftiest of which is 150 feet high. It has also a handsome covered carriage-way, upon vlwhich opens the main entrance to the building. The south central to)wer is 37 feet square, 91 feet high, and massively constructed. A double campanile tower, 17 feet square, and 117 feet high, rises froni the northeast corner of the main building; and the southwest corner has a lofty octagonal tower, in which is a spiral stairwa,y, leading to the summit. There are four other smaller towers of lesser heights, making nine in.ll, the effect of which is very beautiful, and which once caused a wit to remark that it seemed to him as if a”collection 5 719i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of church steeples had gotten lost, and were consulting together as to the best means of getting home to their respective churches.” The entire edifice is constructed of a fine quality of lilac-gray freestone, found in the new red-andstone formation, where it crosses the Potomac near the mouth of Seneca Creek. The Institution was founded by James Smithson, an eminent Englishman. He died in 1828, and left the sum of $515,1 69 to the United States for the purpose of founding the Institution wvhich bears his name. The object of Smithson in founding this institution was, in his own words, “to found at Washingiton, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establislhment for the illncrease and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The National VWashington Jfonument stands immediately on the shore of the Potomiac, directly west of the Capitol, and south of the White House. It is unfinished. Its total height is to be 600 feet, of which 184 feet have been completed. No work has been done on it for several years. It is to be finished by the voluntary contributions of the citizens of the Republic. It is to be built of white marble. The City Hall is the property of the City of Washington.

It is a common place structure of white marble. Besides the public building,s, there are a number of fine edifices used for business p)urposes and for residences. The city is improving rapidly in this respect. The trade of Washington is almost entirely local. The City is connected with all parts of the country by railways, and the Potomac is navigable for steamers. Its manufacturing interests are in their infancy.

Thte pritucipal amounit of the wovrk doue is oa (,ex’n account. The principal points of the city are connected by street railways. Pure water is brought into the city from the Potomac above Georgetown. The Aqueduct is one of the finest works in the world. It was constructed by the U. S.

Engineer Corps. The city is lighted with gas. It contains about 60
churches, some of which are very handsome. The Markets are bountiftilly supplied. The Hotels are numerous, but do not compare favorably with those of the other large cities of the country. The Public Schools are, as yet, in their infancy. There are five large “public schools,” as they are called, which correspond to the “high schools” of most other cities, and a number of primary schools. The system is still incomplete, and capable of great expansion and reform. Of late years it has received more attention from the city authorities and the people, and there is now a fair prospect that the system will soon be placed upon a basis which will enable it to meet the wants of all classes of the community. ,574

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VIRGINIA. Area,…………. 38,352 Square Miles. Population in 1860,*…….. 1,596,318 Population in 1870,………1,225,163 THE State of Virginia, the oldest of the original members of the Union, is situated between 36~ 30’ and about 39~ 20’ N. latitude, and between 75~ 10’ and 83~

30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Maryland, West Virginia, and Kentucky, on the east by MAarylanld and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky and West Virginia. TOPOGRAPHY. The following description of the natural features of this State is taken from a pamphlet recently issued by General John D. Imboden, the “Domestic State Agent of Immigration for Virginia.” “

No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface and clinmate than Virginia-from the mountains of the interior and the rugged hills east and west of them, to the rich alluvions of the rivers, and the sandy flats on the sea-coast. The greatest extent of mourntains, and the greatest variety of timbers are found in this State. White Top Mountain, in Grayson county, attains an elevation of six thousand feet. “The State is by nature divided into five districts or regions, viz.: the Lower or Tidewater, the Piedmont, the Valley, the Alleghanies, and the Trans-Alleghanies. We will glance at them in their natural order. * Since the census of 1860, the western counties of the old State have b))een erected into the new State of West Virginia. 575

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576 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “LOWER OR TIDEWATER DISTRICT.-

Thirty-seven counties, mostly bordering on the Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay, compose this district. It is generally level, not more than 60 feet above tide, even in the highest places. Great navigable streams traverse it in a southeastern direction, such as the Potomac, Rappahlannock, York, anid James, with a multitude of smnaller streams. The great slope which forms this district is’divided by natural boundaries into no less than twelve principal peninsulas,’ says General Wise, of Virginia, in a recent address, replete with valuable information,‘the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, that between the Potomac and Rappahannock; between the Rappahannock and Pianlkatank; between the Piankatank and York; the York and James; the Mattapony and Paniunkey; the Chickahominy and the James; the Nansemond and Dismal Swamp and the Ocean; the Nansemnond and(l James and the Blackwater; the Blackwater and the Nottoway; the Nottoway and Meherrin; the Meherrin and the Roanoke.’ “This favored region contains every variety of soil. The delta of these rivers’in the borders of Virginia is richer and rarer in every production than the garden of the 1Nile.’ There is nowhere near it any’arila nttrix leonumn,’ says General Wise,‘and its only quags of swamp, even in the Big Dragon of the Piankatank, and on the Chickahlominy, and around the fire-fly camp of DrumnmoInd Lake, are capable of being converted into a New Holland, by dyke and ditch of easy spit and drain, or horticulture of every fruit and vegetable, where drought cannot parch, and of a temperature milder than that much farther southl. Vegetation is confined to no one class of plants and trees, and flower, and firuit, and cereal, and staple crops of every variety flourish with a beauty and a fiillijess and a flavor to cheer industry and art with luscious plenty at home and a paying profit at the markets of every Eastern city. There is a navigable stream at almost every door. There are eligible sites on every creek and river in this region, not only for all the more common fruits, such as apples, peaches, pears, cherries, berries, plums, and melons, but for the rarer a,-d more delicate fruits-such as grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots, nectarines, Persian canitelopes, strawberries, and cranberries.

According, to Prince, there are no sites on the continent so Italy-like for fruits, as some of these peninsulas of lowland Virginia. “The crops of grain and vegetables are still more various, and the lands the eas!est tille(l in the world, with mines of marl and shlell, and fossils and muck for manure in every part. It is a great mistake

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VIRGINIA. to suppose that this section is not equally good for stockraising of its kind, and for clothing as well as for food. It hlas the finest ranges in its savannas and salt marshes, for small cattle of the Devon breed, and the best for lhogs and sheep-and the hardiest blooded horses. The pony of the Chincoteague Island will sell for a higher price than any horse in America proportioned to his girthl; and the best racers of the two last centuries were foaled firom the blood the south side of the James. Flax and hemlp may be grown to any extent, and cotton has been grown profitably. Its forests fiurniishl the clhoicest ship-timber fronti its salt sea atrnosphlere in thirty miles of the coast. Its Hanmpton Roads is the largest harbor of the continent, to which the eastern rivers converge from every point of the compass for commerce. And, everylwhere, on land and water, nature has provided a meat-house of fisheries and game, venison, wild turkeys, quails and woodcock, rabbits, squirrels, robins, sora, reed-b)irds, shellfish, scale-fish, terrapins, turtles, swans, wild geese, brant, wild ducks, and plover innumerable, and indestructible. “The salubrity’ of its climate,’ says General Wise,’ will compare with that of any region since drainage and liming of the lands began to remove the causes of malarial fevers chiefly at the point wATlere the tides of salt water meet the currents of the fresh water at the rivers.’ “Tlhe entire region is favorable to the growth of the finer kinds of tobacco, offering great inducements for the settlement of growers from the various portions of European tobacco regions. There is no reason why the finest Cuban tob)accoes should not grow here, and with the now s)pr,ading cultivation of the Latakia tobacco plant, brought by Bayard Taylor from Palestine, and successfully introduced already by him in Pennsylvania, a great future is open for this staple in Virginia. Mr. Taylor thinks this variety incomparably better than the fiaest Yara or Cuba ever grown, and states that it does not deteriorate by being transplanted, but retains perfectly all its delicious characteristics. “Market gardeners near Norfolk cultivate early vegetables for the markets of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, having their produce ripening frown three to four weeks earlier than in those more northern latitudes. They have been known, on from five to ten acres in cultivation, to make per annum from $2500 to $5000 clear profit. By the Anamessic line of railroad, which now in tlirteeii hours’

travel connects the city of Norfolk with the metropolis of New York, market gardeners and farmers on the lower Chesapeake Bay, especially those who live in Accomac and Northampton counties, may directly, and 577

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. those of Princess Anne, Norfolk, York, Gloucester, Mathews, Mid dlesex, Lancaster, and Northumberland may, by mneans of their own little schooners, in one niglt’s travel across the bay, offer their produce for sale within twentyfour hours, in the best market on the American continent. The fisheries on these coasts are world-renowned. On the whole line of the counties above mentioned, fish manuLre can be abundantly obtained for the labor of carrying it away.

Wheat and other cereals flourish. During the war in this section, the inhabitants felt no apprehension on the score of living; they could find fish and oysters, and wild ducks, everywhere, and in plenty. In Nansemond county, in the celebrated Dismal Swamnp, peat has been discovered. It is now being cut, moulded and shipped to the northern cities, and found to be extremely profitable. “By allowing 100 inhabitants to the square mile, and giving 60 acres as a homestead to each family, the lowlands of Virginia can maintain a population of 1,600,000 souls. “PIEDMONT DISTRICT.-At the foot of the mountains, stretching away to where the navigation of the rivers which traverse the lowlands ceases, a region embracing 32 counties, lies, more diversified in surface than the lowlands-and, of course, more elevated, with a genial, healthfill climate. Here are found the greatest inducements for the erection of manufacturing establishments,-natural waterpower being everywhere abundantly at command. This land is the Piedmont of Virginia-like the vinous land of Italy, though not so naked.

As General Wise says:‘For hill and dale, and grove and meadow, for lawns and orchards, and mountain spires and undulating surface of waving wheat-fields and green swards, and buoyant springs and sparkling fountains, and bracing air-it surpasses all classic lands of Arcadia.’ It is divided by the James into North and South Piedmont, from the Point of Rocks to Lynchburg, and from Lynchburg to the Nortlh Carolina line. The difference in these two divisions of the Piedmont is attributable more to the difference in the past habits of cultivating tlhe two than to any great variation of soil or climate. Though one is farther north, yet the climate of each is much the same as that of the other, both being affected by a mountain atmosphlere. The northern has the stiffest clay, and cultivates wheat and corn and artificial grasses, and raises live stock; the southern cultivates mostly tobacco and corn, though wheat also largely, and grazes but little. Both are beautiful and fertile and fit for farming-capable of the highest culture; are cool and bracing in temperature and blessed with health. 5)78

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VIRGINIA. “This district has an area of 10,000 square miles, and is capable of miairtaining a population of 1,000,000 souls. It is not generally a lime land, but portions of it are very rich, viz.: Loudoun, Fauquier, Albemarle, and Bedford counties. The tobacco whichl is raised iii the southern section of Piedmont, south of 38~, is known as shipping tobacco. The flie tobacco counties in this section are Albemarle, Henry, Pittsylvania, Halifax, Campbell, etc. “Before we reach the third principal region of Virginia we must cross the Blue Ridge, where we find still some of the most beautiful forests of America, and an atmosphere of surpassing salubrity. The productions of this magnificent mountain-belt are similar to those regions on its sides. Waving wlheat-fields and pastures and charming valleys, with grazing cattle and hardy husbandry, may everywhere be met. Vineyards are everywhere springing up, and its honey finds now, and its wines will soon find, a market in the world. “To the sturdy emigrant this ridge offers still thousands of acres of virgin lands, and nowhere in America will he have nature’s assurance of a long life so plainly indicated as here. This ridge alone contains at least 2000 square miles, or 1,280,000 acres-enough to divide into 6400 farms of 200 acres each, and to support a population of 50,000 more than it has now. “VALLEY

DISTRICT.-Crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains we comhe to the celebrated valley of Virginia (Shenandoah and South Branch), not only renowned for the fertility of its soil-8000 square miles in area, and capable of supporting 800,000 people-l)-but for the splendid characteristics of its inhabitants-originally English, German, Scotch and Irish, now intermixed in one brave race. A continuation of the fruitful Cumberland Valley of Pennsylvania, it stretches between the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains the entire length of Virginia, obliquely from northeast to southlwest, nearly 300 miles, and is from 25 to 30 miles wide. Possessing the finest grazing country in the world, and having throughout a limestone foundation, its lands yield from 20 to 40 bushels of wheat, and from 40 to 50 bushels of Indian corn is by no means an extraordinary crop. “To show the remarkable permanancy of its fertility, we cite the following from a traveller in the last century. Burnaby, in his trav(ls, describes the condition of the Germans on the Shenandoah as follows:‘I could not but reflect with pleasure on the situation of these people, and think if there is such a thing as happiness in this life they enjoy it. Far from the bustle of the world, they live in thle 51-9

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. is ost delightful climate and richest soil imaginable; they are everywhlere surrounded with beautiful prospects and sylvan scenes, lofty mountains, transparent streams, falls of water, rich valleys, and imajestic woods the whole interspersed with an infinite variety of flowering shrub)s, constitute the landscape surrounding them; they are sub)ject to few diseases; are generally robus.t and live ill perfect lilberty; they are ignorant of want and acquainted with but few vices; their inexperience of the elegancies of life precludes any regret that they possess not the means of enjoying them; but they possess what many p)rinces would give their dominions for health, content, and tranquillity of mind.’ Seventy years later, Bernhard, Duke of SaxeWeitner, says of this valley:‘The country was pretty well cultivated, and by the exterior of many country houses, we were induced to believe their inhabitants enjoyed plenty.’ Daniel Webster, twenty years after this, in a public oration in the Shenandoah Vallev, said:‘he had seen no finer farming land in his European travels than in that valley.’ Still twenty years later, and the Northern troops when they entered it victoriously, after its great defender, Stonewall Jackson, had fallen, exclaimed:‘Here is a second Canaan, let us rest lhere and pitch our tents.’ What gives particular interest to this valley and to the Blue Ridge to the European and Northern emigrant is the fact that there have never been many negroes within them-at this day the land is cultivated almost entirely by white laborers. ” THE ALI,EGIIANIES.-Beyond this valley westward rise the Alleghanies. Their range runs northeast and southwest 250 miles, by 50
miles of average width-making of mountains, valleys, and dales, 12,500
square miles. Besides their aspect of rocks, ridges, caves, valleys, slopes, healing springs, streams, and fountains, they present to the eye a most luxuriant indigenous verdure of blue-grass spread over forests and fields, which offer grazing to live stock on nature’s pastures without cost of clearing or cultivation. North of the High (Knob and Haystack there are no negroes. The whole region of these mountains abounds in minerals of every description, whichl wait for capital to develop them.

Wheat, rye, oats, and other grains, and the fruits of northern latitudes grow luxuriantly everywhlere in the valleys, dales, plateaus, and on the slopes of these rugged mountains, and offer a most inviting home to a Swiss, a Scot, a Swede, a Norwegian, etc. There is room enotugh in these mountains for 1,200,000 immigrants of every kind of occupation.” The lower part of the State is divided by the Chesapeake Bay, two I-, 8 11)

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VIRGINIA. NATURAL BRIDGE. counties lying between the Bay and the Ocean.

They are known as the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Below the mouth of the Potomac River, the Chesapeake lies wholly in the State, and receives bie waters of the Rappahannock, Pianklatank, York, and James rivers. The famtuous oyster fishing grounds of the Chesapeake are within this part of the States and from them millions of bushels of oysters are gathered every year, and shipped to Baltimnore and the northern cities. The Potomanc River washes the entire northeast l)order of the State. It rises in two branches, in the eastern part of West Virginia. These branches unite in Hampshire county, West Va., from which point the main river pursues a generally southeast course to its mouth. It is 350 miles long, exclusive of its branches. It flows into the Chesapeake Bay through a broad estuary, 50 miles long, and from 6 to 10 miles wide. It is navigable to Washington for firstclass vessels. 36 oj81

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. At Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, it is broken by a magnificent fall, over 50 feet high. The country along its upper waters is beautiful and grand beyond description. At Harper’s Ferry, the river first touches the soil of Old Virginia. Here it breaks through the Blue Ridge, a mountain-pass of the greatest magnificence. It formus the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia and Virginia.

Leesburg and Alexandria are the principal towns of Virginia on the river.

George Washington was born on the shores of the lower Potomac. The Rappahannock River is formed by the j unction of the North and Rapidan rivers in the eastern part of Cuipeper county. Flowing southeast, it empties into the Chesapeake Bay, about twentyfive or thirty miles below the mouth of the Potomac. It meets the tide at Fredericksburg, its principal town. Above this place it possesses almost unlimited waterpower of the best description. It is 125 miles long, and flows through a beautiful and fertile country. Together with the Rapidan, it has been rendered famous by the events which occurred on its shores during the late civil war. The York River is formed by the junction of the Mattapony and Pamnnkey rivers, at the southeast end of King William county. It is about 40 miles long, with an average width of 3 miles, and flows southeasterly into Chesapeake Bay, directly opposite Cape Charles. West Point, at its head, now a mere hamlet, was once the most important place in the colony of Virginia. Yorktown, so famous in the Revolution and the Rebellion, is situated on the right bank of the river, a mile or two from its mouth. The James River, the principal stream ill the State, is formed by the confluence of the Jackson and Cowpasture rivers, on the borders of Alleghany and Bottetourt counties. It flows southeast to the Blue Ridge Mouatains, through which it forces its way, forming one of the grandest river passes in America. From this point its general course is northeast to the southern border of Albemarle county, after which it flows east-southeast to the bay, emptying into that body of water between Capes Charles and Henry. It is broken ill several places by falls, and at Richmond flows over a succession of rapids six nailes long. It is about 450 miles long, exclusive of its branches. It is navigable for ships and steamers to Richmond, 150 nailes from the sea, at the head of tide water.

The James River and Kanawha Canal furnish uninterrupted navigation from Richmond to beyond the Blue Ridge. The James flows through a beautifill and fertile country along its whole length. Above Richmond its waterpower is magnificent. The lower part of the river is 582

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VIRGINIA. known as Hampton Roads, and is defended by the powerful works of Fortress Monroe and Fort Wool. Lynchlburg and Richmond are the principal towns on the river. Norfolk is situated on the Eliza beth River, 14 miles from its entrance into the James, opposite Fort ress Monroe. The Roanoke River of North Carolina, and the Hol  ston of Tennessee, rise in the southeast part of Virginia. The State is crossed by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge ranges, the former separating it from West Virginia. The Cumberland Mountains form the southwestern boundary, and separate Virginia from Kentucky. The region immediately south of Norfolk is occupied by an immense marsh known as the Dismal Swamp, through which a canal has been cut from Norfolk to Elizabeth City, North Carolina, connecting the waters of the Chesapeake with those of Albemarle Sound. “The celebrated swamp called the’Dismal,’ lies partly in Vir ginia and partly in North Carolina; it extends from north to south nearly 30 miles, and averages, from east to west, about 10 miles. Five navigable rivers and some creeks rise in it.

The sources of all these streams are hidden in the swamp, and no traces of them appear above ground. From this it appears that there must be plentiful subterraneous fountains to supply these streams, or the soil must be filled perpetually with the water drained from the higher lands which surround it. The latter hypothesis is most probable, because the soil of the swamp is a complete quagmire, trembling under the feet, and filling immediately the impression of every step with water. It may be penetrated to a great distance by thrusting down a stick, and when ever a fire is kindled upon it, after the layer of leaves and rubbish is burned through, the coals sink down, and are extinguished. The eastern skirts of the Dismal Swamp are overgrown with reeds, ten or twelve feet high, interlaced everywhere with thorny bamboo briers, which render it almost impossible to pass. Among these are found, here and there, a cypress, and white cedar, which last is commonly mistaken for the juniper. Towards the south there is a very large tract covered with reeds, without any trees, which being constantly green, and waving in the wind, is called the green sea. An evergreen shrub, called the gall-bush, grows plentifully throughout, but especially on the borders; it bears a berry which dyes a black color, like the gall of an oak, and hence its name. Near the middle of the swamp, the trees grow much closer, both the cypress and cedar; and being always green, and loaded with large tops, are much exposed to the wind, and 5~3

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584 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. easily blown down in this boggy place, where the soil is too soft to afford sufficient hold to the roots. From these causes the passage is nearly always obstructed by trees, which lie piled in heaps, and riding upon each other; and the snags left in them pointing in every direction, render it very difficult to clamber over them. On the western border of the Disnal Swamp is a pine swamp, above a mile in breadth, the greater part of Lvhich is covered to the depth of the klnee with water the bottom, however, is firm, and though the pines growing upon it are very large and tall, yet they are not easily blown down bly the wvind; so that this swamp may be passed without any llin(leralce, save that occasioned by the depth of the water. With all these disadvantages, the Dismal Swamp, though disagreeable to the other senses, is in many places lpleasant to the eye, on account of the 1)erpletual verdure, which nmakles every season like the spring, and every month like May. Imnmense quantities of sllingles and other junipl)er lumber are obtained fioni the swamp, and furnish employment for many negroes, who reside in little hutts in its recesses. Much of the lumber is brought out of the swamp, either through ditches cult for the purpose, in long narrow ligllters, or are carted out by mnules, on roads mad(le of poles laid across the road so as to touch each other, forming a bridge or causewvay. There are very many miles of such road. Tile laborers carry the shingles, etc., to these roads from the trees, on their heads and shoulders. The Dismal Swamp Canal runs through it from north to south, and the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad passes for five miles across its northern part. - It looks like a grand avenue, surrounded on either hand by magnificent forests. The trees here, the cypress, juniper, oak, pine, etc., are of enormous size, and richest foliage; and below is a thick entangled undergrowth of reeds, woo(dbile, grape-vines, mosses, and creepers, shooting and twisting spirally around, interlaced and complicated, so as almost to shut out the sun. The engineer who had constructed the road through this extraordinary swamp, found it so formidable a labor as almost to despair of success. In running the line, his feet were pierced by the sharp stumps of cut reeds; hie was continually liable to sink ankle or knee deep into a soft muddy ooze; the yellow flies and mosquitoes swarmed in myriads; and the swamp was inhabited by venomous serpents and beasts of prey. The Dismal Swamp was once a favorite hunting-ground of the Indians; arrow-heads, some knives and hatchets. are yet found there; and it still abounds in deer, bears, wild turkeys, wild-cats, etc. The water of this swamp is gene

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VIRGINIA. LITTLE STONY FALLS. rally impregnated with juniper, and is considered medicinal by the people of the surrounding country, who convey it some distance in barrels. This swamp is much more elevated than the surrounding country, and by means of the Dismal Swamp Canal mighlt be drained, and thus a vast body of most fertile soil reclaimed; and the canal might be transformed into a railroad; and the juniper soil, which is vegetable, might, perhaps, be used as peat.” MINERALS. The State of Virginia is especially rich in mineral resources, which are still comparatively undeveloped. Gold is found in Fluvanna, Orange, Spottsylvania, Goochland, and Buckingham counties, and the 585

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. iiiiies in these regions can be made to yield a profitable return. The copper ore found ill Fauquier county is said to yield 75 per cent. of pure copper. Coal and iron exist in great quantities. Immense beds of bituminous coal lie in the neighborhood of Richmond and in the mountain regions, while anthracite is found in quantities in and beyond the Valley. Numerous salt springs exist in the southwestern counties of the State, from which large quantities of salt were annually produced before the late war. The salt works were either destroyed or greatly damaged during the war, so that this branch of the industry of the State has not fulilly recovered its importance. The other minerals are lead(, plumbago, gypsum, porcelain-clay, fine granite, marble, slate, soapstone, lime, water-lime, and fire-clay. The State also abounds in mineral springs of nearly every known variety. They are famous among the fashionable summer resorts of the Union, and are visited every year by persons from all parts of the country. PRODUCTIONS. The cIimate, soil, and products of the State having been already described in the quotation from General Imboden’s pamphlet, it is only necessary to offer here a statement of the principal agricultural products in 1870. The following table is taken from the report of the United States Census for that year: Bushels of Indian corn, ” wheat,.. cc rye,… ” oats,… “
buckwheat, ” potatoes,. Pounds of tobacco,.. Tons of hay,….. ..

17,649,304 .. 7,398,787 .. 582,264 .. 6,857,555 .. 45,075 .. 2,115,735 ..

37,086,364 .. 199,883 COMMERCE. Previous to the war, Virginia was engaged in a large and lucrative trade with the States of the Union, and had a growing foreign com-. mnerce. Her tobacco commanded a high price in the markets of Europe, and her export of flour to South America and the West Itidies amounted to near 200,000 barrels annually. Her oyster trade was extremely valuable. Her trade with Europe, however, was car, ried on mainly through the ports north of her. The statistics for 1860, the year before the war, include the present State of West Virginia, but we Live them, as there have been no accurate returns since 586

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VIRGINIA. the close of the struggle. In 1861, the total exports of the State amounted to $5,858,024, and the imports to $1,326,249. MANUFACTURES.

The figures given below represent the condition of Virginia in 1870, and, of course, do not include the present State of West Virginia. In that year there were 5933 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 26,974 hands, and a capital of $18,455,400, consumed raw material worth $23,832,384, and returned an annual product of $38,364,322. The value of the principal products was as follows: Cotton goods,…… Woollen goods,……. Leather,……… Pig iron……… Rolled iron…….. Steam engines and machinery, Agricultural implements,. Sawed and planed lumber,.. Flour,……….

Salt,………. Manufactured tobacco,…. The manufacturing interests of Virginia were almost fatally injured by the war, and are but slowly recovering from their reverses. The State possesses the mnost abundant waterpower in the world, and is destined to become one day one of the principal seats of American manufactures. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The great rivers of the State are navigable for a large part of their course, and a fine canal, extending from Richmond to Buchanan, in Bottetourt county, beyond the Blue Ridge, connects the mountains with the sea. Railroads extend through the State in various directions, connecting its various cities and towns with the capital, and with all parts of thile Union. Five lines centre in Richmond, four ill Petersburg, two in Norfolk, three in Lynchburg, and three in Alexandria. In 1872, the State contained 1416
miles of completed railroad, constructed at a cost of $49,975,000. The canals of the State have an aggregate length of about 175 miles. 587

$1,435,800 352,829 790,443 619,820 1,994,146 591,182 4039457 2,130,705

12,649,276 1,250 7,0,54,770

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES EDUCATION. A good free school system, including colored schools, has been ~stablished ill Virginia since 1871, and is working well. In 1860, there were 23 colleges in the State, some of which are now in West Virginia. Others were burned. The University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, is the principal school in the State. It was attended by 600 students in 1860. Since the close of the war, it has been reopened, and has regained a large share of its former prosperity. At present the number of studenits is about 500. A student is admitted from each Senatorial district of the State, without charge for matriculation, tuition, or room rent, these expenses being borne by the State. InI return for these advautages, the student enjoying them is required to teach in some school in the State for a period of two years after his graduation.

TVilianm and M2ary Colleye, at Williamsburg, was established in 1693, and liberally endowed by William and Mary of England. It was in successful operation until 1860, and was regarded, next to the University, as the best school in the State. During the war, the buildings and other college property were destroyed by fire. Efforts are now being made to restore the institution to its fornmer condition. The Tfrctshington-Lee University, at Lexington, was established as an academy before the Revolution. In 1798, it was endowed by Washington, and reorganized as a college. It resumed its operations after the close of the war under the Presidency of General R.

E. Lee, ,assisted by an excellent faculty, and is one of the best and most prosperouts institutions in the State. It was formerly known as Washington College. After the death of General Lee, in 1870, it was given its present name. Hamp)de-Sidney College, in Prince Edward county, RandolphJlacoa College, in Hanover county, and Emory and Hienry College, in Washington county, are the other collegiate institutions in the State. The ViSrgiyia Miilitary Institute, at Lexington, is entirely a State institution. It was in a high state of prosperity in 1860, but was burned during the war. It was reorganized upon the return of peace, and is now in a flourishing condition again. It is an admirable school, and filrnishes its pupils with a thoroughly practical, scientific, and military training. 588

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VIRGINIA. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State of Virginia possesses a Penitentiary, at Richmond, an Asylum for the Blind, an Asylum for the Deatf and Durnb, and an Asylum f6or the Insane, at Staunton, and an Eastern Asylum for the Insane, at Williamsburg. No returns of these institutions are at hand. FINANCES. The finances of the State are not in a prosperous condition. The State debt is large and increasing, and the interest thereon has not been paid as it accrued. This is attributed to the increased expenses incident to the peculiar condition of affairs in the State, the administration of the Government by the military authorities, and the partial failure to collect the revenue. On the 1st of January, 1871, the amount of principal and interest due by the State was $47,390,840. The State holds about $10,048,267 of valuable assets, which, in a fewv years, will be available for the reduction of the public debt, and it is believed that the ad valorem system of taxation prescribed by the Constitution will produce an annual revenue more than sufficient to meet the annual expenses; and now that the control of the State is once more in the hands of its own citizens, it is very certain that its obligations will be faithfully met, and that its time-honored reputation for integrity will suffer no stain. GOVERNMENT. After the close of the civil war, Virginia was kept under military rule until the early part of 1870. In the sunmmer of 1869, the people of the State, in accordance with the provisions of the Reconstruction Act, elected a State Government, and the Legislature thus chosen, acting provisionally, met at Richmond in October of the same year. Upon the reassembling of Congress, after the Christmas holidays, in 1869, measures were taken for the readmission of the State into the Union. On the 25th of January, 1870, a bill, which had passed both Houses of Congress, received the Executive signature. This bill readmitted the State under certain stringent conditions, one of the principal of which was a guarantee on the part of the State never to alter its Constitution so as to deprive negroes of the right of suffrage, nor to pass laws depriving negroes of the right to hold office, or of their school privileges. On the 27th of January, General Canby, the mili 589

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tary commander of the department, transferred the government of the State to the civil authorities. The Legislature met, at the call of the Governor, on the 8th of February, 1870. By the terms of the new Constitution adopted in 1869, the right of suffrage is secured to every male citizen of the United States of the age of 21 years, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of the county, city, or town, three months next preceding the election at which he desires to cast his vote. The Government consists of a Governor, and LieutenantGovernor (who is ex-officio the President of the Senate), elected by the people for four years, and a Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Second Auditor, and Register of the Land Office, elected by joint ballot of the two Houses of the Legislattire. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 43 members, and a House of Delegates of 181 members. The two Houses are styled the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia.

The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court of Appeals. It consists of five judges, chosen for a term of 12 years. There are 16 Circuit Courts, the judges of which hold office for 8 years. The State is divided into 82
districts, for each of which a county judge is elected. The courts of the cities have their separate judges. The term of office of the county and city jttdges is 3 years. All the judges of the State are chosen by a concurrent vote of the two Houses of the General Assembly. Elections for township and city officers are held on the fourth Thursday in May, and elections for State officers and members of Congress on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The State makes a liberal provision for the cause of education, and measures are now in progress for the establishment of a free school system. Richmond, in Henrico county, is the capital of the State. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 99 counties. HISTORY. Virginia was the first settled of the English colonies. On the 13th of May, 1607, a party of 105 settlers, sent out by the London Company, to whom James I. had given a charter for South Virginia, settled on the north bank of the James River, and founded the town of Jamestown. This colony was composed of worthless adventurers, and came in search of gold, which, of course, was not found. It was 590

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VIRGINIA. nominally under the control of Captain Newport, but its real leader was the celebrated Captain John Smith, one of the most remarkable men of that period. Nothing but his energy and firmness prevented the colony from becoming a disastrous failure. In 1609, the powers of the London Company were greatly enlarged, and the government of the colony placed ill its hands. Additional emigrants were sent out to Virginia, to the number of about 500 persons, and Lord Dela ware was appointed Governor. The settlers were greatly harassed by the savages, and suffered much from privation and fatmine, and in 1610 were ieduced to only 60
souls, with scarcely food enough to last them tell days. They were reinforced at this juncture by the arrival of Newport, Gates, and Somers, with 150 men, who had been wrecked upon the Bermudas, on their passage from England. They expected to find the colony in a prosperous condition, and were so discouraged by the state of affairs at Jamestown, that they took the remnant of the colonists on board, and started down the river, intending to sail for Newfoundland, where they hoped to be able to take passage to England in some of the fishing vessels. Upon reaching the mouth of the James, they were met by Lord Delaware, the Governor, who had arrived from England with three ships, with supplies and additional colonists; and the whole party returned to Jamestown. Virginia now grew rapidly. The settlement at Jamestown was placed beyond all danger of failure; the Indians were punished for their attacks on the early settlers; and additional villages were founded. In 1619, 1200 colonists were sent over, including 90 respectable young women, who were sold to the planters as wives, for 100 pounds of tobacco (worth $75), the price of their passage from England. One hundred felons were also sent over from the English prisons, by the express order of the king, and sold to the colonists as slaves. Ini the same year, a Dutch trading ship anchored in the James, and sold a number of negro slaves to the planters, thus introducing African slavery into the New World. The colony continued to thrive, and in 1649, contained 15,000 white inhabitants, and 300 negroes.

About 30 ships came yearly to trade, and there were nearly 30,000 horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and asses within its limits. During the great civil war in England, Virginia remained faithful to the king, and continued to maintain its loyalty, in spite of the efforts of the Parliament to win it over, until 1652, when it submitted to the Commissiqners of the Commonwealth upon terms vwhich were all that the colony could have desired. On the restoration of Charles 591

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. II., Sir William Berkeley, the leader of the Stuart party in the pro vince, returned to Virginia, and was reelected Governor. Charles granted many unjust privileges to his favorites, who oppressed the people of Virginia so sorely, being assisted in their oppressions by the Governor, that a portion of the people of the colony took up arms to maintain their ancient rights. They were conquered by the Governor, who treated the vanquished party with such cruelty that le was severely rebuked by the king. This struggle is generally known as “Bacon’s Rebellion,” from Nathaniel Bacon, the military leader of the so-called rebels. In 1698, the town of Williamsburg was built, and named in honor of William III. The country around Jamestown being marshy and sickly, the seat of government was removed to Williamsburg. The original settlement at once fell into decay, and at present only a ruined church tower marks the site. Virginia bore a prominent part in the wars with France. The war of 1754 originated in the efforts of the colony to break up the line of military posts which the French were establishing along the Ohio River.

This struggle first brought into notice a young surveyor, George Washington, who acquired in it a reputation and experience, which made him the foremost soldier in the Province. In 1764 the General Assembly of Virginiiia made an energetic and spirited protest against the claim on the part of - the English Crown to tax the colonies without their consent. The colony was not represented in the first Continental Congress which met in New York, in October, 1765, the Legislature having adjourned before the invitation of Massachusetts was received; but the measures of that body were cordially endorsed at the next session of the Legislature, and throughout the whole struggle, Virginia and Massachusetts were the leading and most influential members of the colonial union. All the leading measures of resistance were originated by one or the other of these provinces. The Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore, endeavored to check the efforts of the people, and was driven out of the capital, and forced to seek refuge on board a British man-of-war. He succeeded in capturing the town of Norfolk, but was finally driven out of it, after which he bombarded it from his ships. During the summer of 1776, he continued to ravage the coast, but was finally driven southward. In 1779, the British General Mathews captured and destroyed the town of Norfolk, took the villages of Portsmouth and Gosport, and destroyed several ships of war in course of construe 592

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VIRGINIA. ‘ion there, and burned or captured 130 merchant vessels in the vicinity. In 1781, Belledict Arnold, the traitor, captured and burned the village of Richmond, but being hotly pressed by the American and French forces, retreated to the lower James, and reembarked for Newport, Rhode Island. A few months later, Cornwallis and Phillips entered eastern Virginia, and swept it with fire and swvord, destroying and stealing $10,000,000 worth of property. These out rages were partially avenged by the capture of Cornwallis’ armvy at Yorktown, on the 19th of October, 1781. )During’the war, Virginia furnished her futll share of men and means to the cause, besides con tril)buLting to it many of its great leaders.

She gave to it, George Washilngton, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and liany other good and great men. At the outbreak of thie war, Virginia was the first to propose a Conifeclei(tion of the States, and at its close, perceivinig that the system of Government in force was not suited to the necessities of the country, was the first to propose a Convention for the purpose of remedying its defects. This Conventioln met at Philadelphia, in 1787, and finally adopted the present Constitution of the United States, which was prin(cipally the production of James Madison, of Virginia. It iwas ratified by Virginia on the 25thl of June, 1788, after encountering a strong opposition in the State Convention, led by Patrick Henry and George A[ason. The State, in 1784, ceded to the United States its territory northwest of the Ohio river, which has since been organized into the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The present State of Kentucky also formed a part of the original State of Virginia, and wvas erected into a separate Territory, in 1789. During the war of 1812-15, the shores of the Chesapeake and its tributaries were ravaged by the British, and in 1814, the city of Alexandria was captured by themn.

During this struggle Virginia again gave a great soldier to the country, in the person of Winfield Scott, who, with Zachary Taylor, also led the American armies to victory in the war with Mexico. In 1831 a serious insurrection occurred, under the leadership of Nat Turner, among the negroes of Southamp)ton county. It was suppressed and the leaders were executed, but not before a number of whites had been massacred. In 1859, the state was invaded at Harper’s Ferry by John Brown and his adherents, the details of which event have already been given in another chapter. 5 9
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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Upon the secession of the Southern States, Virginia made great efforts to secure a peaceful solution of the troubles between the sections; but failing to accomplish this, withdrew from the Union, and joined the seceded States. Richmond was made the capital of the new Confederacy, and the Confederate forces were transferred to Virginia, which wvas thus made the theatre of war. The events of this unhappy struggle are too well known to need repetition here. It is sufficient to say that this State was the scene of some of the most important events of the war’ Seven Federal armies were defeated, and over thirty pitched battles, besides numerous minor conflicts, were fought on its soil.

Finally Richmond and Petersburg were captured by the Union army, and General Lee, the great military leader of the South, was made a prisoner with all his troops. Virginia seceded from the Union on the 17th of April, 1861, and on the 23(d of May, the ordinance of secession was ratified by a popular vote of 90,000. The people of the Western counties were opposed to this action, and being determined not to be forced out of the Union by the action of Eastern Virginia, summoned a convention, which met at Wheeling in June, 1861, tnd formed the new State of West Virginia, which now includes that portion of the old State lying between the Alleghany Mountains and the Ohio river.* After the close of the war, the State was subjected to the process of reconstruction, and until January 26th, 1870, was governed by a military commander. Virginia was greatly impoverished by the war. Her manufactures were alniost totally destroyed, and her agriculture crippled to a very great degree. The State is now slowly recovering from the effects of these disasters. Now that slavery has been al)olishle(l, Virginia offers so many inducements to settlers from other States and from EuIrope, and such great advantages to capitalists, in its waterpower and mineral resources, that there can be little doubt that a few years more will see her embarked in a career of industry and prosperity, which will far exceed anything in her past career. CITIES AND

TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Norfolk, Petersburg, Alexandria, Lynchburg, Portsmnouth, Winchester, Fred * For a more complete account of this separation, see West Virginia. 594

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VIRGINIA. ericksburg, Leesburg, Danville, Farmnville, Lexington, Charlottes ville, Salenm, Liberty, Christiansburg, Staunton, and Wytheville. RICHMOND, The capital and the largest city of the State, is situated in Henrico county, on the northeast bank of the James River, at the head of tidewater. It lies at the foot of the lower falls of the James, and is about 184 miles from the sea by the course of the river, and 100 miles in an air-line south-by-west from Washington. Latitude 37~ 32’

17” N., longitude 77~ 27’ 28” W. Richmond is one of the handsomest cities in the Union, and its situation is much admired for its romantic beauty.

The city is built on several hills, which are separated from each other by a picturesque valley, through which flows Shiockoe Creek. The principal are Shockoe and Church or Richmond hills. From any of these elevations a magnificent prospect may be gained, embracing the beautifill country around the city, and the noble river winding among its green hills, and leaping and dashing over the rocks which break its current for a distance of several miles. Three fine bridges span the stream at intervals of from 100 yards to half a mile apart. Two are used by railways entering the city, and connecting it with the States south of Virginia. The other is for vehicles and pedestrians. Richmond is laid out with great regularity, in perfect squares. The streets are broad, straight, and well paved, and, with the exception of the business thoroughifares, are shaded with fine trees. The city is built generally of brick and stone, and the most of the houses are situated in yards adorned with flowers and shrubbery. The principal business thoroughfare, Main street, runs throughout the length of the city, and with the exception of the upper and lower portions, is one of the best-built streets in the Union. Broad street, parallel with Main, is a noble thoroughfare, and is occupied principally with retail stores. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. The long streets, or those running parallel with the river, are named. Those crossing them at right-angles are numbered. The public buildings are handsome. The Capitol is the most conspicuous object in the city. It stands on Shockoe Hill, in the midst of a handsome square of 10 acres. It is an imposing building, and is adorned with a portico of Ionic columns.

It contains a marble statue of Washington, by Houdon, the famous French sculptor. To the west of the Capitol, and within the enclosure of the Capitol Square, 595

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RICHMOND. is the monument erected to Washington by the State of Virginia. It contains an equestrian statue of Washington, by Crawford, and statues of Jefferson, Mason, Henry, Marshal, Lee, and Morgan, by Crawford and Randolph Rogers. The monument is of fine granite; the statues are of bronze. To the south of the Washington monument stands a fine marble statue of Henry Clay. The Governor’s Mansion, a fine oldfashioned edifice, occupies the northeast portion of the square. The City HGll is an elegant structure on Broad and Capitol streets, opposite the square. The Custom House extends from Main to Bank street, immediately south of the Capitol. It is an elegant building of granite, and contains, besides the customs offices, the city post-office, and the United States Court-rooms. During the civil war, the building was occupied by the Executive, State and Treasury Departments of the Confederate Government. The Confederate Congress sat in the Capitol. 596 I

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VIRGINIA. The public schools are good, though few in number. The city also contains the Richmond Colleye, conducted by the Baptist church; St.

-Tincent’s College, a Roman Catholic institution; and the le(lieal De )aritent of Hampden-Sydney College, the last of which occupies a fine granite building of Egyptian architecture. There are a number of excellent private schools and seminaries in the city, which has always been celebrated for its schools of this character. The Virygitia tis torical Society possesses a fine library. The State Library is iII the Capitol.

There are several colored schools in the city. There are over 30 churches ill Rilchmnond(l, some of vwhichl are very handsome. St. John’s, on Church Hill, is interesting from its hlistori cal associations. Thle Penal establishments are the City Prison and the St1(te Peniten tiuay. The latter is situated( on a hill overlooking tlhe river, anid is a large edifice of brick with a fhtgide nearly 300 feet in length. ThIe Benevolent establishmnents are numerous, and consist of a city Almns-hlouse, the Bellevue Hospital, the Roman Catholic Orphlan Asy lun, and several societies for the assistance of the poor and distressed. The Cemeteries are’Holvwood and Sliockoc I-Hill. The former is very beautiful. In the latter are buried some of the most distinguishled men of the country.

Richmond is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water fromnt the Jamnes River. Street railways connect its principal points. It is provided with an efficient police force, a(nd a steam fire department, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It has always been a place of great political andi commercial imiportance, and is noted for the culture and hospitality of its people. In 1870, the population was 51,038. Richmond is admirably situated for commerce an(d manufactures. It lies in the midst of one of the finest agricultural regions of the UTnion, and has railway connections with all parts of the country. Trle James River and Kanawha Canal afford water transportation to the very heart of the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Valley of Virginia. The river is navigable to the city for vessels drawing 10 feet of water, and those drawing 15 feet can lie within 3 miles of the city. There is regular communication by steamers with Norfolk, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and -New York. The Chesapeake and Ohlio Railway is now completed across the mountains, and will soon be finished to the Ohio River. The city is one of the most important tobacco and wheat markets in the Union, and is one of the principal seats of the 37 591,

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. manufacture of tobacco, which is exported in large quantities to the Northern cities for sale. Richmond is already largely engaged in manufactures, and is destined to become one of the most important manufacturing centres of America. It is already famous for its flour, its mills being among the most extensive in the country. Cotton and woollen goods, paper and iron ware are produced in considerable quantities. The waterpower is derived from the James River, which in the course of a few miles descends 100 feet, thus fiurnishing all amount of power sufficient to turn all the mills of New England. Tile water is never too low to be used. The civil war struck a terrible blow at the manutfacturing, interests of Richmond, but the city is slowly recovering its former prosperity. Five daily papers, and a number of weeklies and monthlies are published in the city. Richmond was fotunded in 1742; and in 1779, while still but a small village, was made the capital of the State.

In 1781, it was invaded and occupied by the British, under the command of Benedict Arnold. The invaders burned some public and some private buildinigs, and a quantity of tobacco, and retreated towards the lower James. In 1789, the place contained 300 houses, and a bridge was built across the river by Colonel John Mayo. In 1800, it contained 5737
inhiabitants. It was from the first a place of great political importance, exercisiilig a considerable influence over the country south of Virginia as well as over that State. After the secession of the Southern States and the beginning of hostilities in April, 1861, Richmond was made the Capital of the Confederacy, the Southern Government arriving there in June, 1861.

From that time the city was the chief ol)ject of the efforts of the military forces of the United States. It was defended with great skill and determination, but was finally entered by the United States forces, on the 2d of April, 1865. It was set on fire by the Confederate forces oni the night of their departure from it, and almost the entire business quarter, including the large mills, etc., was destroyed. Since then, it has been rebuilt on a handsomer and mnore substantial scale. NORFOLK, The second city of the State, is situated in Norfolk county, on the north bank of the Elizabeth River, 8 miles from Hampton Roads, 32 miles from the ocean, and 160 miles by water, or 106 miles by lands from Richmond. 598

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VIRGINIA. The city is l)uilt principally of brick and stone, on a level plain, and is somewhat irregular in its plan. Tile streets are wvide and are well paved, but the general appearance of the place is unattractive.

There are, however, mnany fine stores and handsome dwellings, and of late the appearance of the city is being gradually improved. The ity Hall and the Custom flouse are the principal buildings. The city contains 14
churches. ALEXANDRIA, The fourth city of the State, is situated in Alexandria county, on the right bank of the Potomac River, 7 miles below Washington City, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway. Thle city is delightfully situated on undulating ground, and commands a fine view of the river and of Washington City. It is substantially built, and possesses some handsome buildings, but its general appearance is that of a quiet inland town. The streets cross each other at right angles, and are generally well paved. Some of them are shaded with magnificent trees. The city is supplied with water from Camreron’s Run, a small stream close by, and is lighted with gas. It contains several public and private schools, and is the seat of a Theological Sewinaary and of a High School of the Protestant Episcopal Church. There are about 12 churches, and 3 newspaper offices in the city.

It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 13,570.

Alexandria was once a place of considerable commercial importance, and possessed a large foreign and domestic trade. Some slipping is still owned in the port. The river furnishes unlimited water transportation to the sea, which is continued to the nmountains by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and there is railway communication with all parts of the country.

The city seemed oin the point of recovering some share of its former importance when the civil war put an end to its hol)es. Alexandria was settled in 1748, and was incorporated as a city in 1779. In 1801 it was ceded withl other territory to the General Government, and constituted a part of the District of Columbia until 1844, when it was restored to the State of Virginia. In the spring of 1861 it was occupied by the United States forces, and was held by them during the war. Eight miles below Alexandria, on the same side of the Potomac, and within the limits of Fairfax county, is Mount Vernon, the residelnce and the site of the grave of George Washington. A few years previous to the civil war it was purchased from the Washington 599

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MOUNT VERNON. family by a fund raised through the efforts of Edward Everett and others, and made the property of the nation. During the civil war it lay between the lines of the two armnies, each of which scrupulously respected it. “Mount Vernon, then known as the Hiunting Creek estate, was bequeathed by Augustine Washington, who died in 1743, to Lawrence Washington, who received a captain’s commission in one of the four regiments raised in the colonies, to aid the mother country in her struggle against France and Spain. It was named after Admiral Vernon, under whom Lawrence Washington had served, and for whom he cherished a strong affection. The central part of the mansion, which is of wood, was erected by Lawrence, and the wings by George Washingtoil. It contains many valuable historical relics, among which are the key of the Bastile, presented by Lafayette, portions of the military and personal furniture of Washington, the pitcher, portrait, etc. The tomb of Washington, which is now fast going to decay, occupies a more picturesque situation than the present dine, being upon an elevation in full view of the river. The new tomb, 600

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VIRGINIA. into which the remains wvere removed in 1837, and subsequently placed( within a mlarbl)le sarcophagus, stands in a mlore retired situatiol, a short distance firom the house. It consists of a plain but solid structure of brick, wvithl an iron gate at its entrance. Ab)ove the arch of this vault are inscribed the following lines: ‘ Within this enclosure rest the remains of GENERAL GEO-RGE WASIIINGTON.’ “The Mount Vernon domain, which has remained since tile death of Washingtonii in the possession of his descendants, was purchased a few years ago for the sum of $200,000, raised by subscription, under the auspices of a society of ladies known as the’Ladies’ Mount Vernon Union Association.’ It is therefore, and will continue to be, the property of the nation. In this noble movement the late Hon. Edward Everett took a distinguished and active part.” LYNCHBURG, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Campbell county, on the south bank of the James River, 120 miles westsouthwest of Rich mnond, and 20 miles from the Blue Ridge. It is built along a steep declivity, which rises from the river shore, and is situated in a beau tiful and picturesque country. It is irregularly laid off, but contains several handsome buildings. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the river, which is pumped into a reservoir situated 253 feet above the level of the river. Lynclhburg is one of the princil)al railway centres of the State, being the junction of roads leading directly from Norfoll, Richmond, Mrashlington City, and Bi’istol, Tennessee. It is connected with Richmond by the James River Canal. These roads and the canal have made it a place of considerable trade. It is one of the principal tobacco markets of the State, and has also a large grain trade. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here. The city is, to a limited extent, engaged in manufactures, the river affording extensive waterpower. Tobacco, cotton and woollen goods, and flour are the principal articles. The city contains 10 churches, several public and private schools, and 3 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council.

In 1870 the population was 6825. Lynchburg was-founded in 1786, and named after John Lynch, one of the original settlers. In 1805 it was incorporated as a city. 601

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANIES. THE FIRSRT LIEGISLA’I’IVE

ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA. One of the first acts of Yeardley, in Virginia, was to emancipate the remaining servants of the colony. The labor now being free, each man enjoying the fruits of his own industry, and anxious to increase his store, there was no fear of scarcity, and no time or opportunity for imutiny among the scattered and industrious planters. With the increasing strength and independence of the colony, all fear of the savages had vanished. It is manifest that in these altered circumistances a modification of the despotic government ought to have been made, because its severity was no longer necessary, and while the power existed it might be abused, as the colony seriously experienced in the case of Argall. The miomenit the colonists began to take an interest in the country, by the enjoyment of their own labor and the possession of property, it was right that they should have some share in that government, in the prudent.conduct of which they were most interested. Yeardley was aware of this, for, without any authority from home which we can trace, he called together a General Assembly, consisting of two memblers from every town, borough, or hundred, besides the Governor and Council, which met at Jamestown, near the end of June, 1619. In this Assembly seven corporations were represented, and four more were laid off in the course of the same summer. In this first North American legislature, wherein were “debated all matters thoiught expedient for the good of the colony,” several acts were passed which were pronounced by the treasurer of the cormpany to be “w vell and judiciously carried,” but which are unfortunately lost to posterity. This was an eventful year to the colony, for, in addition to their Assembly, a college was establislhed in Hlenrico, with a liberal endowment. King James had exacted 15,000 from the several bishops of his kingdom for the purpose of educating Indian children, and 10,000 acres of land were now added by the company; and the original desig,n was extended to make it a seminary of learning also for the English. One hundred idle and dissolute persons, in custody for various misdemeanors, were transported by the authority of the king and against the wishes of the company to Viuginia. They were distributed through the colony as servants to the planters; and the degradation of the colonial character, produced by such a process, was endured for the assistance derived from them in executing the various plans of industry, that were daily extending themselves. This beginning excited in the colonists a desire for using more extensively other labor than their own, an opportunity for the gratification of which, unfortunately, too soon occurred. In this eventful year, too, a new article was introduced into the trade of the company witlh thie colony, by the good policy of the treasurer, Sir Edward Sandys, which produced a material change in the views and feelings of the colonists with regard to the country. At the accession of Sir Edward to office, after twelve years’ labor, and an expenditure of 80,000 by the company, there were in the colony no more than 600 persons, men, women, and children. In one year lihe provided a passage for 1261 new emigrants.

Among these were 90 agreeable young women, poor, but respectable and incorrupt, to furnish wives to the colonists. The wisdom of this policy is evident-the men had hitherto regarded Virginia only as a place of temporary sojourn for the acquisition of wealth, and never dreamed of making a permanent residence in a place where it was impos. 602

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VIRGINIA. sible to enjoy any of the comforts of domestic life. They had consequently none of those endearing ties of home and kindred to b)ind them to the country, or at tach them to its interests, which are so necessary to make a good citizen. This new commodity was transported at the expense of thile colony, and sol l to the young planters, and the followiing year another consignm,ent was made of 60 young maids of virtuous education, young, handsome, and well recommended. A wife in the first lot sold generally for 100 pounds of tobacco, but as the value of tile new article became known in the nmarket, the price rose, and a wife would bring 150 pounds of tobacco. A debt for a wife was o(f higher dignity than other debts, and to be paid first. As an additional inducement to marriage, married men were generally preferred in the selection of officers for the colony. Do mnestic ties were formed, habits of thrift ensued, comforts were increased, and happiness diffused; the tide of emigration swelled: within three years 50 patents for land were granted, and 3500 persons lound( their way to Virginia. In the month of August of this year an event occurred which stamped its impress upon the Constitution of Virginia, and indeed of the whole southern portion of America. This was the introduction of 20 African slaves by a Dutch vessel, which avwiled itself of the freedom of commerce, which had been released fr’om the shackles of the comipany’s monopoly in the early part of this year, to rivet the bonds of slavery upon a portion of their fellow creatures and their descendants. The indented and covenanted servants which had been long known in Virginia, and whose condition was little better than that of slavery, was a small evil and easily removed, because they were of the same color and country with their masters; when they were emancipated, they leaped at once from their shackles to the full dignity of freedom. N1o one scorned to associate with them, and no one spurned their alliance; it’ honorable and worthy in other respects, they were equal to their masters, and might even rise to distinction. But not so the poor African. Nature has fixed upon him a stamnp which cannot be erased or forgotten, even when his fetters have crumbled to the dust. TREATY BETWEEN

VIRGINIA AND ENGLAND. In 1650, the Government of the Commonwealth of England sent a powerful fleet to reduce the Colony of Virginia to submission, as that colony had until then refused to acknowledge any authority but that of King Charles. The fleet cast anchor before Jamestown, in the month of June, 1650. The colonists made a formidable show of resistance, which so impressed the Cromwellian officers that they consented to receive the surrender of the colony upon the lollowing terms, which were highly honorable to Virginia. The reader will notice that the poor little colony is recognized by the Commonwealth as its “equal.” The articles of surrender are concluded between the Conmmissioners of the Commonwealth, and the Council of State and Grand Assembly of Virginia, as equal treating with equal. It secures 1st. That this should be considered a voluntary act, not forced or constrained by a conquest upon the country; and that the colonists should have and enjoy Such freedoms and privileges as belong to the freeborn people of England. 2dly. That the Grand Assembly, as formerly, should convene and transact the affairs of Virginia, doing nothing contrary to the Government of the Conmmonwealth or laws of En’(and. 3dly. That there should be a full and total remission of all acts, words, or writings against the Parliament. 603

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 4thly. That Virginia should have her ancient bounds and limits, granted by the eharters of the former kings, and that a new charter was to be sought from Parliament to that effect, against such as had tirespassed upon their ancient righlts. LTlhis clause would seem to be aimed at some of the neighlboriing colonies.] 5thly. That all patents of land under the seal of the colony, granted by the Governor, should remain in full force. 6tlily. That the privilege of fifty acres of land for every person emigrating to the colouy, should remain in full force. 7tlily. That the people of Virginia have free trade, as the people of England enjoy, withl all places and nations, according to the laws of the Commonwealth; and that Virginia should enjoy equal privileges in every respect, with any other colony in America. 8thlly. That Virginia should be free from all taxes, customs, and impositions whatsoever; and that none should be inimposed upon them without the consent of their Grand Assemnbly; and no forts or castles be erected, or garrison maintained, without their consent. 9thly. Thalt no charge should be required from the country on account of the expense incurred in the present fleet. lOtlily.

Thlat this agreement should be tendered to all persons, and that such as shoutld refuse to subscribe to it, should have a year’s time to remove themselves and effects from Virginia, and in the meantime enjoy equal justice. The remaining articles were of less importance. This was followed by a supplemental treaty, for the benefit of the Governor and Council, and such soldiers as had served against the Comlmonwealth in England allowing them the most favorable terms. ANECDOTrES OF PATRICK HEiNRY. The wants of a large family compelled his father to find employment for his sons. At the age of 15), Patrick was put behind the counter of a country merchlant, and the year following entered into business with his eldei: brother, William, with whom was to devolve its chief nmanagement; but such were his idle habits, that he left the burden of the concern to Patrick, who managed wretchedly. The drudgery of business becamie intolerable to him, and then, too, “lie could not find it in his heart ” to disappoint any one who came for credit; and hle was very easily satisfied with apologies for nonpayment. He sought relief from his cares by having recourse to the violin, flute, and reading. An opportunity was presented of pursuing his favorite study of the human character, and the chlaracter of every customer underwent this scrutiny. One year put an end to the mercantile concern, and the two or three following Patiick was engaged in settling up its affairs. At 18 years of age lie married Mliss Shelton, the daughter of a neighboring farmer of respectability, and commienced( cultivating a small farm; but his aversion to systematic labor, and want of skill, compelled him to abandon it at the end of two years. S(elling off all his little possessions at a sacrifice, lie again embarked in the hazardous l)usiness of merchandise. His old business habits still continued, and not unfreqlluently he shut up hlis store to indulge in the favorite sports of his youth. His readillng was of a more seri(ils character; history, ancient and modern, lie became a proficient in. Livy, however, was his favorite; and having procured a copy, hlie read it 604

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VIRGINIA. through at least once a year in the early part of his life. In a few years his sec ond mercantile experiment left him a bankrupt, and without any friends enabled to assist himn further. All other means failing, he determined to try the law. His unfortunate hlabits, unsuitable to so laborious a profession, and his pecuniary situation unfitting him for an extensive course of reading, led every one to sup pose that hlie wvouldcl not succeed. With only six weeks’ study, hlie obtained a li cense to practise, hlie being then 24 years of age. He was then not only unable to draw a declaration or a plea, but incapable, it is said, of tie most common and simple business of his profession. It was not until his 27thl year that an oppor tunity occurred for a trial of his strength at the bar.

In the mneantimie the wants and distresses of his family were extreme.

They lived mostly with his fatherin-law, Mr. Shelton, who then kept a tavern at Hanover Courthouse. Whenever Mr. Shelton was from home, Henry took his place in the tavern, which is the identical publIc h.ouse now standiing at Hanover Courthouse. The occasion on which his genius first broke forth, was the controversy between the clergy and the Legislature and people of the State, relating to the stipend claimed by tlhe former.

The cause was popularly known as the Parsons’ cause. A decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims of the clergy, had left nothing undetermined but the amount of damages in the cause which was pending. Soon after the opening of the court, the cause was called. The scene which ensued is thus vividly described by Wirt: “The array before Mr. Henry’s eyes was now miost fearful. On the bench sat more than 20
clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most capabl)le, as well as the severest critics before whom it was possible for him to have made his debut. The courthouse was crowded with an overwhelming multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, who, not finding roomn to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the deepest attention.

But there was somnethling still more awfully disconcerting than all this; for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other person than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the cause very briefly: in the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury, that the decision upon the demurrer had put the Act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damnages; he then concluded with a highly-wroughllt eulogiumtn on the benevolence of the clergy. And now came on the first trial of Patrick Henry’s strength. No one had ever heard him speak, and curiosity was on tip)toe He rose very awkwardly, and faltered much in his exordium. The people hung their heads at so unpromising a commencement; the clergy were observed to exchange sly looks witll each other; and his father is described as having almost sunk with confusion from his seat. But these feelings were of short duration, and soon gave place to others of a very different character. For now were those wonderlul faculties which he possessed for the first time developed; and now was first witnessed that mysterious and almnost supernatural transformation of appearance, which the fire of his own eloquence never failed to work in him. For, as his mind rolled along, and began to glow from its own action, all the e.xzvixe of the clown seemed to shled themselves spontaneously. His attitude by’degrees became erect and lofty.

The spirit of his genius awakened all his features. His countenance shone with a nobleness and grandeur which it had never before exhibited. There was a lightning in his eye.s which seemed to rivet the spectator. His action became gracefutl, bold, and commalndling; and in the tones of his voice, but more especially in his emphasis, there was a peculiar charm, a magic, of which any one wbo 605

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ever heard him will speak as soon as he is named, but of which no one can give any adequate description. They can only say that it struck upon the ear and upon the heart, in a manner which larnguage cannot tell. Add to all these his wonder-working fancy, and the peculiar phraseology in which hlie clothled its imbages; for he painted to the heart with a force that alnmost petrified it. In the language of those who heard him on this occasion,‘hlie lmade their blood run cold, and their hair to rise on end.’ “It will not be difficult for any one who ever heard this most extraordinary man to believe the whole account of this transaction, which is given by his surviving hearers; and, firom their account, the courthouse of Hanover county must have exhibited, on this occasion, a scene as picturesque as has been ever witnessed in real life.

They say that the people, whose countenances had fallen as he arose, had heard but a very few sentences before they began to look up; then to look at each other with surprise, as it’ doubting the evidence of their own senses; then, attracted by some strong gesture, struck by some majestic attitude, fascinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his emphasis, and the varied and commanding expression of his countenance, they could look away no more. In less than 20 minutes they might be seen, in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window, stooping forward from their stands, in death-like silence; their features fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenly visitant. The mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into confusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture, that, forgetting where he was, and the character which hlie was filling, tears of ecstasy streamed down his cheeks, without the power or inclination to repress them. “The jury seem to have been so completely bewildered that they lost sight not only of the Act of 1748, but that of 1758 also; for, thoughtless even of the admitted right of the plaintiff, they had scarcely left the bar when they returned with a verdict of one peany dagmi(ages. A motion was made for a new trial; but the court, too, had now lost the equipoise of their judgment, and overruled the motion by a unanimous vote. The verdict, and judgment overruling the motion, were followed by redoulbled acclamation, from within and without the house. The peol-)le, who had with difficulty kept their hands off their champion from the moment of closing his harangue, no sooner saw the fate of the cause finally sealed, than they seized him at the l)ar, and, in spite of his own exertions andI the continued cry of’ order’ from the sheriffs and( the court, they bore him out of the courthouse, and, raising him on their shoulders, carried him about the yard in a kind of electioneering triumph.” From this time Mr.

Henry’s star was in the ascendant, and hlie at once rose to the head of his profession in that section. In the autumn of 1764, having removed to Roundabout, in Louisa county, hle was employed to argue a case before a, committee on elections of the House of Burgesses. He distinguished himself by a brilliant display on the right of suffrage. Such a burst of eloquence from a man of so humble an appearance, struck the committee with amazement, and not a sound but from his lips broke the deep silence of the room. In 1765, he was elected a member of the House of Burgesses, when he introduced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp Act. Among his papers there was found, after his depease, one sealed and thus endorsed: 606

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VIRGINIA. “Enclosed are the resolutions of the Virginia Assembly, in 1765, concerning the Stamp Act. Let my executors open this paper.” On the back of the paper containing the resolutions was the foilowing endorsement: “

The within passed the House of Burgesses in May, 1765. They formed the first opposition to the Stamlp Act, and the scheme of taxing America by the British Parliament. All the colonies, either through fear, or the want of opportunity to form an oppositioii, or fiom influence of some kind or other, had remained silent. I had been for the first time elected a burgess a few days before, was young, inexperienced, unacquainted with the forms of the house and the members who composed it. Finding the men of weight averse to opposition, and the conmmencement of the tax at hand, and that no person was likely to step forth, I determined to venture; and alone, unaided and unassisted, on the blank leaf of’ an old law-book, wrote the within. Upon offering them to the house, violent debates ensued.

Many threats were uttered, and much abuse cast on me by the parties for submission. After a long, and wariii contest, the resolutions passed by a very small majority, perhaps one or two only. The alarm spread thlroulghout America with astonishing quickness, and the ministerial party were overwhelmed. The great point of resistance to British taxation was universally established in the colonies. This brought on the war, which finally separated the two countries, and gave independence to ours.

Whether this will prove a blessing or a curse, will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a gracious God hath bestowed on us.

If they are wise, they will be great and happy. If they are of a contrary character, they will be miserable. Righteousness alone can exalt them as a nation. Reader, whoever thou art, remember this; and, in thy sphere, practise virtue thyself, and encourage it in others. P. HENItY.” It was in the midst of the above-mentioned debate that he exclaimed, in tones of thunder, “Csesar had his Brutus-Clharles the First his Cromwell-and George the Third -“(” Treason!” cried the speaker-” Treason! treason!” echoed from every part of the house. Henry faltered not for a moment; taking a loftier attitude, and fixing on the speaker an eye of fire, he finished his sentence with the firmest emphasis)-“macy proft by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it.” Henceforth Mr. Henry was the idol of the people of Virginia, and his influence as one of the great champions of liberty extended throughout America. In 1769, lie was admitted to the bar of the general court. Without that legal learning which study alone can supply, lie was deficient as a imere lawyer. But before a jury, in criminal cases particularly, his genius displayed itself most brilliantly.

His deep knowledge of the springs of human action, his power of reading in the flitting expressions of the countenance what was passing in the hearts of his hearers, has rarely been possess(ed by any one in so great a degree. In 1767 or 1768, Mr. Henry removed back to Hanover, and continued a member of the House of Burgesses until the close of thle Revolution, acting upon its most important committees, and infusing a spirit of bold opposition in its members to the pretensions of Britain. He was a delegate to the first Colonial Congress, which assembled Sept. 4, 1774, at Phliladelphia. Upon Lord Dunlmore’s seizing the gunpowder at Williamsburg, in the night after the battle of Lexington, Henry summoned volunteers to meet him; and, marching down towards the capitol, compelled the agent of Dunmore to give a pecuniary compensation for it. This was the first military movement in Virginia. The Colonial Convention of 1775 elected him the colonel of the first regiment, 607 L c

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. and the commander of “all the forces raised and to be raised for thle defence of the colony.” Soon resigning his coiiimand, lie was elected a d(lelegate to thlle Convention, and not long’

after, in 1776, thle first Governor oft’ thlle commonwealth, an office hlie held by successive reelections until 1779, when, without an intermission, lie was no longer constitutionally elig,ible. While holding that office, lie was signally serviceable in sustaining public spirit during thle gloomiest period of thle Revolution, providing recruits, and crushling the intri,guLes of the Tories. On leaving thle office of Governor, lie served, until the end of the war, in the Legislatutre, when he was again elected Governor, until the state of his affail’s caused himi to resign in the autumn of 1786. Until 1794 lie regularly attended the courts, where his great reputation obtained for him a lucrative business.

” In 1788 lie was a member of the Convention of Virginia, which so al)ly and eloquently discussed the Constitution of the United States. He enml)loyed his masterly eloquenlice, day after day, in opposition to the proposed Constitution. His hostility to it proceeded entirely from an apprehlension that the Federal Government would swallow the sovereignty of the States; and that ultimately the liberty of the people would be destroyed, or crushied, by an overgrown and ponderous consolidation of political power. Thle Constitution having been adol)ted, tlhe Government orgaliized, and Washiington elected President, his repuguilince measurably abated. The chapter of amendments consideral)ly neutralized his objections; but, nevertheless, it is believed trlat his acquiescence resulted more from the consideration of a citizen’s duty, confidence in the C(liief Magistrate, and a hopeful reliance on the wisdom and virtue of the people, rather than froni any mnaterial chiange in his opinions.” In 1794, Mr. Henry retired from the bar. In 1796, the post of governor was once more tendered to himi, and refused. In 1798, the strong and animlated resolutious of the Virginia Assembly, in opposition to the alien and sedition laws, which laws he was in favor of, “conjured up) the most fighitful visions of civxil war, disunion, blood, and anarchy; and under the iimpuilse of these phiant(mlis, to make what he considered a virtuous effort for hlis country, lie presented himself in Charlotte county as a candidate for the House of Delegates, at thile spring election of 1799,”

althiou,gh he had retired to private life three years previously. His speech on this occasion, before the polls were opened, was the last effort of his eloquence. “The power of the noonday sun was gone; but its setting splendors were not less beautiful and touching.”” Mr. Henry was elected by his usual comnmanding majority, and the most formidable preparations were made to oppose him in the Assembly. But “‘Ithe disease which had been preying upon him for two years now hastened to its crisis; and on the 6thi of Junle, 1799, this friend of liberty and man was no more.” By his first wife hlie had six children, and by his last, six sons and three dauglihters. Ie left them a large landed property. He was temperate and fi.ugal in his hlabits of liviing, and seldom draink anythiing but water.

He was nearly six feet in height, spare, and raw-boned, and with a slilght stoop in his shoulders his complexion dark and sallow; his countenance grave, thoughtful, and penetratiing, and strongly marked with the lines of profound reflection, which with his earnest maniner, and the lhal)itual knitting and contracting of his brows, gave at tinies an expression of severity. “He was gifted with a strong and musical voice, anl a most expressive countenance, and he acquired particular skill in the use of them…… He could be vehement, insinuating, humorous, and sarcastic, by turns, an(d alwvays with the utmost effect. He was a natural orator of the 608

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VIRGINIA. highest order, combining imagination, acuteness, dexterity, and ingenuity, with the most forcible action, and extraordinary powers of face and utterance. As a statesman, his principal merits were sagacity and boldness. His name is brilliiantly and lastingly connected with the history of his country’s emancipation.” “In private lite, Mr. Henry was as amiable as hlie was brilliant in his public career. He was an exemplary Christian, and his illustrious life was greatly ornamented by the religion which lie professed. In his will lie left the following testimony respecting the Christian religion:‘I have now disposed of all my p)roperty to my famiily. There is one thing more I wish I could give them, and tloat is the Christian religion. If they have that, and I had not given one shllilling, they would be riclI; and ift’ they have not that, and I had given them the whole w(orld, they would be poor.’” SPEECII OF LOGAN. A MINGO CHIEF. [ This celebrated chief was distiinguisled for magnanimity in war, and greatness of soul in peace. He was always acknowle(dged the firiend of the white people, until the year 1774, when his brotlier and others of his family were murdered by tlhe whlites. This drew on a bloody war with the whlites, and the Indlians were oblig(ed to sule for peace.

The following speech was delivered at a treaty held by Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, with the Mlingoes, SliawNanese, and Delawares. Logan, though desirous of peace, remained in his cal)in in silence, till a messenger was sent to him, to know whether he would acce(le to the proposals. Logan; after shledding many tears for the loss of his friends, answered as follows: ] I appeal to any white man to say, if ever lie entered Logani’s cabin hungry, and lie gave him not meat: if ever hle came cold and naked(l, and hle clothed ljim not. Duringi the course of the last long and b)loody war, Logan remainedl i(1’le in his cabl)in, an advocate for peace.

Such was my love for the whites, tlhat my countrylmen pointed as they passed, and said,’ Log,an is the friend of white men.’ I had even thlought to have lived with you, but for the injuries of one lman. Colonel Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all the relations of Logan, not even sparing my women and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any living creature. This called on me for revenge. I have soulght it: I have killed many: I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country, I rejoice at the beams of peace: but do not harbor a thloughlt that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He will not turn on his hleel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan?-Not one.” WASHINGTON AND TtIE WIDOW CUSTI’S. It was in 1758 that Washington, attired in a military undress, and attended by a body servant, tall and militaiire as his chief, crossed the ferry called Williams’s, over the Pamunkey, a branch of York River. On the boat touching the southern or New Kent side, the soldclier’s progress was arrested by one of those personages who give the beau ideal of the Virginia gentleman of the old regiine, the very soul of kindness and hospitality. It was in vain the soldier urged his business at AWiillianisburg, important communications to the Governor, etc. Mr. Chiamberlayne, on whose domain the militaire had just landed, would hear of no excuse. Colonel Washington was a name and character so dear to all Virginians, that his: passing by one of the castles of Virginia, without calling and partaking of the liospitalities of the hlost, was entirely out of the question. The colonel,. however, 609

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. did not surrender at discretion, but stoutly maintained his ground till Chamber layne, bringing up his reserve in the intimation that hlie would introduce his friend to a young and charming widow, then beneath his roof, the soldier capitulated, on condition that he should dine-only dine-and then, by pressing his charger and borrowiig of the nilght, hlie would reach Williamsburg before his excellency could shlake off his morning slumbers. Orders were accordingly issued to Bishop, the colonel’s body servant and faithful follower, who, together with the fine Engilishl clharger, had been bequeathed by the dying Braddock to Major Washinlg ton, on the famied and fated field of Monongahela. Bishop, bred in the school of European discipline, raised his hand to his cap, as much as to say, “Your orders shall be obeyed.” The colonel now proceeded to the mansion, and was introduced to various guests, (for when was a Virginia domicil of the olden time without guests?) and, above all, to the charming widow. Tradition relates that they were mutually pleased, on this, their first interview-nor is it remarkable; they were of an age when impressions are strolng,est. The lady was fair to behold, of fascinating manners, and splendidly endowed with worldly benefits. The hero was fresh fiomn his early fields, redolent of fame, and with a foirm on which ” every god did seem to set his seal. to give the world assurance of a man.” The morning passed pleasantly away, evening came, with Bishop, true to his orders and firm at his post, holding the favorite charger with one hand, while the other was waiting to offer the ready stirrup. The sun sunk in the horizon, and yet the colonel appeared not. “‘Twas strange,‘twas passing strange;” surely he was not wont to be a single moment behilndc his appointments-for hlie was the most punctual of all men. Meantime, the host enjoyed the scene of the veteran at the gate, while the colonel was so agreeably employed in the parlor; and proclaiming that no visitor ever left his home at sunset, his military guest was, without much difficulty, persuaded to order Bishop to put up the horses for the night. Thle sun rode high in the heavens the ensuing day, when the enamored soldier pressed with his spur his charger’s side, and speeded on his way to the seat of government, where, hlaving dispatched his public business, lie retraced his steps, and, at the White lHouse, the engagemenlt took place, with preparations for marriage. And much hath the biographer heard of that marriage, from the gray-haired doimestics who waited at the board where love made the feast and Washington the guest. And rare and high was the revelry at that palmy period of Virginia’s festal age; for many were gathered to that marriage, of the good, the great, the gifted, and they, with joyous acclamnations, hailed in Virginia’s youthful hero a happy and prosperous bridegroom. “And so you remember when Colonel Washington came a courting of your young mistress?” said the biographer to old Cully, in his hundredth year. ” Ay, master, that I do,” replied the ancient family servant, who had lived to see five generations; “great times, sir, great times-shall never see the like again!” “And Washington looked something like a man, a proper man-hey, Cully?” ” Never seed the like, sir-never the like of him, though I have seen many in my day-so tall, so straight! and then lie sat on a horse and rode with such an air! All, sir, hlie was like no one else. Many of the grandest gentlemen, in the gold lace, were at the wedding; but none looked like the man himself.” Strong, indeed, must have been the impression which the person and the manner of Washington made upon the “rude, untutored mind” of this poor negro, since the lapse of tliree-quarters of a century had not sufficed to efface it. 6110

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VIRGINIA. The precise date of the marriage the biographer has been unable to discover, having in vain searched among the records of the vestry of St. Peter’s church, New Kent, of which the Rev. Mr. Munson, a Cambridge scholar, was the rector, and performed tile ceremony, it is believed, about 1759. A short time after their marriage, Colonel and Mrs.

Washing,ton removed to Mount Vernon, on the Po tomac, and permanently settled there. “This union,” says Sparks, “was in every respect felicitous. It continued forty years. To her intimate acquaintances and to the nation, the character of Mrs. Washling,ton was ever a theme of praise.

Affable and courteous, exemplary in her deportment, remarkable for her deeds of charity and piety, unostentatious, and without vanity, she adorned by her domestic virtues the sphere of private life, and filled with dignity every station in which she was placed.” Previous to his acquaintance with Mrs. Custis, Washington had been pleased with other ladies. Thile author above quoted on this point says, that in 1756, “While in New York, hle was lodged and kindly entertained at the house of Mr.

Beverley Robinson, between whom and himself an intimacy of friendship sub sisted, which, indeed, continued without change, till severed by their opposite fortunes twenty years afterwards in the Revolution. It happened that Miss Mary Philips, a sister of Mrs. Robinson, and a young lady of rare accomplishments, was an inmate of the family. The charms of this lady made a deep impression upon the heart oft the Virginia colonel. He went to Boston, returned, and was again welcomed to the hospitality of Mr.

Robinson. He lingered there till duty called him away; but he was careful to intrust his secret to a confidential firiend, whose letters kept him informed of every important event. In a few months, intelligence came, that a rival was in the field, and that the consequences coutld not be answered for, if he delayed to renew his visits to New York. Whether time, the bustle of a camp, or the scenes of war had moderated his admiration, or whether he despaired of success, is not known. He never saw the lady again till she was married to that same rival, Captain Morris, his former associate in arms, and one of Braddock’s aids-de-camp. ” Ie had before felt the influence of the tender passion. At the age of 17, he was smitten by the graces of a fair one, whom he called a’ lowland beauty,’ and whose praises lie recorded in glowing strains, while wandering with his surveyor’s compass among the Alleghlany Mountains. On that occasion hle wrote desponding letters to a friend, and indclited plaintive verses, but never ventured to reveal his emotions to the lady who was unconsciously the cause of his pains.” TIlIE DEATH OF WAS HIIING(‘TON. Tobias Lear, a gentleman of fine education, who was WVashlington’s Secretary for a long time, gave a simple but graphic account of the scenes at the time of the death of WVashington. It will be remembered that the malady was violent infl:tiinmation of the throat. On the first attack, W,ashington paid no attention to it, and on being advised to take some simple remedy for hoarseness, hlie said, “No, you know I never take anything, for a cold.

Let it go as it came.” That was on Friday evening, the 13th of December, 1799. Between 2 and 3 o’clock the next morning, he awoke Mrs. Washington, and, with great difficulty of utterance, told her hle was.yery unwell, and had had an ague. He would not permit her to rise to procure a remedy, lest she should take cold; but at daylight, when the servant came to make the fire in the room, she was sent to call Mr. Lear. 611

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Washington was then breathing with great difficulty, and one of the overseers was called in to bleed him, while a servant was dispatched tor Doctor Craik. The bleeding afforded no relief.

Dr. (Craik arrived a)bout 9 o’clock, and other physicians were sent for.

But all their remedies were applied in vain. The malady increased in violence, and at 4 o’clock in the afternoon the General whllispered, “I find I am going. My breath cannot last long. I believed from the first that the disorder would prove fatal.” Between 5 and 6 o’clock, Dr. Craik went to the bed and asked the sufferer if hlie could sit up. He held out his hand, and was raised up. He then said to the several physicians present, “I feel myself going; I thlank you for your attentions; but I pray you to talke no more trouble about me.” tie lay down again, and all retired except Dr. (Craik. He continued in the same situation, uneasy and restless, but without complaining; frequently asking what hour it was. At about 8 o’clock. the physicians came into the room and applied l)listers and cataplasms of bran to his legs and feet, after which they went out, except Dr. Craik, without a ray of hope. About 10 o’clock, he made several attempts to speak, and at length, with great difficulty, he whispered to Mr. Lear, “I am just going. Have me decently buried; and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead.” He then looked at Mr. Lear, and said, ” Do you understand me? ” Mr. Lear replied, “Yes,” when the expiring Patriot said, ”’ It is well.” These were his last words. About ten minutes before his deathl, his breathing became easier. He felt of his own pulse, and a few moments afterwards expired.

The hour was 11 o’clock on Saturday evening. The only persons in the room at the time were Mrs. Washington, Dr. Craik, Mr. Lear, Mrs. Forbes, the housekeeper, Washington’s favorite house-servant Christopher, and Caroline, Molly, and Charlotte, other servants. Mr. Lear held the hand of Washington to his bosom. Dr. Craik stood weeping near. Mrs. Washington sat at the foot of the bed, and Christopher was at its side. When all was silent, Mrs. Washington asked, with a firm and collected voice, “Is he gone?” All were too full Ior utterance, but an affirmative sign assured her that hlie was no more.‘Tis well,” she said, in the same voice, “all is over now; I shall soon follow him; I have no more trials to pass through.”

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NORTH CAROLINA. Area,………… 50,704 Square Miles. Population in 1860……..992,622 Population in 1870,…….. 1,071,404 THE State of North Carolina, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 33~

5.. and 360 33’ N. latitude, and between 75~ 25’ and 840 30’ W. longitude.

It is bound(ed on the north by Virginia and Tennessee, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by South Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Tennessee. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 450 miles, and its extreme width, from north to south, about 180 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. In the southern and southeastern parts of the State, the surface is level and sandy, and often marshy. These swamp lands are owned by the Board of Literature, in trust for the Public Schools, and are now offered to actual settlers on very liberal terms. “The better class of these lands are generally covered(l with a heavy and dense growth of timber, vines, reeds, and grass; the soil is from five to fifteen feet dee), an(l consists of decomposed vegetable matter, fine sand, and finely (omininuted clay. It produces exuberantly all the grains, grass, cotton, rice, peas, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, melons, the garden vegetables, apples, peaches, and grapes; but the best test of its fertility is its growth of Indian corn, an exhausting crop, which it will yield in large amounts, from year to year, without manures or stimulants, and for an in(lefinite period. It will not produce as much per acre as the heavy clay soils in the highest state of improvement; but considering 38 613 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. e difference of the expense of production, the crops of the former ar, vastly the more profitable. The average yield of Indian corn per acre, without the application of fertilizers or stimulants, is from fifty to seventy-five bushels; and experience has proved that this will continue, from year to year, for more than a century; while science infers, from the facts of the past and from careful analyses, that even two centuries of close cultivation will not exhaust thle natural and ever renewing fertility of these soils. Tile swamps of eastern North Carolina do not genlerate the malaria which, ill the marshy regions fulrther south, causes malignant fevers; and the experience of a large population devoted for over a century to open-air pursuits, will confirm the state mnlent that the laborers here, in the woods, in the fields, and on the waters, are generally as healthy as in any part of the country.” The great Dismal Swamnp, already described, occupies the upper part of the counties lying inmmediately north of Albemarle Sound. About sixty miles back from the coast, the surface begins to rise, and forms a fine hill country in the central part of the State. The western part is traversed by the ranges of the Alleghlany Mountains, one of which (the Iron Mountains) forms the boundary between North Carolina and Tennessee.

These mountains are rarely lower than 1000 feet. The principal peaks are Clingman’s Peak, 6941 feet, and Mount MAitchell, 6732 feet high, which form parts of the Black Mountains, and Roan Mountain, 6720 feet, Grandfather Mountain, 5788 feet, and Grandmother Mountain, 2500 feet high.

The coast is lined by a chain of low islands or sand reefs, which lie between the mainland and the ocean, enclosing a series of sounds or lagoons, which are very shallow and difficult of navigation. Albemare Sound, one of the most important of these, lies in the extreme northeastern part of the State, immediately south of the Dismal Swamp. It extends inland from the ocean about 60 miles, and is from 4 to 15 miles wide. Just northeast of it is a smaller body of water called Currituck Sound, with which it communicates by a narrow inlet. Communication is had with Pamlico Sound in the same way. Pamlico Sound lies immediately south of Albemarle Sound, and is separated from it by a swampy neck of land, which comprises the counties of Hyde, Tyrrel, Washington, and Beaufort.

The Sound is 80 miles long, and from 10 to 25 miles wide. Its average depth is about 20 feet, but nmany shoals occur in it. It is connected with Albemarle Sound at its northeastern extremity by a narrow inlet, in which, halfway between the two sounds, lies Roanoke Island, famous as 614

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NORTH CAROLINA. having been the site of the first English colony ill America, and the scene of a fierce and bloody battle during the late war.

The Roanoke and Chowan rivers are the principal streams flowing into Albemarle Sound, and the Tar and Netuse rivers the principal streams flowing into Pamlico Sound. The Roanoke River rises in two branches ill Virginia, which unite at Clarksville, in Mecklenburg coun ty, in that State. Its general course is east-southeast, as far as the northwest end of Halifax county (N. C.), where it enters North Caro linia, and flows southeast to Albemarle Sound. It meets tidewater at Weldon il Halifax county, 150 miles from its mouth, but above that place is frequently broken by rapids. The length of the main stream is 250 miles. Ogre of its branches, the Staunton River, is about 200 miles long, and is regarded by some writers as the true Roanoke. This would make the length of the river about 450 miles. The Tar River, the lower part of which is sometimes called the Pamlico River, rises near the western border of Granville county, and flows southeast into Pamlico Sound. It is navigable for small vessels to Tarborough, in Edlgecomibe county. The Neuse River rises in Person county, the central northern county of the State, and flowvs southeast into Pamlico Sound. It is about 300 miles long, and is the second river in size in the State. It is navigable to Waynesborough, 100
miles from its mouth, but light draught boats have ascended it 100 miles farther. Its lower part forms a broad estuary several miles wide, and about 25 miles long, through which it empties its waters. Extensive forests of pitch and pine lie along its upper waters, or more properly above Kinston. Goldsborough, Smiithfield, Kinston, and Newberne are its principal towns. The Cape Fear River, the principal stream in the State, is formed by the confluence, in Clhatham county, of the Haw and Deep rivers. It flows thence, in a southeasterly direction, through the centre of the State, into the Atlantic Ocean. At its mouth it is divided into two channels by Smith’s Island. It is the only river of the State flowing directly into the ocean, and is navigable to FayNetteville, 120 miles. By means of canals, dams, etc., boats are enable(I now to reach the coal mines of Chatham county. It is a little over 300 miles long. Wilmington, the principal city of the State, Fayetteville, and Elizabetlhtown are situated on its banks. Cape Fear, the most southern point of the State, is formed by the lower end of Smith’s Island. The mouth of the river is defended by Fort Fisher, which was bombarded and taken from the Confederates by the naval and land forcqs of the Union during the late war. The Yad 615

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. __ SEA COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA. kin (called the Great Pedee in South Carolina) and Catawba (WVateree in South Carolina), an(i several of the principal rivers of South Carolina rise inl and flow for some distance through tlhis State. The waters of Nortll Carolina abound in fish. The fisheries of PaI-ilico an(l Albeimarie Sounds are amongst thle mo-st valuabl)le in thle vorl(l. There are several inlets breaking tlhrough thle sal(l rid(-ge lying along tlhe coast, an(l several fine harbors within the limnits of the State. Thc most )iprominent p)oints of this ridge are known (conimmellcing onl the north) as Cape Ilatteras, Cape Lookout, and Cape Fear. SOII,, PRODIJCTIONS, CLIMATE, MINERALS, MANUFACTURES, etc. From a coimmunication from the Governor of Nortih Catoliniia to the United States Coimmissioner of Emnigration, we take the ftl]oowing dlescription, which fairly represents the present condition of the State: ” The eastern section is mostly covere(l w-ith pilles, the liddle an(l western with vast forests of oaks (of many species) intersperse(d witl the poplar, hickory, w,alnut, maple, etc. Seven large river.s, with their numerous tributaries, traverse the State, firnishing unlimited 616

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NORTH CAROLINA. waterpower as they flow down froni the mIountains thiroughI the middle seaction; a)nd as they miove withl a imoderate cerrent acrioss tle clatmpllll)aigni coulntry, on thle east, into the chain of sounds \wliici skirt the co-s, tlley furnislh witl tlhese an ag,gregate of 900 miles of inlalid tlx(iga - tion, which iiiglit )e doub)led by-carrying west\aird tlhe systeiii (f slack-w\ater iinproveieints already contimeneCe(l. Wit thesc( lea,vix’i,) \waters is interlac(ed the railroad systenl of the State, amounting to 99; l.iiles conmpleted, atnd 400 more in pro,gress, which, with 350 is of plaink-roa,(ls and turnpikes, I-)rings thie sea-coast inlto ready com nilunicationI with every part of the State. “THE SOIL is very various; alluvial and peaty accumulations abound near the coast and along the rivers, while in the middle and western regions the soil is mainly of granitic origin, and represents every grade of sandy or clayev loam of various fertility. “TiTHE CLIMATE has also a wi(le ranlge, being, tempered on the sea. l)oa.r(l to somnething like the mnildness of that of the Gulf States while iii tle i-(ountaini re,gioli it apl)t)roaeles the ri(,or of ew\ Yorrk. In the I ui(tle s(ectionj, \whicll constituLtes the larger part of tl-he State, andl rilt)reseInts thle average climate, the mean annual temperature is 60 (egrees (Fallrenhleit)-the mean summer temperature 75
deg,rees; nilean winter, 43 degrees; extreme summer (diurnal), 89 degrees; taverag,e absolute maximum, 99 degrees; extreme winter (diurnal), 20

(legrees; average absolute minimum, 12 degrees. The annual fall of rain is 45 inches. The number of cloudy days in the year is 130; rainy days, 60.

“TiHE VEGETABLE PPODUCTIONS are numerous. The most im portant are wheat, corn, oats, rye, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, rice, (otton, tobacco, turpentine, grapes, and fruits. Wheat and corn are I)ro(luce(d witll facility and abundance in all parts; rye, oats, and l)otatoes flourish in the middle and western regi(ons; rice, sweet potatoes and p)eas in the eastern; tobacco in the miidd(le; cotton in tlhe soutithlerii counties of the miiddle, and in the eastern section; turpentiine and })inle luitber are peculiar to the east. The fruits miost extensively :1(1 largely cultivated are the apple, peach, pear, and cherry, repres(nted I)y iinierouts varieties. No part of tlle continent is better :tlapted to these than the middle and western regions. The principal grasses are the orchard, herd’s, timiothiy, and bltue, to whilch mutst be added clover and lucerne. All these flourish in the middle and western regions, and some of themi grow wNil(l; hence, stockraising is (tvy i:)d profitable.. The stokl chiefly raised are horses, tunles, cows, 617

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sheep, and hogs. The grapes usually cultivated, Besides foreign varieties, are the Scuppernong, Catawba, Lincoln, and Isabella, all natives of the State, the first three being excellent wine grapes. The Scuppernong is peculiar to the eastern section.

The following abstract from the United States Census Report, will best show the productions and capabilities of the State: Live stock,….

Wheat,….. Corll,……. Oats,…….. Rye,….. Peas,….. Potatoes,.

Sweet potatoes, 3 Cotton,….. Tobacco…. Rice,…….. Wool,…..

Hloney…… Turpentine, br “THE [A~NUFACTUTRES . $22,000,000 h28,000
bushels annual product. .20,000,000 p ” a 3,225,000 ” ” ” 4,000 ” ” “
i,aoo,ooo;;; 740,000 ” ”’ 3,000,000 ” ” 5S,000,000 pounds per anniium. .

12,000,000 ” ” 2,100,000 ” ” 800,000 ” ” 1,500,000 ” ” ” 1,000,000
barrels’ ” are chiefly cotton, wool, spirits of turpen tine, lumber, iron, and paper. “The amount invested in the manufiacture of cotton is $2,250,000; lumber, $1,000,000; turpentine, $2,000,000; iron, $500,000; wool, $350,000. “FISHERIES abound in the sounds and rivers of the eastern counties. The species of fish mostly taken are the herring, shadl, blue-fish, mullet, and rock. The number of barrels annually packed for market is about 100,000 on the waters of Albemarle Sound. Considerable quantities are packed at other points. “MINERALS.-The most important of these are coal, iron, gol(l, copper, silver, lead, plumnbago, limestone, marble, agolmlatolite, soapstone, manganese, whetstones, grindstones, roofing-slates, porcelain clay, and fire-clay. The coal is bituminous, and exists in two beds, situated respectively one hundred and two hundred mn)iles from the coast, on Cape Fear River and on Dan River. It is abundant, accessible, and of good quality. Iron ore of excellent quality abounds in all parts of the State; the principal seats of its manufaicture being on the Cape Fear, Catawba, and Yadkin rivers. Gold is found in almost all parts of the State, especially in the middle region; the annual product for many years has been $250,000. Copper mines abound in the.middle, northern, and western counties. Plumbago is 618

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NORTH CAROLINA. iobund in great abundance near the capital, and again in the western region; marble in the middle and western; and marl everywhere in the eastern section. A chain of silver and lead mines (containing gold also) traverses the central portion of the State.” COMMERCE. The exports of North Carolina are principally pitch, tar, turpentine, cotton, and rice. In 1860, the commerce of the State was as follows: Exports $760,094; imports $365,931. A vigorous trade with the Northern States has sprung up since the war. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were 1190 miles of completed railroad in North Carolina, constructed at a cost of about $30,000,000. TNwo main lines cross the State, one from Weldon to Wilmington, the other from Danville, Virginia, to Charlotte. There is still another important road fromnt Greensboro in Guilford county, to Morehead City, on the Atlantic coast. This road crosses the Wilmington and Weldon road at Goldsborough. There is direct communication between the important towns of this State, by the lines above mention’ed and their branches, and also with all parts of the Union. The roads of North Carolina were almost destroyed during the war, and are slowly recovering from their losses. EDUCATION. The University of North Carolina is located at Chapel Hill, in Orange county. It was founded in 1789, and with “its lands, emolumenrts, and firanchises, is under the control of the State, and is to be held to an inseparable connection with the Free Public School System of the State. The benefits of the University as far as practicable are to be extended to the youth of the State, free,of expense for tuition.

Previous to the late war, this institution was in a very flourishing condition, but its resources have been crippled by the failure of the State Bank, in which $200,000 of its endowment was invested. The Board of Education elect for the University one Trustee for each county in the State, whose term of office is eight years. One-fourth of the Trustees are chosen every second year. The Board of Education and the Presidest of the University are ex-offcio members of the Board of Trustees, and with three other Trustees to be ap)pointed by the Board, constitute the Executive Committee of the Trustees of the University of North Carolina. The Governor is ex-oqicio President 619

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the Board of Trustees, and Clairinan of the Executive Commnittee of the University. “Before the war, public schools were maintained in the State, by means of the income derived from tile Literary Fund, which amounted to $2,500,000 in 1860. About half of thils futlnd was swept away by the wvar; and the system of district schools, which had brought a rudimienttry education within the reach of all, free of cost, was prostrated, blit measures have been taken to revive it. “The Constitution provides for a general and unifoim-sy’steiti (ft Free Pul)lic Schools. Tile Governor, Lieutenant-Governori-,.crtary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Superintendent of Public Srors. Suplerintendent of Public Instruct;on, and Attorniey-Geiicral (onstitute a State Board of Edulcatio’., which succeeds to all the l)owers and trusts of the President ali(l Directors of the Literary Fundn of Northl Caro lina, and has ftuill power to legislate and nlake all needful rules and regulations in relation to Free Public Schools, and the Ed(ucational F’Ln(u. The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the chief oversighlt of the schools. Each county is divided into scelool districts, in each of lwhich one or iore public schools must be rnailntainecd at least four nmonths in the year. The schools of each county are under the supervision and control of county commnissioners elected biennially.” * Ii] 1870 there were about 1250
schools in the State, attended by 32,650 white, and 12,350 colored children. in. 1860 there were 16 colleges in the State. In the same year there were in North Carolina 1746 libraries, containig 3,687,363 volumes.

The newspapers and p)eriodicals of the State were 64 in number, with an aggregate circulation of 6,684,950 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. This State has no Penitentiary, but the Constitution of 1868 reqIi,r:(s that one shall be erected as speedily as possible, and also authorizes tihe establishment of Houses of Refuge and WVorkhouses, as they IXa (y recome necessary. The St(te Insane A.sylum, at Raleigh, is an excellent institution. It was in a very prosperous condition before the war, tbut during hostilities it was greatly im})overish(ed, and was greatly inconvenienced ly the lalck of funds and( sulpl)lies. It is now in operation under il.ore favorable auspices, and has about 180 inmnates.

*American Year Book, vol. i. p. 424. 620

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NORTHI CAROLINA. The Ins8titution for the Dea(f a-d D)unib an,d Blind, at Raleiglh, was closed for a while during the war, but was reo)pened( in Janu-,ry, 1866. l3ind(ing books, and makilng shoes and l)rooms, constitute tl}: p,rin(iI)al work of its pupils. In 1867 it had 93f inmates, 26 of wlich were blind. RELIGIOUS DENOM()AINATIONS. In 1 87’(, thIe value of elnllir li,’ l)rt ii the State wvas $2,487,877, and tIhe liu:l her of chll(-llcS, 2497. FINANCES. In January, 1874, the State debt naimounted to $;38,948,828. The annual expenses of the State, iiieluding, the interest, at six per cent. on the debt, are about -,3,0()00,C0), and are provided for by taxation. In 1868 there were 6 National Banks in the State, with a capital of $653,300. GOVEIRNMiAENT. The present Constitution of Northi Carolinia was adopted Ly the people in April, 1868. T”le present State officers were elected at the sami,e time, and lol(d offiee for foutr years fromn thie 1st of’ January-, 1869. Every nmale citizen, 21 years old, who Jies rei(led( ill the State one ),ear, and in the county six months, lhas tlie rig,lt to ot(‘ aft the elections, but no person mnay vote without beiing registere(l. The Government of the State is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Attorney-General, an(l a Legislature, consistiing of a Senate (of 50
nmembrers) and Hotl(s( of Representatives (of 120 membl)ers), all chosen by the leple The Executive officers are chosen evely fourtlh year, and Imemuhbers of the Legislature every two years.‘1l\e Governor is advised iin his duties I)y a Council of State, of wNlichi tle (Se(retarv of State rea surer, by~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ate, Tc~rr Auditor, and( the Silperintend(nets of Putilic Aorks and of Publie Instruction, are ex-oftecio memAers. A separate journal of the proceedings of this Council is kept, whi(h mIust t)e submnitted to the Legislature for exaimination whenever called for. The courts of the State are the Sul)reme Court, S,i)erior Court, and one County Court for each county, tlle jul(ges of whiclh are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Clhief Justice and four Associate Justices. For purposes of government, North Carolina is divided into 86 counties. Italeigh, in WakIe county, is the capital of the State. 621

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HISTORY. The first attempt of the English to settle their possessions in America, was made at Roanoke Island, ill this State, in 1585. Thel colonists got into trouble with the Indians, and the settlement was abandoned the following year. In 1630, an immense tract of land, southl of the Chesapeake, was granted to Sir Robert Heath, and called Carolin a. As he did not colonize it, however, the grant was afterwards declared forfeit. Ill 1663, the territory was granted by Charles II. of England to a company of eight of the most distinguishled noblemen of England. This grant embraced the territory lying between latitudes 29~ and 36~ 30’ north, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The grantees were given fiall powers over their domain. The northern part of this province’ was, about this time, settled by dissenters from Virginia.

It was called Albemarle, and an absurd Constitution for its government was drawn up for the proprietors by John Locke. It was fo)r about twentyfive years, nominally, the supreme law of the province, but was at length abandoned, because of the impossibility of carrying out its provisions.

The colonists, however, showed a rare wvisdom in the establishment of their government. They carefilly guarded the rights of property and of person, and granted entire freedoin in matters of religion. The colony grew and prospered slowly, and in 1674 contained only 4000 inhabitants.

Its early history, however, was marked by continuous strife between the authorities and the inlhabitants. In 1695, John Archdale, a Quaker, was appointed Governor. By a series of wvise measures, he succeeded in restoring order and quiet, and in establishing churches and providing for their suippI)ort. During his administration tar and turpentine were first exporte(l. In 1711, by the aid of troops from Virginia, a rebellion which had been incited by Thomas Cary, who wished to retain his place as Governor, was suppressed. A little later, the Tuscarora Indians commenced a merciless war upon the settlers. They were conquered, with the aid of the neighboring colonies, in 1713, and compelled to move northward. In 1729, the king purchased the privileges of the proprietors, and Carolina became a royal province, and was divided into two colonies, called North and South Carolina. Slavery was introduce(l into the colony at an early day, and continued to form the basis of its agricultural industry until 1865. In 1765, the population was greatly increased by the arrival of a band of Presbyterians from the north of Ireland, who settled in the northwestern 622

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NORTH CAROLINA. part of the State. They were followed by a colony of Moravians, who settled between the Yadkin and Dan rivers, and a colony of Highlanders, who settled on the upper Cape Fear, near the present town of Fayetteville. The colony actively supported the measures of resistance to the aggressions of the crown, and was represented ill the first Continental Congress, which met in 1774. The Governor endeavored to pit a stop to the “seditious” proceedings of the patriots, but without effect. A hlearty cooperation was given to the cause of the United Colonies, and in May, 1775, a convention of the people of Mecklenburg county formally thlrew off their allegiance to Great Britain, and proclaimed the independence of North Carolina. This declaration was not generally sustained in the province, however. Ill July, 1775, the Governor took refuge on board a man of war in Cape Fear River, fromn which he issued his orders to his partisans to join him on the coast. They made several efforts to do so, being very numerous in the State. In the summer of 1775, a party of 15()0 loyalists, under command of McDonald and McLeod, on their way to thle coast, were met by a force of patriots, under Caswell and Moore, and routed, with a loss of 850 prisoners, includilng McDonald.

McLeod was killed. The assembly took vigorous measures to maintain the cause of the colonies, and between August 20th, 1775, and Jtuly, 1776, ordered nine regiinents to be raised for service in the American army. In April, 1776, the delegates of the colony, in the Continental Congress, were ordered to iunite with the delegates of the other colonies in a declaration of independence of the British crown. In December, 1776, a State Constitution was adopted. North Carolina was partly exempt from the horrors of the war until 1780. The successes of the British forces in Georgia encouraged a strong party of tories to rise in arms, and 700 of them set out to joinl the British at Augusta, Georgia. They were met and routed on their march by Pickens’ partisan band of South Carolina. Seventy of them were tried for and convicted of treason, and five of them were hanged. Two parties of tories rose in 1780. One succeeded in reaching the British outposts, but the other was dispersed. On the 9th of October, 1780, the strongest body of tories, wlhich had yet taken arms for the king, was defeated at King,‘s Mountain, by a force of militia under Shelby and Sevier. They lost 150 killed, including their leader, General Fergussan, and a large Inumber wounded. The rest, 800 inr number, surrendered, and 10 of their leaders were hanged on the field. 623

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. TIe battle of Guilford Court House, (March 15th, 1781,) in which General Greene was detfated, was lbughIt in this State. Northl Cario lina ftirnisiled lher full qut(,tI of men during the war, and fairly won the )rivileges which the successful issue of the struggle broug(ht the States. In 1784, the State ceded to the United States the territory lno\v ealbraced in the State of Teinnessee. The Constitution of the Uiite(I States (lid not prove acceptable to Northl Carolina, tild w-as rejected b)y the Convention in 1788, but was finally ratifie(l in 1789. The sympathies of the people of North Cariolina were with the Southl in the late war, and on the 20th of May, 1861, an ordinance of secession was adopted, and( thle State witl(hdrew from the Union and joined the Southern Confed(leracy. Large numbers of troops were contributed to the Coiife(lerate army, and the forts along the coast were occupiedl. Fort HIltt(ras, ait Hlqtteras Inlet, was taken by the Federal fleet in 1861, and( F(o,t Fishl,,r tnd the other defences of the Cape Fear, l)y thle armey and navv in 1865. The fall of Fort Fisher opened tlhe wayv to WilIllingt,ton, which was at once occupied by the Union army. The State was held by thl-e varioutis columns of Sherman’s arimy, in 1865, wvhicl a(lvaneed from Chfieriaw, Southl Carolina throu(Ih Fayetteville, and fromi \Vilmington, and Morehead City, and conl(entrate(l at Gold(lshorouI), after which they advanced on IRaleigh. The Colifet(erates na(le several efforts to clleclk this advance, but were too weak to acconmplishl anytlhing. The l)attles of Averasboro and Bellntoinville were folglilt by the armies of Sherman an(l Johnston, and tlhe ]atter general surrendered his forces to the former, near Raleiglh, and (losed(l the war in the State. During the war, several severe strtug,gles o(ccurred onl the coast, the principal of vwhichl were the capture of R(oa]olIe Islad by the Union fr(es, and of Plymouthl by the Confederates. In 1865 a Provisionail Governor was appoillted by the President, and in 1867 the State l)ecalea a part of the ” Second Military District,” commanded by \l-Major-General Daniel E. Sic(kles. A State Convention was held in 1868, which adopted the present Constitultion. This instrument was ratifie(l by the people at the polls in April, and onlthe 25th of June, 1868, Congress formally readmitted the State into the Union. CITIES AND TO,NV -NS. The principal cities and( towns are, Newl)erne, Fayetteville, zalisbury, Char]otte, He(nderson, Elizabethl City, Be(aufort, \Warrenton, Greensboro, Kincton, and( Tarboro. 624

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NORTH CAROLINA. CAPITOL AT RALEIGH. RALEIGH, The capital of the State, is situated in Wake county, 4 miles west of the Neuse Riiver, 286 miles southwest of Washington, latitude 35~ 47t-‘ N., longitude 78~ 48’ W. It is very near the centre of the State, and lies in the mid(st of a beautiful country. The site of the (.ity is elevated, and is noted for its healthfulness. Ttre city is well I)iilt as a rule, the central portion is occupied by a hlandsomie parks, (overing 10 acres, and known as Union Square. FIromi this parlk flt)lr.streets, each 100 feet in width, radiate in as manay dlirections; tli(ste streets divide the city into four parts, each of whicl) is a sqtlire of’ four a(cies. In Union Square stands the State House, a mnagniiceent edifice, anfl one of the largest and most imiposing of all the State Capitols. It is built of granite in imtitation of the Partlhenoi, is surrounded with colulmns of the samne material, and(
is crowned with a grand dome. It is 166 feet long by 90 feet wide. Raleigh also contains the Governor’s residence, and the other State buildings, the ,tate Lunatic Abylunm, and thle NYorth Carolina Institution fo, the Deaf and Dumb, a.Coirt-house, a jail, 5 cliturir(hes, and about 9 newvs 625

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. paper offices. It has direct railway communication with all parts of the State and the Union. Raleigh “was made the capita] of North Carolina in 1788. It is named after Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1870 the population was 7790. WILMINGTRON, The largest city in the State, is situated in New Hanover county, on the east bank of the Cape Fear River, just below the entrance of the northeast branch of the Cape Fear into the main stream. It is 34 miles from the sea, 135 miles southeast of Raleigh, and 416 mile southwest of Washington City. The city is located in a plain extending back from the river, and those of the streets that are not paved are very sandy. As a general rule the city is well built. It contains several fine public buildings, a number of churches, several public and private schools, a theatre, and about 4
newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and has an efficient police force. It is the handsomest city in the State, and is regarded as a pleasant place of residence. Wilmington is the chief commercial city of North Carolina. It is connected with all parts of the Union by railway.

Lines of steamers navigate the Cape Fear to Fayetteville, and steamships ply regularly between this port and the principal cities of the Northern and Southera States. Large quantities of rice, cotton, turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, lumber, and naval stores are exported annually from Wilmington. In 1861, the year before the civil war, the tonnage of the district was 14,511 tons registered, anid 10,394 licensed and enrolled.

The war struck a severe blow at the commerce of the city, but it is now rapidly regaining its former proportions. The city contains a number of steam saw-mills, planing and rice-mills, machine shlops, and distilleries.

Wilmington is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 13,446. Wilmington was originally called Newton, and was given its present name in honor of an English nobleman of that name, who had secured Governor Johnston the government of the colony. It was settled before the Revolution, and during the war was merely an unimportant village. It was occupied by the British in January, 1781, and held by them until the close of the war. During the civil war it was strongly fortified by the Confederates, and was one of the principal )orts from which they kept up their communications with Europe. It was the centre of a large blockade trade. It was blockladedcl by the 626

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NORTH CAROLINA. Unites States fleet during the war, but the arrival and departure of vessels from foreign ports continued with great regularity, until the capture of Fort Fisher, and the defences at the mouth of the Cape Fear, by a combined attack of the land and naval forces of the United States on the 15th of February, 1865. On the 22d of the same month, Wilmington was occupied by the United States army, and remained in their possession until the close of the war. NEWBERNE, A flourishing town in Craven county, is one of the principal ports of the State. It is situated at the junction of the Netse and Trent rivers, 50 miles from Pamlico Sound, and 120 miles southeast of Raleigh. It is a fine old town, substantially built, and attractive in appearance, and is connected with all parts of the State by railway. It is a place of considerable trade.

The Neuse is a mile wide at this point, and is navigable for steamers for about 8 months in the year. The principal exports are grain, lumber, turpentine, tar, and naval stores. Newvberne contains the county buildings, several churches, schools, and 2 newspaper offices. In 1870 the population was 5849. Newberne is one of the oldest towns in the State, and was at one time the capital of North Carolina. In March, 1861, it was attacked and captured by the United States forces, under General Burnside, after a sharp fight of four hours. CHARLOTTE, Ill Mecklenburg county, is one of the most important towns in the State. It is situated on Sugar Creek, 158 miles westsouthwest of Raleigh. It is pleasantly located in a beautifill country, and lies in the mid(st of the gold region of the State. In 1838, a branch Mint was established here by the United States, for the purpose of coining the gold mined in this section. The war put an end to its operations, and since then it has not been revived. Charlotte contains several churches and schools, 2 newspaper offices, and the county buildings. It is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and possesses a considerable trade. In 1870 the population was 4473. Charlotte was settled before the Revolution. The famous Meclklenbnrg Convention met here in 1775, and adopted its Declaration of Independence. The British troops occupied the town in 1780, and it was here that General Greene relieved Gates of the command of thf American army.. 627

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANIES. THE FIRST ENGLISHl COLONY IN

AMERICA. Sir Ilumplirey Gilbert is entitled to the lionor of planting the first Englishl colony in America. His first expedition, on which hlie had expended much of his private fortune, tailed-firom what cause is uncertain. The second expedition, undertaken tour years afterwards, was still more un fortunate; for it lost to the world the gallant and accomplished projector of the expedition. Five vessels sailed fromn Plymouth on Tuesday, tile 11th of June, 1583. Two days afterward, the vice-admiral complained of sickness aboard, and returned withl the finest ship in the fleet to Plymouth. The admiral, nevertheless, continued his course with his little squadron, and took possession, with the feudal cerelmony, of Newfoundland, to be held by him as a fief of the crown of Eng land, in accordance with the terms of his charter. ‘I’lie looseness of morals displayed by the mariners of that day is truly disgust ing, ad increases our wonder at the daring of men who could venture so far from home, in such frail barks, with almost a certainty of encountering on the g,reat hi,ghlway, in their fellow-men, greater perils than were presented by all the terrors of the deep. Robbery by sea was too common, and often committed in violation of the mlost sacred obligations, even upon persons engaged in the very act of relieving the distress of the depredators.

Gilbert seems to have beeni cursed with a remarkably riotous and insubordinate company. The sick and disaffected were left at Newfoundland, to be sent home with the Swallow, and the admiral proceeded with his three remaining barks. On Tuesday, the 20thl of August, they sailed from the hlarb)or of St. John’s, and on the 29thl, in about latitude 44 degrees, the largest remaining vessel, by the carelessiess of the crew, struck, and went to pieces, and the other barks were forced by a high sea and a lee shore to struggle for their own preservation, which they accomplished with difficulty-alleging, at the same time, that they could see none )tf the crew of the wreck floating upon timl)ers, but all seemed to have gone down when the shil) broke up. A few, however, escaped to Newfoundland iii the ship’s pinnace, as was afterwards discovered. This calamity, followed by continual storms, in an unknown and shoaly sea, enhanced by an extreme scantiness of provisions, and want of clothes and comforts in the twvo little barks which yet remained, induced the admiral, at the earnest solicitation of his men, to return homeward. Sir Humphrey Gilbert was velhenmently persuaded by the crew of the Gol(lden Ilind to remain with them during the voyage; l)ut, as some manlicious taunts had been thllrown out by some evil-disposed person, accusing him of being afraid of the sea, he chose to continue to sail inll his little pinnace, the Squirrel, which was burdened beyond her strength. After the vessels had left the Azores to the soutli, and reached the latitude of Englan,d, they encountered violent and continued storms. On Monday, the 9th of Septembl)er, the Squirrel was nearly cast away, but recovered, and the admiral was seen sitting abaft with a bookl in his hand, and lheard to cry out to those in tle Ilindl, “

We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.” That same night, at 12
o’clock, the Squirrel being in advance, her light suddenly disappeared, andI hier hardy crew, with their gallant commander. sleep forever in the deep. Tlhe ttind reached Falmouth in safety, but after encountering imminent peril to the last moment 628

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NORTH CAROLINA. Tlhe daring spirit of the mariners of that day is amazing.

Sir Walter Raleigh, the step-biotlier tof Sir Humphrey Gilbert, so far from being intimidated by the melanchloly fate of his relative, or disheartened by the unprofitable and disastrous termination of most of the voyages to America, undertook in the very next year an expedition to the coast of the present United States. He easily obtained one of the usual unlimiited patents from Elizabetlh, and, leaving the cold northl, with its barren snows, its storms, icebergs, and certain evils, togethler with its imagin tary wealtl, hle spread his sails for the sweet southl, where he was sure to tind a fertile soil and a d(lelightful climate, though his ship’s company miglit not all be enriched by the discovery of gold. On the 2d of July they found shloal water, ” and smelt so sweet and strong a smell, as if tlley had b)een in the m.dst of some delicate garden al)bounding with all kinds of odoriferous flowers.” On tlhe 13tli, they entered Ocracock Inlet, on the coast of the present State of North Carolina, and landed on Wocoken Island. They commenced an inter course with tlhe natives, who proved to be bold, confiding, intelligent, and hlongr able to their friends, but treacherous, revengeful, and cruel towards their enemi;.s. The English explored a little the sturroundiing islands and bays, and returned home in Selptember, carrying with them two natives, Manteo and Wanchlese. The glowing description given by the adventurers, on thleir return, of the beauty of the countlry, the fertility of the soil, and pleasantness of the climate, delighted the queen, and induced her to name thle country of which she had taken posses sion, Virginia, in commiemoration of her unmarrield life. It might be expected that so favorable an account would soon lead to a new expedition.

Accordingly, another was prepared for the succeeding year, con. sisting, of seven vessels. Ralph Lane was appointed by Raleighl, Governor of the’

colony, vlwhichl consisted of 108 persons. Sir Richard Grenville took command of tlle fleet, an(l several learned and accomplished men attended the expedition, one of whlom has transmitted to posterity many interesting particulars of the nature of the country, and the habits, mnanners, and government of its inhabitants. The Englishl soon bIegan to maltreat the harmless, unpretending, and simple natives, and they, on the other hand, to grow jealous of tlhe power of the overbearing strangers. Thley soon learned the inordinate passion of the newcomers tor gold, and, taking advantag,e of their credulity, inflicteld upon them the labor of many fruitless exped(litions in search of preten(led minies-lhoping, at the same time, by these divisions. to vweatkeii the po(wer of tlhe( little colony to such a degree that they iii,llt be able to (lestroy it in detachment; but the English were too cautious flor thlis, and went too slhort a distance, and in force too powerful for the Indians to encoutnter with the great disparity of arms. The greatest advantage which accrued fromn these expeditions, and indeed from the whole attempt at a settlement, was the discovery of Chesapeake Bay. The little colony, finding no gold, and receiving no supplies from England, had begun to despond, when miost unexpectedly Sir Francis Drake arrived, on his retutrn fi’om his expedition against the Spaniards in South America, with a fleet of’ 23 ships. The sagacity of Drake perceived in a moment what was necessary for tie colony, and his generosity supplied them with provisions, vessels, and( other things necessary to maintain their position, extend their researches, andcI, if necessary, to retturn to Eng,land; but the accomplishment of his purpose was defeated by a violent storm whlichl suddenly arose, and nearly wrecked his whole fleet, driving the,essel of provisions intended tor the colQny to sea, and 39 629

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. destroying thle vessels which had been set apart to be left for their use. He would have supplied otliers; bI)ut the colony, with their Governor at their head, earnestly. requesting permission to return to England, he complied with their wishes. Thus terminated the first Englishl settlement in America. This little colony, during its sojourn witli tlhe Indians, had acquired something of their fondness for the use of tobacco, and learned to regard it with almost the same superstitious reverence, as a powertful medicinal agent. Upon their return, they introduced the use of’ this plant into England; and a weed at first disgustiug and nauseating to all who use it. has become gradually the favorite luxury (and indeed with many a necessary oft’ life) of all classes of’ society, and of both the young and the old throughout the world-and this, after experience has proved that in most cases it is an injury rather thanl a benefit to the health. ‘I’HE GREAI’ErS’[ [

AMERI(,AN. I’lThe largest man on record was MIiles Dardenl, a native of Northl Carolina, wvho was born in 1798, and who died in Tennessee in 1857.

He was 7 feet and 6 inches high, and in 1845 weighecld 872 pounds. At his death hle weighed a little over 1000 pounds. In 1839, his coat was buttoned around three men, each of them weigiing over 200 pounds, who walked together in it across the Square at LexingtonI. In 1850, it required 131-yards of cloth, 1 yard wide, to make him a coat. Until 1853
lie was active and lively, and able to bear labor; but from that time wAas compelled to stay at home, or be hauled about in a two-horse wagon. His coffin was 8 feet long, 35 inches deep, 32 inches across the breast, 18
inches across the head, and 14 ielnch-es across the feet. It required 24
yards of black velvet to cover the sidles and lid of the coffin.:Miles Darden was twice married, and liis children are very large, though it is probable that none of them will ever attain the gigantic weight and size of their father. 630,

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SOUTH CAROLINA. Area,………. 34,000 Square Miles. Pop)ulation ill 1860;…….. 703,708 (Whites, 291,388; Negroes, 412,320) Population in 1870,,….. 705,6 16 THE State of South Carolina, one of the 13 original States of the Union, lies between 32~ and 35~ 10’ N. latitude, and between 78~ 35’ and 83~ 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north and nortlheast by Nortll Carolina, on the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Georgia. The State is almost triangular in shape. The Savannah River forms the western boundary, and separates it from Georgia; and the coast line is about 200 miles long. TOPOGRAPHY. Along the coast, and for about 100 miles inland, the surface is low and san(iy. Large swamps occupy the lower part of the State, and in this district rice is extensively cultivated. A chain of low islands of great fertility and beauty extends along the coast, separated from the mainland by a series of shallow lagoonis, through which navigation is maintained between Charleston and Florida, safe from the violence and dangers of the sea.

Tlhese islands extend down the Georgia and Florida coast, and produce the famous “Sea Island Cotton.” About 100 miles inland, a large sandy tract occurs, and is known as the “Midland country.” Bevond this is thle “Ridge,” a sudden elevatioii, which is overtopped in the northwest by the Blue Ridge Moulntains, which cross this part of the State, and attain their greatest height in Table Mountain, 4000 feet above the sea. “From the tnQutth of the Great Pedee River to that of the Savannah, the coast of South Carolina is lined with a series of bays, sounds, 631

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and lagoons, which, thlougth mostly shallow, have sufficient depth to allow of an extensive coasting navigation. Comnmencing at the Great Pedee, and proceeding south, we have Winyaw Bay, at the mouth of that river; then, in order, Bull’s Bay, Charleston Harbor, St. Helena Sound, and Port Royal Entrance, with a number of smaller inlets. The harbor of Beaufort is much the best of these, admitting vessels ldrawving, 11 feet water; Charleston Harbor is obstructed by a dangerous bar; St. Helena Sound is the most capacious of these inlets, but is beset with shoals. Georgetown, at the head of Winyaw Bay, can only be reached by vessels of small draught; and Stono Inlet, south of Charleston, has but 10 feet water on the bar. The Santee River, with its main affluents, the Congaree and Wateree, passes almost directly throL,ugh the middle of the State. It is about 100 miles from thle junction of the CotIgaree and WVateree to the mouth of the Santee, and about 300 miles from their confluence to their sources in North Carolina.

The Great Pedee enters the State fromii North Carolina (where it bears the name of Yadkin), and courses through the northeast part of South Carolina, about 150 miles, into Winyaw Bay; the Saluida and Broad rivers drain the northwest of the State, and unite to form the Congaree; the Broad River rises in the west of North Carolinia; the Edisto and Combahee drain the southwest of the State, and flow into the Atlantic after courses of 150 to 200 miles; Lynchi’s Creek is a tributary from the west, and Wacamaw and Little Pedee from the east of the Great Pedee; all have their sources in North Carolina. The larger streams run in a southeast direction, and fulrnish an inland navigation of about 2400 miles, apart from the creeks and inlets of the sea. The Savannah River can be navigated by steamboats to Hamburg, and for smaller boats still higher. The Wacamaw may be ascended 12 miles, the Great Pedee 200 miles, the Congaree and the Wateree about the same distances by steamboats. All these rivers are boatable above the distances mentioned, for keelboats. Greenville is the only district in the State without the advantage of navigation. Watercourses abound in all the districts favorab)le for mill-sites.” * MINERALS. The Agricultural Bureau of the United States makes the following statement of the mineral resources of the State in 1868: “Iron of superior quality, in great abundance, is fo)und in Spartan * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1814.

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SOUTH CAROLINA. burg, but only used for plantation purposes; ore is reported in Abbeville. Gold is found in Spartanburg, in Piekens (where a company is successfully at work, near Walhalla), in Abbcville (vlwhere’Horn’s gold mine,’ discovered in 1834, hlas already yielded $1,000,000, and is still worked with profit); and in York some mines have lately been sold to Northlern capitalists, including some California miiners. Lead, also, is found ill Spartanburg,, copper and silver in Pickens, very pure ochre in Abbeville, and imniense beds of kaolin and superior btihrstone. Marl in Barnwell contains a large percentage of lime.

This district has had several manufactories of cotton, paper, etc., in profitable operation, and some are yet running successfully.” CLIMATE. The climate of South Carolina corresponds with that of the south of France, and of Italy. The winter is mild and short, the spring is pleasant, and the heats of the sunimer are tempered by the cool seabreezes which sweep over the State. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is divided into six varieties; 1. Tho Tide Swamp, which is devoted exclusively to the cultulre of rice. 2 The Inland Swaml), in which grow rice, cotton, corn, and peas. 3. The Salt Marshl, in which grows the long cotton. 4. The oak and pine, in which grow long cotton, corn, potatoes, etc. 5. The oak and hickory, growing short cotton and corn. 6. The Pine Barrens, devoted to fruits, corn, etc. A publication, recently issued by the State authorities, gives the following account of the productions of South Carolina: “The usual prodIuctions of this State are cotton, the long and short staple, rice, both swvaml) and upland, tobacco, indigo, sugar, wheat, rye, corn, oats, millet, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, sorgllium, broom(orn, sunflower, guinea corn, sweet potatoes, and Irish p)otatoes.

Henpl), flax, and hops grow luxuriantly. Of fruits, our or(hlard(s will showv apples, piears, quinces, pI)lunms, peaches, apricots, nectarines, cherries, oranges, lemons, olives, figs, ponmegranates, and the American date, the persimmons, of many kinds. Of berries, we have thile mulberry, raspberry, strawberry, blackl)erry, huckleberry, sparklleberry, and elderberry.  Of nutits, we have the walnut, pecan nut, chestnut, hickory, hazel-nut, and chlincapin. The grape grows luxuriantly in 633

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RICE FIELDS, SOUTH CAROLINA. every portion of the State. Iln our woods and swamps enormots vines are found, extending to thle topmost branches of the tallest forest-trees. Around Aiken, about 500 acres are now planted ill grapes, and the quantity increases annually.

The vines are liealtly and vigorous. Thle silkworm thrives well witlh us, and the Ylorm multicaulis flourishes without any more care or attention than any of our forest-trees, and the growthl is so rapid that the leaves can be used the second year after planting,. The tea-plant is successfully cultivated. Of garden products, we lhave turnips, carrots, parsnil)s, articholes, mustard, benne, rhubarb, arrow-root, water-melons, muskmelons, cucumbers, cabbages, klale, salads, peppers, squaslies, tomatoes, pum)lpkins, onions, leeks, oikra, cauliflower, beans, peas, radishes, celery, etc., etc.-ill short, almost whatever can be raised in any garden in tile world. Of flowers, we liave in our gardens whatever the earth “rill yield in beauty and fragrance. The rose is a hledge-plant, the japlonica blossoms in the open air throughtlout the winter, the jasmine perfimies our thlickets, an(l the violet borders our roads.” The principal products of tlhe State are about as follows: Pounds of rice………….32,304,825 Blcs of cotton,……………… 224,500

Bushels.of whleat…………783,610 634

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SOUTH CAROLINA. Bushels of corn…………. ” peas arid beans,………..

sweet potatoes,……… Pounds of butter,…………….. Tile agriculture of South Carolitat wrls mnuel damaged by) the war. Many of the inland plantations, and nearly all al(ong tile coast were ruined, and the abolition of slavery p)roduced serious losses by greatly demoralizing the only class of laborers available. The State is slowtly recovering from its miisfortunes. It lhais, however, a serious difficulty to contend ag,ainst-the majority of its inhabitants are negroes. Whatever we may hope for them ill the filture, the blacks are now in a wretched condition of ig,norance and degradation, and it will require all the energy and genius of the Palmetto State to rise to the position to which it is naturally entitled.

COMMERCE. The foreign trade of South Carolina was very large previous to the war, owing to her heavy exports of cotton and rice, much of which was also shipped to the Northern States. The principal port is Charleston. In 1860, the total exports of the State amounted to $21,205,337, and the imports to $1,569,570. MANUFACTURES. Agriculture being almost the exclusive pursuit of the people, manufactures are comparatively neglected in South Carolina, th-ough thie northwestern part of the State is admirably suited to themln, havilg t salubrious climate, and an abundance of fine waterpower. In 1870, the aggregate capital of the manufactures of this State was $5,400,418. The annual product of manufactures-and mining was $9,858,981. “With the raw material on the spot,” says a recent State publication, “and waterpower and fuel everywhere in abundance, no )etter op)ening for the establishment of factories can ainywhere be found than in South Carolina. This must be obvious to all reflecting milds. We have the cotton, the nmost valuable manufacturing material in the world, growing in fields on the borders of wAhich the stream passes by, wvlere the mill would find an effective site we have the iron ore iii abundance, and the fuel niear at hand, to make our own metal and buil(l our own machinery; we have the clay for stoneware and pottery, the fine lkaolin for porcelain, and the silica for glass, in many portions of the Sltate; we have the fine-grainlled and hard wBoods inl ‘635 7,614-,207 460,378 .1,342,165

1,461,980

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. our forests for all the branches of cabinet-miaking; and we have an (excellent and ever-ready market for all our produce. The port of Charleston is connected by a system of railroads with all parts of the State and the whole country, the harbor is safe and capa(,ious, and is visited by vessels from all parts of the world. In addition, we have the port of Georgetown, and the magnificent Port Royal, situated ill a iich and fertile region, enjoying a pleasant and salubrious climate, deep and capacious enough for the iuanceuvres of the largest war-vessels in the world.” INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The railroads of South Carolina were almost destroyed by thle contending armies during the war, hut are now slowly Ibut surely recovering from their prostration. In 1872, there were 1000 miiles of com l)leted railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of $25,208,000. “A glance at the mal),” continues the publication from which we have just quoted, “will show that a railroad station is within easy reach of every corner of the State. The Charleston and Savannah Railroa(l connects us with all the principal Southern cities.

The South Carolina Railroad runs up to Columbia, the capital of the State, and by a branch to Augusta, fromnt thence forming a chain of connections with the Western States. The Greenville and Columbia Railroad, by its main line and several branches, reaches every western and northwestern section of the State, and by its connection with the Blue Ridge Railroad (which for the present terminates at the German town and settlement of Walhalla, in Pickens District), will in a few years ufinite us with Cincinlnati, in Ohio. The Columbia and Chlarlotte Railroad traverses the northern sections of the State, and, l)y the Danville Railroad, terminates in Richmond, Virginia. Tihe Nortlheastern Railroad connects with the Wilmington and Manchester Railroad, and is one of the lines of travel friomn Charleston to New York. Thus it will be seen, that this State has a complete net-workl of inltercommunication, whlilst connecting with every main avenue of the )business and travel of this continent l)y direct lines.”

EDUCATION. In ]1870, there were 11 colleges, 158 academies and other schools, and 581 public schools in the State. The University of Souith Carolina, at Columbia, vwas an institution of high rel)utation, and was enjoying great prosperity in 1860. The war caused the discontinu .636

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SOUTH CAROLINA. inee of all the schools, inaniy of theml having their builditngs burned, and since the restoration of peace the State has been too poor to do muchll for tle cause of education. The systemi of public instruction has been revised under the new Constitution, and is placed in charge of a State Superintendent, who is clioscn i)y the people at each general election for State officers. Eachl county or district is ill charge of one School Commissioner, chosen b)iennially by the people of the district. These Conlmissionlers constitute a State Board of Education, of whichl the State SuLperin ten(ldet is ex-oficio Chairman. The Legislature is required I)y the new Constitutiont to provide a uniform system of public schools. Attendance at tllese or at private schools is made compulsory up)on all children between the ages of 9 and 16 years, except in case of bodily or mental infirmity. The State is also required to levy taxes for the support of these schools, and for the support of a Normal S(.hool, :t State Ulliversity, an Agricultural Colleg,e, schools for tl-he Deaf, Du-mbl, an(l Blind, and a State Reform School. A permanent school fun(l is also established for this l)urpose. In 1870, tlle numiber of volumes in the libraries of this State was 546,244. Many libraries were destroyed during the war. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State is provided with a P)enitentiary and Lunatic Asylum, and tile COistittltioll mnakes a liberal provisioln for their supl))ort, and for thle establislnhment and maintenance of such other charitable and penal institutions as imay be fotun(l necessary. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, tie value of church property in this State was $3,276,982. Much wavs lestroyed (during tlle war, the heaviest losses o((curring in Charlestoll and Columnbia, where nearly all the church buil(lings were utterly demolislie(l. FINANCES. On the 31st of October, 1874, the total debt of the State was $17,017,651.

The expenditures of the Treasury during the same year were $1,718,766, and the receipts for the same period were $1,592,075. 637

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. There were at the samne time 3 National Banks, with a capital of $685,000, doing business ill the State.

GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted in 1868.

Every n)ale citizen of the United States, 21 years old, without regard to race, cooI, or former condition, vlwho lhas resided in the State one year and( ill thle county six months, is a voter. The disfranclhised are paupers, convicts, persons of unsou(nd mind, and persons disqualified bvy thle Constitultionll of thle United States. The Government is veste(d in a Governor and LieutenantGovernor, who nm)ust be 30 years old, and two years a resident of thle State. TIey are elected by the people biennially.

The other executive officers are a Secretary of State, Treasurer and Receiver-General, Auditor, and AttorneyGeneral, elected by the people for four years. The Legislature consists of a Senate (of 31 members) and Hotise of Representtatives (of 124 members). The Senators are elected for four years, onehalf retiring every two years. Representatives are chosen bi. enninally. “The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court; in two Circuit Courts, viz: a Court of’ Cornmon Pleas, having civil jutrisdiction, and a Court of General Sessions, with criminal jturisdiction onlv; in Prob)ate Courts, and in justices of the peace. Thle General Ass(embly may also establish snell municipal and other inferior courts as may l:)e deemed necessary. TiThe Sul)reme Court is to consist of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, clhosen 1)by a joint vote of the General Assemtbly for a term of six years. The Circuit Judg(es are to he cliosell in the sam-e ni-anner, au(l lhold office four years. A Court of Probate is to be estal)lislhe(d in eachll (otiint-, the judg,e of whvllichl shall be chosen by a vote of the people for a telrm of twvo years. Justices of the peace are elected by the l)eople, and have jurisdiction of all cases where the amount involved does not exceed one hundred dollars.” The seat of Governmenet is located at Columbia. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 30 districts or counties. HISTORY. The State was first settled 1)y a band( of French iHuguenots under Jean Ribatilt, Nwho, in May, 1562, planted a colony on a beauttifitl island in a spacious inlet, vwhich hlie naed Port Royal. The sur .638

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SOUTH CAROLINA. rounding, country he called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX., of France. He left 26 persons in this colony, and went back to Europ)e; but the settlers became dissatisfied, mutinied, killed their command ant, abandoned the enter)prise, and sailed for France in a rude vessel which they had built. Their vessel proved a failure, and, after suf fering great hardships and(l privations, tlhey were rescued by an Eiglish ship, and( carried to Europe. A permanent colony was p)lanted(l at Port Royal by the Eng,lisll in 1670. The settlers removel, in 1671, to the site of old Charleston, ol the west side of the Ashley River, and in 1680 again removed to tlhe point of land between tlhe Cool)er and-l Ashllev rivers, and founded the present city of Charleston. The provilice grewv rapidly, and under the general name of Carolina was united with the settlements in North Carolina, under one Govern ment, the nature of which we have already described in tlhe last chapter. In 1729, the kling bought out the proprietors, and Sotth Carolina came into existence as a separate royal province. By this time it had been well settled by a considerable number of French Hugueniots, and Swiss, Irish, and Germnan emig,rants. Tlle colony was greatly harassed (during its infancy by the savages, and utnited with Georg,ia in putting a stop to the deplredations of the Spaniards, wvlo had settled Florida and were guilty of’nimany outrages upon tlheir Englishl neighbors. The province was one of the most prominent in the measures of resistance to British a,r(ression adopted by the colonies, and in tle summer of’ 1775 repulsed a British fleet under Sir Peter Parler, which soL,ught to force an entrance into CIarlestoni Har)or.

Tle State was the scene of many desperate and bloody encounters during, the war. Charleston was taken by tlhe British, whlo leld the country for nearly twno years, during, whlichl tlhe partisan bands of Marion, StLinter, and PicLens maintained a constant and bloody guerilla warfvlre against them, and against their Tory a(dherents, of whichl the State contained larg,e numbers. The battles of Camden, Eutaw Springs, and tlle Cowpens were fought in South Carolina, whichl Skate mlain-tained its ancient reputation for bravery and patriotism ttiro,,ghIout the whole struggle. The ori,ginal Constitution of the State was adopted in -March, 1776, and the Constitution of thle United States was ratified in May, 1

798. Thle State grew rapidly in wealth andl importance after the formation of tlhe Federal UIlion. Negro slaIvery increased rapidly. TlIe nlumbler of.slaves in 17:90 was 5107,094, and in 1860, 402,406, while .639

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the wllite population had increased only 107 per cent. in 70 years, beiiig(r 140,178 in 1790, and 291,388 in 1860.

In the latter year, the free and slave negroes constituted nearly 60 per cent. of the whole population. Being a strictly agricultutiral community, the State was naturally averse to tlhe high tariff system so popular in the manufacturing States of the North, and, as we have seen elsewhere inII this book, carrie(d its opposition to the tariff measures of the General Government to the verge of open war. From thIat time it I)eeame the leader of the extreme States’ Rights party of the South, and upon various occasions tlhreatene(l to secede from the Union. In December, 1860, after the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidenlcy, the State seceded from the Union. The ordinance of secession was adopted by the State Convention, on the 20thl of De(ceml)er, 1860. The forts, arsenals, and public prop)erty of the Ulnite(l States in Southl Carolina were seized and occupied by the State forces, except Fort Sumter, in Clharleston Harbor, whlichl was hleld I,y a detachment of the Federal army. Hostilities began in the bombardm(ent and capture of thlis fort by the Confederates in April, 1861. During the war Charleston was besieged( by the United States army, and its lharbor blockaded by the navy. Several severe battles occurred in its immediate vicinity, but all the eff)rts of the fleet to reduce its defences wvre repulsed. In the summer of 1863, the defences of Jamnes Islani were captured, iand from that titm(e the city was subjecte(l to a severe bombardment, wvhichl lai(l a large part of it in. ruins. It was held by the Confederates until Shermlllan’s movements compelled tllemi to evacuate it. As they left it they set fire to it, and nearly the whlole city was destroyed. It was at once occupied l)y the Union troops. Port Royal Harbor was the scene of a severe naval bomibardment in the fall of 1861. The Confederate forts defending the entrance were captured, and the harbor and its islands held during the war. After reachling Savannahl at the c(lose of his marcll from Atlanta, Sherman mnoved his army through this State, from the neiglhborhlood( of Port Royal to l)eyon,( Clheraw.

His troops destroyed immense quantities of p)roperty, an(l damaged the State to a terrible extent. The cap)ital, Columnbia, was fired (the origin of the fire still remaining a disputed question) and almost entirely destroyed. After the close of the war, a Provisional Government was appointed by the President. A State Convention was -held, a new Constitution .640

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SOUTHI CAROLINA. framed, and an excellent system of Government established. Congress, however, denied the right of the President to make such changes, atid in 1867 abolished the new order of affairs, and organized the State into a nmilitary district, the command of whichl was given to Major-General Daniel E. Sickles. In August, 1867, General Sickles was renmoved, and General Canby put in his place. In January, 1868, a State Convention met at Charleston and adopted a Constitution, which was ratified by the people, and on the 25th of June, 1868, the State was readmitted into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns, besides the capital, are Charleston, Georgetown, Camtden, Greenville, Orangeburg, and Winnsboro. COLI,UMBIA, Tile capital and second city of the State, is situated in Richland district, or county, on the east bank of the Congaree, just below the confluence of the Broad and Saluda rivers. Latitude 33~ 571 N., longitude 81~ 7’ W. It is 124 miles north-northwxvest of Charleston, and 500 miles southwlest of Washington.

Co(lunmbia is one of tlhe most beautiful cities in the Union. It is hlandsomely built, its streets are well paved, and are broad, straight, and slad(l( with stately trees, among which the magnolia and the live oak are conspicuous. It is located on the bluffs of the Congarce, a few miles below the falls of that stream, and is noted for the elegant mansions and exquisite gardens with which it abounds. The vicinity of the city is one of the most highly cultivated portions of the Union, and is noted for its model plantations, as well as for its fine scenery. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The State House is a magnificent edifice, 170 feet long and 60 feet wide, and cost nearly three millions of dollars. The Insane Asylumn is under the control of the State. It is a splendid building and is richly endowed. The city buildings are handsome.

Columbia contains a number of fine public and private schools. The South Carolina College, sometimes called the University of South Carolina, is a floutrishing institution. Here are located a thleological school of the Presbyterian Church, and a Roman Catholic College. The city is supplied with pure water, and is lighted with gas. It is governed by a Mayor and Counceil. It contains a number of churches tand 3 newspaper offices. In 1870 the population was 9298. 641

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OUR COUNTRY: AND ITS RL,SOURCES. Columbia is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Congarec River, and is connected wvithl all parts of the Union by railways. It is the centre of a large cotton trade. The city was occupied by the forces of General Sherman on the 17th of February, 1865.

On the same (lay a disastrous fire occurred, which laid a large portion of the city in ashles. CHARLESTON, The largest city and the metropolis of the State, is situtated in Charles  ton district, or county, at the confluence of the Ashley and Coop)ei rivers, wlhich unite to form its harbor. It is 7 miles from the sea, 124 mliles south-soutlheast of Columbia, and 540 miles southwest of Wasliing,ton. The. city is built upon a plateau elevated about 12 feet above tile level of the water. The tides rise to a height of 6 feet, and sweep by the citv with a strong current, thus contributing greatly to its hlealtllfftness. The Cooper and Ashley rivers are from 30 to 40 feet deep, tIhe former is 4200, an(l the latter 6(300 feet wide. The harbor is spacious, and will admit vessels drawing 17
feet water. “The COUp d’eril is imposing and highly picturesque. Though the grounds are low, hardly more than 12 feet above high water, the effect is fine; and the city, like Venice, seems, at a little distance, to be absolutely rising out of the sea. The bay is almost completely land-locked, making the harborage and roadstead aIs secure as they are aml)le. The adjuncts contribute to formn a tout ensemrble of much b-)eauty. Directly at the entrance of the city stands Castle Pinckliey, a fortress wh-ich covers an ancient shoal. A little south of Pinckley is Fort Ripley, a small square work, built of Palmetto log,s, and filled witlh p)aving stone(s, built iii 18(62. On the sea-line rises Fort Motlltrie, famous, as Fort Sullivan, in beating off, and nearly destroying, the British fleet, under Sir I’iter Palrker, in 1 776. On the eastern extremity of the same island (Sullivan’s), on which Fort Mfoultrie stands, may vet be traced the outline of the fortress whiclh, under Colonel Thompson, with 700 Carolina rifles, defeated Sir HIenry Clinton at the very moment when IMouLltrie drove Parker away frotn the South.?Withiri the harbl<,r the most conspicuous object, and the one also of coinrnmanding interest, is the ruined walls of Sumter. This fort, with that of M/fouitrie, once constituted the chief defences of Charleston. The events and operations of which these massive ruins have fcrmed the chief centre and culminating point are too fresh in the public recollection to 642

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SOUTH CAROLINA. CIIARLESTON. require more than a brief retrospect in these pages. The fort, }which is an octagonal wvork of soli(l masonry, statnds in the midd(le of the harbor. The armament consistedl, at the time of tihe attack, of 140 guns. It was occupied by Major A i(lclrs(on on the night of December 26, 1860, and at noon of the 27thi the Uiiioii flag was hloisted over it. On tire 11thl of January following, Governor Picknis demlande(d a surrender of the fort, which being refised, preparations were corimence(-d to attack it. Fire Ivas opened under direction of General G. T. Beauregard at,4.0 o’clockl A. Or., April 11th, 1861, fromn the batteries on James Island. After a defence of thirty-two hours the garrison surrendered, and were transported to New York in the steamer Baltic. The present condition of the work sufficiently attests tle warmth of the second attack, Auguist, 1863. On James Island are seen tihe riins of old Port Johnson. On the opposite headlands of the Haddrill you may trace the old lines whichl helped in the defence of the city eighty years ago, but which are now mostly covered by the smart village of Motiunit Pleasant. These points, north, east, and south, with the city lying west of them, bound the harbor, leaving an ample circuit of bay-coursing over which, from 643

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. south to north, the eye pursues the long stretch of Cooper River, the LJtiwNando of the red men, along the banks of which, for many miles, the sight is refreshed by noble rice-fields, and in many places by the mansions and homesteads of the former planters.

Steamers ply up this river, and return the same day, affording a good bird’s-eye view of the settlements, along a very picturesque shore line on either hand. It was up this river that Mr. Webster distinguished himself by shoot ilig an alligator, or rather shooting at him-the alligator (diving at the shot, and leaving the matter sufficiently doubtful to enable an old lawyer and politician to make a plausible case of it.

Stiandling on James Island, or on the battlements of Fort Sumter, the eye notes the broad stream of the Ashley, winding from west of the city, round its southernmost point, to mingle with the waters of the Cooper. The Ashley was anciently a region of great wealth and magnificence. It is still a river of inmiposing aspect-broad, capacious, with grassy, well-wood(led banks, beyond wh-ich you may still behold some antiqiue and inobl)le edifices.” Thle city is reguilarly built, and is about 2 miles long by a)boult 121 miles inl width. Tlhe streets are not very wide, but are laid ofT regularly, and the city is one of the best built in the country. Thle p)rinci)pal streets are Meeting and King. These run north and souitl, nearly parallel, the whole length of the city. Meeting street is 60 feet wide, and on it is transacted the principal business of the city. It contains some of the handsomest public buildings, and the leading hotels. King street is much narrower, and is the principal shopping street. “A large proportion of the population of Charleston consists of the gentry of the contiguous parishes, who, possessing large planting interests, are sufficiently opulent to maintain abodes in the city as well as on their plantations. Here they educate their children, and hither they resort in midsummer. This is the secret of something anomalous in the life of Charleston. It is resorted to in summer as a wateringplace by the people of the country. This practice will account for some of those characteristics which are thought to be peculiar to the city. The planters bring with them wealth and leisure, and these naturally beget luxurious tastes and habits. These elevate the tone of society, but tend to the disparagement of labor and industry. Hlence extravagant standards of living, and deficient enterprise as well as industry. “The city covers a considerable extent of territory, more than its (i 44

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SOUTH CAROLINA. number of people would seem to imnply, as in other cities, in conse quence of the suburban character of so many of the residents. The dwelling-houses of these are generally isolated, having large open grounds on every side, which are used for gardens. Rare exotics the finer fruits, the peach, the nectarine, the orange, fill these spaces, and, with the vine, impart a rich, tropical character to the aspect of the abode, which itself may be neither very large nor very magnificent. Ample piazzas and verandahs, ranging from 1 to 3 stories, give cool ness and shade to the dwelling. The houses are of brick or wood; there are few of stone.

Charleston exhibits a peculiar taste in archi tecture. It is like no other city in the Union in this respect. There are few regular blocks or rows of buildings. There is no uniformity. Each man has built after his own fashion; and there are some singu lar emanations of taste; but what is lost in propriety is gailned in variety, and with fine gardens, open plats of shrubbery, shade and frulit trees, the orange, peach, etc., creepers, vines, the rich foliage of the magnolia, the oak, the cedar, the Pride of India, girdling the white dwellings and the green veran(dahs, the effect is gratefill an4 highly picturesque.” Scattered through the city are a number of small public squares, the principal of wlhich, the Battery, comman(ds a fine view of the harbor. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. The most conspicuouis are the City Hall, Court House, Police Court, Customn House, Jail, WTVorkhouse, and South Carolina Hall. The schools of Charleston have always been famous. They embrace all classes, from the public primary school to colleges of a high grade. The principal establishments of the higher class are the JMilitary Academy, conducted by the State (onehalf of its pupils being State or free students); the Charleston Colleye, founded in 1788; and the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. The city contains several fine libraries, aniong which are the Jlercantile, Apprentices, and City Libraries. The Art Society and IHistorical Society are excellent institutions, and each possesses a valuable collection of works relating to its objects. The benevolent establishments are well conducted. They consist of an Alrnshouse, an Orphan Asylum, and a Hospital, together with several humane and charitable societies. The cemeteries are among the most beautiful in the world, and are greatly admired. The city contains over 30 churches, several fine hotels about 4 daily newspapers, and several weeklies. It is lighted with gas, and is sup 40 645

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. plied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 48,956. During the late war, the city was subjected to a severe bombardment from the United States batteries on the bay islands, and was severely injured. It is now slowly recovering from this damage, and the old buildings are being replaced with better and more convenient edifices. Charleston is connected with the principal cities of the Union by railway, and by steamers with the Atlantic and Gulf ports. it is the centre of a large coasting trade, and possesses some foreign commerce. It exports more rice than any other city in the Union, and is next to large trade in tobacco, lumber, and flour.

Considerable shipping is owned in the port. The commerce of the city was entirely destroyed by the late war, but is now rapidly reviving.

Charleston was settled about the year 1679, by an English colony acting under a charter from the British Crown. The expedition was led by William Sayle, who became the first Governor. Some years later the settlers were joined by a number of French Huguenots, who had been exiled from their native country on account of their religion. Its growth was greatly retarded by the fierce fbvers incident to the southern coast, and by many other difficulties; but it surmounted these, and by 1731 contained 600
houses and 5 churches. It took an active part in the troubles of the Revolution, and, although it contained a large number of persons devoted to the royal authority, sided with the colonies. On the 24th of June, 1776, a British fleet under Sir Peter Parker, consisting of 9 ships of war, attacked the American fort on Sul]ivan’s Island, which commanded the entrance to the harbor. The fort was unfinished and badly armed, and was garrisoned by only 400 men under Colonel Moultrie. The British were repulsed with severe loss, and came near losing their fleet. In 1778, a severe fire consumed 252 houses. On the 1st of April, 1780, Charleston was besieged by the British under Sir Henry Clinton. It was defended by General Lincoln and a small American force, who held out until May 12thl, when they surrendered, half the city being in ruins and the people starving. The British held the city until 1782. In 1783, Charleston was incorporated as a city. In 1796, it was again ravaged l)y a fire, which destroyed nearly a third part of the city and property to the amount of $2,500,000. Charleston was the centre of the Secession movement which resulted 646

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SOUTH CAROLINA. in tile civil war. The beginning of hostilities-the bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter-occurred here. The harbor was closely blockaded during the war, and the defences of the city were frequently attacked by land and sea, and the city itself was subjected to a severe and destructive bombardment. After a long and desperate siege, it was recaptured by the United States forces on the 18th of February, 1865.

MISCELLANY. AN INCIDENT IN THE LIFE OF SERGEANT JASPER. Jasper had a brother, who had joined the British, and who held a similar rank in the army. To this brother he was warmly attached, and actually ventured into the British garrison at Ebenezer to see him. His brother was exceedingly alarmed, lest lie should be seized and hung as an American spy; for his name was well known to many of the British officers. “Do not trouble yourself,” said Jasper; “I am no longer an American soldier.”’ ” Thank God for that, William,” exclaimed his brother, heartily shaking him by the hand; “and now only say the word, my boy, and here is a commission for you, with regimentals and gold to boot, to fight for His Majesty, King George. ” Jasper shook his head, and observed, that though there was but little encouragement to fight for his country, he could not find it in his heart to fight against her. And there the conversation ended. After staying two or three days with his brother, inspecting and hearing all that he could, he took his leave, returned to the American camp by a circuitous route, and told General Lincoln all that ho had seen. Soon after he made another trip to the English garrison, taking with him his particular fi’iend, Sergeant Newton, who was a young man of great strength and courage. His brother received him with his usual cordiality; and he and his friend spent several days at the British fort without giving the least alarm. On the morning of the third day, his brother observed that he had bad news to tell him. “Ay! what is it? ” asked William. “Why,” replied his brother, “here are ten or a dozen American prisoners, brought in this morning, as deserters from Savannah, whither they are to be sent immediately; and, from what I can learn, it will be apt to go hard with themfor it seems they have all taken the king’s bounty.” ” Let us see them,” said Jasper. So his brother took him and his friend Newton to see them. It was indeed a melancholy sight to see the poor fellows handcuffed upon the ground. But when the eye rested on a young woman, wife of one of the prisoners, with her child, a sweet little boy of five years, all pity for the male prisoners was forgotten. Her humble garb showed that she was poor; but her deep distress, and sympathy with her unfortunate husband, proved that she was rich in conjugal love, more precious than all gold.

She generally sat on the ground opposite to her husband, with her little boy leaning on her lap, and her coal black hair spreading in long, neglected tresses on her neck and bosom. Sometimes she would sit, silent as a statue of grief, her eyes fixed upon the 647

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. earth: then she would start withl a convulsive throb, and gaze on her husbanld’s face with looks as piercing sad as if she already -aw him struggli,-ng in the halter, l!erself a widow, and her son an orphlan. While thile child, distressed by his mothler’s anguish, added to the pathos of the scene by the artless tears of childish suffering. Though Jasper and Newton were undaunted in the field of battle, their feelings were subdued by such heart-stirring misery. As they walked out into the neighboring wood, the tears stood in the eyes of both. Jasper first broke silence. “Newton,” said he, “my days have been but few; but I believe their course is nearly finished.” “Why so, Jasper?” ” Why, I feel that I must rescue those poor prisoners, or die with them, otherwise, the reiembrance of that poor woman and her child will haunt me’to my grave.” “That is exactly what I feel, too,” replied Newton; “and here is my hand and heart to stand by you, my brave friend, to the last drop. Thank God, a manl can die but once; aned why should we fear to leave this life in the way of our duty?” The friends embraced each other., and entered into the necessary arrangements for fulfilling their desperate resolution. Immediately after breakfast, the prisoners were sent on their way to Savannah, under the guard of a sergeant and corporal, with 8 men. They had not been gone long, before Jasper, accompanied by his friend Newton, took leave of his brother, and set out on some pretended errand( to the upper country. They had scarcely got out of sight of Ebenezer, before they struck into the woods, and pushed hard after the prisoners and their guaird whom they closely dogged for several miles, anxiously watchling an opportunity to make a blow. The hope, indeed, seemed extravagant; for what could tqto unarmed men do against ten, equipped with loaded musl’ets, and bayonets? However, unable to give up their countrymen, our heroes still travelled on. About 2 miles from Savannah, there is a fanmouts spring generally called the Spa, well known to travellers, who often stopp)ed there to quench their thirst. Perhaps,”

said Jasper, “the guard may stop there.” Hasteuing on thllrou,gh the woods, they gained the Spa, as theii last hope, and there concealed themselves among the thick bushes that grew around the spring. Presently, the nmourntul procession came in sight of thie spring, where the sergeant ordered a halt. Hope sprung afresL in the bosoms of our heroes, though no doubt mixed with great alarms; for “it was a fearful odds.” The corporal, with his guard of four men, conducted the prisoners to the spring, while the sergeant, with the other four, having grounded their arms near the road, brought up the rear. The prisoners, wearied with their long walkl, were permitted to rest themselves on the earth. Poor Mrs. Jones, as usual, took her seat opposite to her husband, and her little bov.y, overcome with fatigue, fell asleep in her lap. Two of the corporal’s men were ordered to keep guard, and the other two to give the prisoners drink omit of their canteens. These last approached the spring, where our heroes lay concealed, and, resting their muskets against a pine tree, dipped up water. [laving drunk themselves, they turned away with replenished canteens, to give to the prisoners also. “Now. Newton, is our time,” said Jasper. Then, bursting like lions from their concealment, they snatched up the two muskets that were resting against the pine, and in an instant shot down the two soldiers who were upon guard.. It was now a contest who should get the loaded muskets that 648

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SOUTfH CAROLINA. fell from the hands of the slain; for by this time a couple of brave Englishmen, recovering from their momentary panic, had sprung and seized upon the muskets; but before they could use them, the swift-hlanded Americans, with clubbed guns, levelled a final blow at the heads of their brave antagonists. The tender bones of the skull gave way, and down they sunk, pale and quivering, without a groan. Then hastily seizing the muskets, which had thus a second time fallen from the hands of the slain, they flew between their surviving enemies and their weapons, grounded near the road, and ordered them to surrender; which they instantly did. They then snapped the handcuffs off the prisoners, and armed them with muskets. At the commencement of the fight, poor Mrs. Jones had fallen to the earth in a swoon, and her little son stood screaming piteously over her. But, when she recovered, and saw her husband and his friends freed from their fetters, she behaved like one frantic with joy.

She sprung to her husband’s bosom, and, with her arms round his neck.

sobbed out, “My husband is safe-bless God, my hulsband is safe.” Then, snatchling up her child, she pressed him to her heart, as she exclaimed, “Thank God! my son has a father yet.” Then, kneeling at the feet of Jasper and Newton, she pressed their hands vehemently, but in the fttllness of her heart she could only say, “God bless you! God Almighty bless you!” For fear of being retaken by the English, our heroes seized the arms and regimentals of the dead, and, with their friends and captive foes, recrossed the S4vannah, and safely joined the American army at Parisburgh, to the inexpressible astonishment and joy of all. 649

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GEORGIA. Area,…………….. Population in 1860……… (Whites, 591,588. Negroes, 465,698) Population in 1870……….. THE State of Georgia, the most southern of the original members of the Union, lies between 30~ 21t 39” and 35~ N. latitude, and between 81~ and 85~ 53’ 38”

W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by North Carolina and Tennessee, on the east by South Carolina, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Florida, and on the west by Florida and Alabama. The Savannah River separates it from South Carolina, and the Chattahoochee forms a part of the western boundary, separating the lower half of the State from Alabama and Florida. The greatest length of Georgia, from north to south, is about 300 miles, and its greatest width, from east to west, about 250 rmiles.

TOPOGRAPHY. Along the coast, and for about 100 miles inland, the.surface is flat and marshly, resembling the lower part of South Carolina. Rice is largely cultivated here. A fine rolling country occupies the centre of the State, while the northern and northwestern parts are traversed by the ranges of the Blue Ridge MIountains, which vary in height trom 1200 to 4000 feet. The southeastern part contains a series of swamps, having a circuit of about 180 miles, known under the general name of Okefonokee Swamp. This is one of the wildest and rankest tracts in the South, and abounds in alligators, lizards, cranes, snakes, etc. The coast is lined with a chain of islands, similar to those of South Carolina, which produce the Sea Island cotton. The 650. 58,000 Square Miles. 1,057,286 1,184,109

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GEORGIA. waters lying between these islands and the shore constitute an inner passage along the coast, and are navigable for light draft vessels.

The coast is deeply indented with inlets, some of which afford good harbors. The Savannah River, which separates the State from South Carolina, is formed by the Tugaloo and Seneca rivers. It is about 500
miles long, and is navigable for large steamboats to Augusta, 230 miles fiom the sea. Ships ascend to Savannah, about 15 miles from its mouth. It is lined with fine cotton and rice plantations, and above Augusta is an excellent mill stream. The Ogeechee River flows almost parallel with it, and empties into Ossabaw Sound, a short distance south of Savannah. It is navigable for small vessels for 30 or 40 miles, and for flatboats to Louisville, near the centre of the eastern part of the State. Its principal branch, the Cannouchee, is navigable for small vessels for 50
miles. The Attanraha River flows into the Atlantic, south of the Ogeechee.

It is formned by the Oconee and Ocmulgee, which, rising in the northern part and flowving through central Georgia, unite about 100 miles from the sea, and form the Altamaha. The main river is ascended by ships to Darien, not far from its mouth. The Ocmulgee is navigable for small steamers to Macon, and the Oconee to Milledgeville, the capital of the State-each cnearly two hundred miles from the sea. The Santilla and St. Mary’s drain the extreme southeastern part of the State, and are navigable for small vessels for about 30 or 40 miles, and much higher for flatboats. The Chattahoochee River rises in the Blue Ridge Mountains, in Habersham county, in the extremne northeastern corner of the State. Flowing southwest to West Point, it strikes the boundary between Georgia and Alabama, and turns to the south, washing the western shore of the State to its southern extremity, where it empties into the Appalachicola River, of Flori(da. It is about 550 miles long, and is navigable for steamers, froni November to June, to Columl)us, 350 miles from its mouth. The rapids begin at Columbus. The tipper part of the river flownvs through the gold region of Georgia, and is a finle mill stream. The Flint River is its principal branch. It rises in the western part of the centre of the State, and flows southwest into the Chattahoochee, just above the mouth of that river. It is about 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers to Albany. The other rivers are the Tallapoosa and Coosa, the sources of the Alabama, in the northwest, the Hiawassee, one of the sources of the Tennessee, in the north, and the Ocklockony and Suwanee and their branches, in the south, which flow into Florida. 651

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MINERALS. The minerals of this State are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, manganese, titanium, graphite, antimony, zinc, granite, marble, gypsum, limestone, coal, sienite, marl, burrstone, soapstone, slate, jasper, amethylst, chalcedony, cornelian, agate, rose quartz, garnets, and several others more or less valuable. Diamonds are sometimes found. The gold region lies in the northern part of the State, principally in and around Lnumpkin county. Until the discovery of gold in California, it’was the principal source of our supply. Previous to the war, the General Government maintained a branch mint at Dahloniega, in the oentre of the gold region. In 1852, $476,788 were coined at this mint.

These mines are far from being exhausted, and are worked now with considerable profit. “The white marble quarries of Cherokee county are of great extent, a portion of them affording statuary marble. The slate quarries of Polk county are now attracting much attention. The slate is considered equal to the Welsh, and is now being shipped to New York. The quarry is of enormous extent. Hydraulic cement, nearly white in color, and of excellent quality, is made near Kingston, Bartow county. The indications of petroleum in Floyd county are strong. That section has been thrown up in the wildest copfusion. The fornmation is the lower silurian, abounding in fossils, and both the limestone and shale are highly bituminous. Iron ore abounds in Bartow and other counties.” CLIMATE. The climate of Georgia is the most delightful of any of the far Southern States. The southern and southeastern parts are cooled by the sea breeze, and the mountain regions are, though severe in winter, delightfully cool in summer. The spring comes early and is pleasant. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS.

The soil along the coast and the rivers is fertile, and produces almost any variety of food. About 65 or 70 miles from the coast, the Pine Barren region begins. This soil is naturally poor, but is easily fertilized. It produces valuable timber and naval stores. In the southwestern part of the State, the soil is light and sandy, but, although fertile, is easily worn out, and requires careful manuring. 652

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GEORGIA, In the middle counties the soil consists of a red loatn originally fettile, but greatly exhausted by the bad system of agriculture pursued in the State. The northern part of the State is very fertile, and will produce cotton, but is much better adapted to the growth of grain, to which it is principally devoted. Cotton is raised in the central andi southern counties, and rice along the coast and the lower parts of thie principal rivers. The great extent of navigable rivers in this State renders it easy to bring the crops to market, and thus lightens the burdens of the producer. Grain is extensively grown in this State. The greater part of the cotton region can be tilled by white labor, but here and elsewhere, rice requires a cultivation which would be fatal to white laborers. The agricultural interests of Georgia were fearfully damaged by tilhe civil war, and the State is but slowly recovering from its losses.

The statistics of 1869 the latest available, are very imiperfect. Tihey are as follows: Acres of improved land,.. Bushels of wheat…. ” rye,…..

oats,…… ” Indian corn,.l ” barley,…. ” potatoes,… ” peas and beans,. Tons of hay,……. Number of horses,…. ” mules and assess, “
milch cows,.. ” young cattle,.. ” swine,…. Value of domestic animals,.

Bales of cotton,… Pounds of rice (estimated),. COMMERCE. At the commencement of the civil war, Georgia was building tip a valuable and growinig trade with the Northern States and witll Europe. In 1860, the foreign exports of the State amounted to $18,483,038, and the imports to $782,061. MANUFACTURES. With an enterprise which won her the title of the ” Empire State of the South,” Georgia was making great progress in manufactures 65,4 . 8,062,758 . 2,170,000 73,000 . 1,200-,MO . 271500,000

13,300 248,000 . 1,965,212 48,.OM 198,300 200,1.50 301,180 .. 780,350 .

2,150,300 . $45,372,734 495,000 . 30,000,000 11

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. when the war broke out. Nearly all her establishments were either entirely destroyed, crippled, or forced to suspend operations by the events of the struggle. The State possesses unusual advantages for manufactures, and there can be little doubt that it will in a few years begin to develop this branch of its industry with its old energy. In 1870, there were 3836 establishments in Georgia devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $13,930,125. There were 34 cotton mills, (30 of which were driven by waterpower), with a capital of $3,433,265, yielding an annual product of $3,648,973; and 11 woollen factories, with a capital of $894,135, yielding an annual product of $352,583. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 2108 miles of completed railroads in Georgia. Thile principal towns of the State are connected by railroad. Two main lines extend across the centre of the State, from Savannah to Macon and Columbus, and from Augusta to Atlanta and Chattanooga, Tenn. Three roads centre at Savannah, three at Augusta, three at Columbus, three at Macon, and four at Atlanta. By means of these and their branches, all parts of the State and the Union may be reached with ease and rapidity. Nearly every road in the State was destroyed during fhe war, but almost all have been restored since the return of peace. EDUCATION. In 1870, the State contained 31 colleges, averaging over 100 students each; 1603 academies and other schools, with 55,000 pupils; and 246 public schools, with 11,150 pupils. The schools were broken tip by the war, and it was not until very recently that anything was done to restore them. The present Constitution places the system of public education utinder the control of a State School Commissioner, appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate, for a period of four years. A permanent school fund has been authorized, which now amounts to $242,000, and the Legislature is req(uired to establish at least one or more common schools in each school district of the State as soon as possible, and to levy taxes for their support. The University of Georgia is located at Athens, and was founded in 1801. It includes Franklin College, and is in a prosperous con 654

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GEORGIA. dition. It is an excellent school, and possesses a library of 13,00) volumes, a valuable and complete chemical apparatus, and one of the best cabinets of mineralogy and geology in the Union. Oglethorpe University, at Milled(geville; Me}rcer University, at Renfield; Enoryi College, at Renfield; and the Wesleyan Female College, at Macon, are the other prominent schools. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary, at Milledgeville, was established in 1811, and was provided with fine and commodious buildings of granite. It was destroyed during the war, but has been partially rebuilt since the peace. The State Lunatic Asylum is located at Medway, near Milledgeville. It was established in 1842. Blacks as well as whites are admitted. The institution is provided with ample and substantial buildings, and is now doing well. The Acadenmyfor the Blind, at Macon, is an excellent institution. It is provided with handsome brick buildinlgs, and is in successful operation. The Asylbm fos the Deaf and Dumb, in Murray county, in the northern part of the State, was closed during the war, and has not yet been reopened. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 2698 churches in Georgia. The total value of (hurch property was $3,561,955.. FINANCES. In 1874, the debt of the State amounted to $8,105,500, having been increased since 1867. The State, according to the assertion of the Governor, possesses valuable assets to the amount of $12,000,000. In 1874, the receipts of the State Treasury amounted to $2,817,723, and the expenditures to $1,814,494. The financees of Georgia are in a very unhappy condition. A portion of the public debt was overdue in 1870, and no provision had been made for its payment, and the credit of the State had been considerably damaged by the quarrels between the Governor and the Treasurer. In 1868, there were 8 National Banks in Georgia, with an aggregate capital of $1,600,000. 655

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GEORGIA. dition. It is an excellent school, and possesses a library of 13,00) volumes, a valuable and complete chemical apparatus, and one of the best cabinets of mineralogy and geology in the Union. Oglethorpe University, at Milled(geville; Mercer University, at Renfield; Emory College, at Renfield; and the Wesleyan Female College, at Macon, are the other prominent schools., PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary, at Milledgeville, was established in 1811, and was provided with finee and commodious buildings of granite. It was destroyed during the war, but has been partially rebuilt since the peace. The State Lunatic Asylum is located at Medway, near Milledgeville. It was established in 1842. Blacks as well as whites are admitted. The institution is provided with ample and substantial buildings, and is now doing well. The Academyfor the Blind, at Macon, is an excellent institution. It is provided with handsome brick buildings, and is in successful operation. The Asylhm for the Deaf and Dumb, in Murray county, in the nortlhern part of the State, was closed during the war, and has not yet been reopened. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

InI 1870, there were 2698 churches in Georgia. The total value of church property was $3,561,955.. FINANCES. In 1874, the debt of the State amounted to $8,105,500, having been increased since 1867. The State, according to the assertion of the Governor, possesses valuable assets to the amnount of $12,000,000. In 1874, the receipts of the State Treasury amounted to $2,817,723, and the expenditures to $1,814,494. The finances of Georgia are in a very unhappy condition. A portion of the public debt was overdue in 1870, and no provision had been made for its payment, and the credit of the State had been considerably damaged by the quarrels between the Governor and the Treasurer. In 1868, there were 8 National Banks in Georgia, with an aggregate capital of $1,600,000. 655

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GEORGIA. and fifty acres in fee simple were offered to each settler. This offer drew a number of emigrants to the colony fromt Europe, chiefly from Germany and Scotland. In 1739, war broke out between England and Spain, and General Ogletllorpe, with 1000 militia from Georgia and Florida, and a band of Indian allies, invaded Florida, and made an unsuccessful attempt to capture St. Augustine. In 1742, the Spaniards revenged this invasion by sending 36 ships and 3000 men into Georgia. Fort St. Simon, on the Altamaha River was taken, and Fort Frederica, on St. Simon’s Island, would have fallen, had clot thle Spaniards, becoming alarmed at a stratagem of Oglethorpe, retired into Florida. Peace was restored soonl after. The early years of the colony were marked by troubles caused by the restrictions imposed by the Trustees. These and the prohibition of slavery occasioned so much discontent amongst the settlers that there was danger that the colony would be abandoned. In 1752, the Trus tees surrendered their charter to the crown, and Georgia became a royal province.

Privileges similar to those granted the other colonies were allowed it, not the least of which was the permission to import and hold negro slaves.

After this the colony grew rapidly, and rice and cotton were largely cultivated. In 1775 the population numibered 75,000 souls. In this year its exports amounted to $517,385, and its imports to $558,885. Georgia was prompt to give her support to the measures of protectionl and resistance, adopted by the other colonies, and made lilberal contributions of men and money to the cause during the Revolution. In 1778, the British captured Savannah, and in 1779 took Augusta and Sunbury. From these points they overran the State, compelling many of the principal inhabitants to abandon their homes and flee for their lives. In 1779, the American forces made an effort to retake Savannah, but without success, and the British continued to hold the State until the close of the war. The State Government was established and a Constitution adopted in 1777, and a second Constitution in 1785. The Federal Constitution was ratified on the 2d of January, 1788.

The Creeks and Cherokees, dwelling on the north and west frontiers of the State, gave considerable trouble by their hostilities, but in 1791, treaties were concluded with them which established the boundaries of the State, and put a stop to the troubles. In 1802, the Creeks ceded to the United States the lands which they held, and in’ the souithwest part of this State, which were assigned by the Genera] 657

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Government to Georgia. In the same year, the State ceded to the United States all its claims to the lands west of its present limits. This territory is now embraced in the States of Alabama and Mlississippi. Ill 1838 the Creeks were removed beyond the Mississippi, by the General Government, and Georgia came into possession of their lands, which now form the northern counties of the State. At the outbreak of the civil war Georgia had reached a high degree of prosperity, which she was destined to lose during the struggle. The State seceded fromn the Union on the 19th of January, 1861. From the commencement of the war it began to suffer. Its coast was nt the mercy of the navy of the United States, and was greatly damaged during the early part of the war.

In the winter of 1862 the western armies co mmenced to operate in the northwestern part of the State, and from this time until the capture of Atlanta this section was tile scene of a constant warfare. The battles of Chickamauga, between Rosecrans and Bragg, and the campaign between Sherman and Johnston, occurred in this State. In the fall of 1864 the Confederates wvere forced to evacuate Atlanta, which was at once occupied by Shlerman.

The inhabitants were driven out, and the city burned. After destroying Atlanta, Shermnan marched southward to Savannah, which he reached and occupied on the 24th of December, 1864, ravaging the plantations along his march, destroying railroads, bridges, factories, and mills, carrying off provisions of all kinds, an’d marking his way y)v a wide belt of ruin. It is said by competent State authorities that the destruction of property in Georgia during the war amounted to $400,000,000. After the restoration of peace a Provisional Governor was appointed by the President, and a new State Government put in operation. Congress repudiated all these acts, and made the State a part of the Third Military District, the command of which was given to Major General Pope, who was succeeded by Major General Mead(le. In March, 1868, a State Convention was held, and a new Constitution adopted, which was ratified by the people in April, and the State was readmitted into the Union on the 25thl of June, 1868. Owing, however, to the failure of the Constitution to admit the negroes to all the privileges possessed by the whites, Congress, on the 22( of December, 1869, passed a bill declaring Georgia not reconstructed, and handed the State over to the military authorities again. After an exciting contest the terms imposed by Congress were complied with, and the State was readmitted into the Union on the 14th of July, 1870. 6a8

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GEORGIA. CITIES AND TOWNS. Beside the capital, the principal cities and towns of Georgia are, Savannah, Augusta, Macon, Columbus, Rome, West Point, Dalton, Americus, Kingston, Marietta, Albany, Brunswick, and Darien. ATLI,ANTA, Capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Fulton county, 7 miles southeast of the Chattahoochee River, 171 miles west of Augusta. The location is high and healthy. Four of the principal railroads of the State terminate here, and it is to this that the city owes its rapid growth. Previous to the introduction of railways, it was an unimportant country village. It was incorporated as a city in 1847, and at the outbreak of the civil war had a population of about 10,000. It was occupied by the Confederate forces at the outset of the war, and was one of their most important posts. It was attacked by General Sherman in the summer of 1864, and several severe battles were fought in its vicinity. On the 2(1 of September it was captured by Sherman, who banished the inhabitants into the Southern lines. On the night of the 15th of November he caused the city to be burned, on the eve of his setting out on his “March to the Sea.” Since the close of the war Atlanta has been almost entirely rebuilt. Owing to its position as a railroad centre, and the location of the capital of the State here, it is rapidly recovering its former trade and importance. It is well built and regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the City Hall, the Medical College, and the Opera House, purchased in 1870 by the State, and now being fitted up as a State House. It contains 5 churches, several excellent public and private schools, and 9 newspaper offices. Three monthly magazines are also published here. The city is lighted with gas, is supplied with water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1868 it became the capital of the State. In 1870 the population was 21,789. SAVANNAH. The largest city in the State, is situated in Chatham county, on the south bank of the Savannah River, 18 miles from the sea, and 188 miles east-southeast of Milledgeville. It is situated on a sandy plain about 40 feet above low-water mark, and is one of the most interesting cities in the. South.

Its streets are wide and straight, and at every othl)er corner there is a public square, usually circular or oval in 659

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SAVANNAH. shape, planted with the Pride of India. The streets are broad, unpaved, and densely shaded with magnificent trees. Broad and Bay streets have handsomely turfed promenades in the centre, with carriage ways on each side. There is also a broad walk on each side of these streets. Its beautiful streets have gained for Savannah the name of “the Forest City” of the South. The squares are ornanmented with handsome fountains, statues, monuments, etc. In Johnson’s Square stands a handsome monument erected to the memories of Generals Greene and Pulaski. It is of pure white marble, and stands on the spot where Pulaski fell in the attack on the city by the American army in 1779. It cost $22,000 in gold. The city is handsomely built, many of the residences being of brick. The majority are of wood, however. In the business edifices brick and stone are extensively employed. The Public Buildings are in keeping with the rest of the city. The principal are the Erchatnge, the Court House, the State Arsenal, the Cstom House, the Jail, the Lyceum, Oqlethor)pe and At. Anidrew’s Hal, the Armory, the Theatre, and the Chatham Academy. 060

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GEORGIA. The schools are excellent, and the free schools are among the best in the South. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions comprise the Orphan Asylum, the Union Society, founded by Whitfield, the Hiber?nian and Seaman’s Friend Societies, the Georgia Infirmary, and the Savannah Hospital. The State Historical Society possesses a fine library. The city contains about 18 churches, a public library, sev eral reading rooms, and 3 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is considered one of the healthiest cities in the South; and is ilmproving in this respect in consequence of the improved manner of cultivating the land in the vicinity. It is a favorite winter resort for invalids. Ill 1870 the population was 28,235. In the vicinity is the Cemetery of Bonaventure, one of the most remarkably beautiful spots ill the world. Savannah is connected with all parts of the State, and with Charleston, S. C., by railway. Steamers navigate the Savannah to Augusta, and an active coast trade is maintained with the Northern and Southern ports of the Union. The chief articles of export are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores, of which large quantities are shipped annually from this port. The trade of the city is growing rapidly. Savannah was founded by General Oglethorpe, in 1732 or 1733. It was captured by the British in December, 1778, and was evacuated by them in 1783. In 1796, and again in 1820, it suffered severely from fire. In December, 1864, it was captured by the United States army, under General Sherman, and was held by the Federal Governimnent until the close of the civil war. On the 28th of January, 1865, a severe fire destroyed a considerable portion of the city. AUGUSTA, The second city of the State, is situated in Richmond county, on the west bank of the Savannah River, 120 miles north-northwvest from Savannah, 230
miles from the mouth of the river by its course, and 136 miles northwest of Charleston. It lies at the head of navigation on the Savannah, and controls to a great extent the lucrative trade of upper Georgia. It is one of the handsomest cities in the South, and is laid off regularly, with broad, straight streets crossing each other at right angles. Broad street is the main thoroughfare, and is lined with substantial buildings. It contains the principal stores, the hotels, the banks,..and the markets, and is the fashionable promenade. 41 661

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANY. THE’ EMPRESS” OF GEORGIA. Among the Georgia settlers was a man by the name of Tltomas Bosomworth, a chaplain in the regiment of Oglethorpe. It appears that hlie was an artful and avaricious man. In 1747, he laid a plan either to destroy the colony or acquire a fortune. Among a number of Indians present at Frederica, a small English settlement, not far from Savannah, in December, was an Indian king by the name of falatche. Bosomwortli suggested to him the idea of being crowned in imperial form, by those of his tribe who were with him accordingly, a paper was drawn up, filled with royal ceremonies, acknowledging Malatche Opiya Meco to be the righltful, natural prince and emperor of the dominions of the Creek Nation; vesting him with powers to make laws, frame treaties, declare war, convey lands, and transact all affairs relating to the nation; binding themselves, on the part of their several towns, to abide by and fulfil all his contracts and engagements.

This paper being signed and sealed by the pretended kings and chiets, and witnessed in due form, Malatchle requested that a copy of it might be sent over to the king of England, for his sanction, and to have it put on record among the archives of his great ally. Bosomworth had thus accomplished an important object. He had some time before married Mary Musgrove, a half-breed Indian. He now drew up a deed of conveyance in the common form, firom Malatche Opiya Meco, Emperor of the Upper and Lower Creek Nations, to Thomas and Mary Bosomworth, of the Colony of Georgia, “for, and in consideration of ten pieces of stroud, twelve pieces of duffles, two hundred weight of powder, two hundred weight of lead, twenty guns, twelve pair of pistols, and one hundred weight of vermilion; warranting and defending to the said Thomas and Mary all those tracts of land known by the names of Hussoope, or Ossabaw, Cowleygee, or St.

Catherines, and Sapelo islands, with their appurtenances, etc., to the said Thomas and Mary his wife, their heirs and assigns, as long as the sun shall shine, or the waters run in the rivers, forever. Signed on the 4th day of the windy moon, corresponding with the 14th of December.” His next object was to induce Mary to claim to be the elder sister of Malatche, and of hlaving descended in a maternal line from an Indian king, who held from nature the whole territories of the Creeks; and Bosomworth now persuaded her to assert her right to them, as superior not only to the trustees, but also to that of the king. Accordingly, Mary assumed the title of an independent Empress. A meeting of the Creeks was summoned, before which she set forth her claims. The Indians became fired through her eloquence, and escorted her towards Savannah to prosecute her claim. A messenger was dispatched to notify the president and council of the royal family’s approach. On receiving this intelligence, the council felt embarrassed.

Mary was an artful and eloquent woman; the English were few in number, and small their means of defence. The militia were ordered under arms. Captain Noble Jones, at the head of a troop, was dispatched to prevent, if possible, their entrance into Savannah armed. Having met them, he ordered them to stop and lay down their arms. At first they refused; but his determined appearance at length prevailed, and they laid aside their arms, upon which Thomas Bosom 662

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GEORGIA. worth, in his canonical robes, with his queen by his side, followed by the king and chiefs, marched into the town. The inhabitants were struck with terror at the sight of this ferocious tribe of savages.

When they advanced up to the parade, they found the militia drawn up under arms to receive them, by whom they were saluted with fifteen cannons, and conducted to the president’s house. Bosomworth being ordered to with draw, the Indian chiefs, in a friendly manner, were requested to declare their in tention in paying this visit in so large a body, without being sent for by any person in authority: the warriors, as they had been instructed, answered that, Mary was to speak for them, and that they would abide by whatever she said; that they had heard that she was to be sent like a captive over the great waters, and they were come to know on what account they were to lose their queen; that they intended no harm, and begged that their arms might be restored to them; and after consulting with Bosomworth and his wife, they would return and amicably settle all public affairs. To please them, their guns were returned, )ut strict orders were issued to allow them no amnmunition, until the council should see more clearly into their dark designs. On the day following, the Indians, having had some private conferences with Mary, were observed, with sullen countenances, to march in a tumultuous manner through the streets, evi dencing a hostile temper, apparently determined on mischief: all the men being obliged to mount guard, the women and children were terrified and afraid to re main in the houses by themselves, expecting every moment to be murdered and scalped. During this confusion, a false rumor was circulated, that they had cut off President Stephen’s head with a tomahawk, which so exasperated the inhabi tants that it was with difficulty the officers could restrain the troops from firing ll)on the savages: perhaps the exercise of the greatest prudence was never more requisite to save the town from being deluged with blood. Orders were given to lay hold on Bosomworthl, to whom it was insinuated that hlie was marked as the first victim in case of extremities; and he was carried out of the way, and closely confined, upon which Mary, his beloved queen, became outrageous and frantic, and threatened the thunder of her vengeance against the magistrates, and the whole colony: she ordered all white persons to depart immediately from her ter ritories, and at their peril to refuse; she cursed Oglethlorpe and his fraudulent treaties, and, furiously stamping her foot upon the earth, swore by her Maker that thle whole globe should know that the ground she stood upon was her own. To prevent any ascendancy by bribes over the chiefs and warriors, she kept the leading men constantly under her eye, and would not suffer them to utter a sen tence on public affairs, but in her presence. The president, finding no peaceable agreement could be made with the Indians while under the baleful influence of their pretended queen, ordered her to be seized and confined. To allay the storm of indignation excited by this, a feast was made for the Indians, at which the evil designs of Bosomwrorthl were unfol(lded in a speech by the president. This had a temporary effect. Even MAalatclhe seemed satisfied.

But wishing to see Bosomwortli and his wife alone for a few miniutes, the artfuil couple again seduced the aged chief, who returned to the council full of indignation, insisting on the rights of the queen. Upon this, the president rose, and in a short but plain address, so set forth the impositions of Bosomworth and Mary, that the Indians said they were satisfied; their eyes were opened, and they noW offered to smoke the pipe of peace. Accordingly, pipes and rum were brought, and they joined hand in hand and smoked together. Presents were distributed, and all appeared satisfied and happy. 66.3

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. But in the midst of this firiendly interview, Mary, who by some means had contrived to escape, rushed in like a fury, and insultingly told the president that she would soon convince him that the Indians were her people, and that he had no business with them. The president advised her quietly to retire to her lodgings, or he would send her to prison. Upon this Malatche took fire; and, swinging his arms, declared that no one should touch the queen. The house was filled in a moment with tumult; every Indian having his tomahawk in his hand, and the president and council expecting nothing but instant death. At this critical juncture, Captain Noble Jones with his guard interposed, and required the Indians to surrender; they did so with great reluctance. Mary was conveyed to a safe place. Bosomworth was sent for; but for a time treated the council with great indignity. At length, through the interposition of Bosomworth’s brother, the difficulty was settled. This rash and wicked man was forgiven, and the idle claims of Mary were relinquished. They were, however, afterwards renewed; Bosomworth himself instituted a suit in England, founded upon his deed from the Indians. This case was in the courts of Great Britain twelve years. In 1759, a decision was made at the Court of St. James, granting to Bosomworth and his wife the island of St. Catherines. Bosomworth and Mary took possession of the island. There, some time after, Mary died, and Bosomnworth married his chambermaid. Finally, the remains of these two were deposited in the same graveyard, on the island for which they had so long contended. 664

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F L OR I D A. Area,…..5,8qr.e Population inll 1860……… (Whites, 77,748; Negroes, 62,677.) Population in 1870……… THFE State of Florida is situated between 25~ and 31~ N. latitude, and between 80~ and 87~ 44’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Alabama and Georgia, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the souith by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west I)y the Gulf of Mexico and Alabama. The southern part of the State forms a large peninsula. In the eastern part, Florida is about 385 miles long from north to south. Its width along its northern border is about 250 miles from east to west. The average width of the peninsula is about 80 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. “Florida,” says Professor De Bow, “is generally level, probably never elevated more than 250 or 300 feet above the sea, and the southern part of the peninsula is covered with a large sheet of water, called the Everglades, of an immense extent (filled with islands), which it is supiposed may be rendered available by drainage. The central portionI of the peninsula is somewhat elevated, the highest point being atl)out 171 feet above the ocean, and gradually declining towards the coast on each side. The country between the Suwanee and Chattaloochee is elevated and hilly, and the western portion of the State is level. The lands of Florida are almost sui generis, very curiously distributed, and may be designated as high hummock, low hlummrock, swamp, savanna,. and the different qualities of pine land. High hummock is usually timbered with live and other oaks, magnolia, ~~~*~~~~~~~~~ 665 59,268 Square Mfiles.

140,425

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. laurel, etc., and is considered the best description of land for general purposes. Low hummnock, timbered with live and water oak, is subject to overflow, but when drained is preferred for sugar. Savannas, on the margins of streams, and in detached bodies, are usually very rich alluvions, and yielding largely in dry, but needing ditching and dyking in ordinary seasons. l~aIsh savannas, on the borders of tide streams, are very valuable, when reclaimed, for rice or sugarcane.” Southwvest of Florida, is a chain of small rocky islands, called the Florida Keys. They are inhabited principally by wreckers, and by persons engaged in the fisheries and the manufacture of salt. The largest and most important of these is Key West, which is strongly fortified(l, and is one of the chief naval stations of the Union. The Sea Islands extend from South Carolina and Georgia, along the northeast coast of Florida, and are among the finest and most productive parts of the State. The Everglades cover an immense area, about 160 miles long, and 60
miles broad. Professor De Bow speaks of them as a vast lake, filled with innumerable islands of all sizes, which are covered with a low dense undergrowth, out of which occasionally rises a huge pine or palmetto. The water is 6 or 8 feet deep, and is filled withl a long rank grass which grows from a vegetable deposit at the bottom. The banana and plantain grow well in this region. The principal bays are Pensacola, Choctawhatchie, St.

Andrew’s St. Joseph’s, Appalachicola, Appalachic, Waccasassa, Tampa, Charlotte Harbor, Oyster, and Ponce de Leon bays, all oni the west side.

Pensacola Bay affords an excellent harbor, and is the principal naval station of the Republic in the Gulf of Mexico. The rivers of the State are the Perdido, a small stream separating Florida from Alabama on the west; the Escambia, Yell-sow, Choctawhatchie, Ocklockonee, and Suwanee, which rise in Alabama and Georgia and flow into the Gulf of Mexico oil the south, none of them being, over 50 or 60 miles in length. The others are the Carlosahatchie, through whichl Lake Okeechobee discharges its waters into the Gulf, the Withlacoochee and Tampa, on the west, and the St.

Mary’s (partly separating the State from Georgia), the St. John’s, and Indian rivers, emptying into the Atlantic on the east. The Indian River is a mere inlet from the ocean entering the State at its southeast part, and extending north and south. It is about 100 miles long, and of very unequal breadth. The St. John’s is the principal river of Florida. It rises in a marshy tract near the central part of the peninsula, and 666

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FLORIDA. ST. JOHN’S RIVER. flows in a generally northwest course into the Atlantic in the northern part of the State. It is over 200 miles long, and is navigable for steamers to Pilatka, about 60 miles. Vessels drawing 8
feet of water ascend the river for 107 miles. The country along the greater portion of the stream is a region of cypress swamps and pine barrens. The Appalachicola is navigable fi)r vessels to its head. A chain of lakes extends through the centre of the peninsula. The mnost southern of these is Lake Okeechobee, about 20 miles long. CLIMATE. The climate is mild and pleasant. It partakes largely of the characteristics of the torrid zone,-on the borders of which the State lies. It is of great benefit to invalids. A writer in the New York Observer thus speaks of it: “As to the most desirable localities for invalids, the most accessible are on the St. John’s River and St. Augustine. The interior or central portion of the peninsula may present a climate even better for ,667

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. I)ulmonary invalids; but those parts of the country are not supplied with suitable accommodations, an(l are not much visited…. “Range of the thermometer and the weather. The A)-ny Hateoro logical Register gives the monthly mean temperature for 20 years at St.

Augustine, and for 31 years at West Point, N.Y., as follows: Jan. Feb.

Mar. Apr. MA,y. Oct. N~ov. Dec. St. Augustine….57‘03 59‘94 63‘34 68‘78

73‘50 71‘88 64‘12 57‘26 West Point…….28‘28 28‘83 37‘63 48.70 59-82

53‘04 42-23 31‘98 “Most of the cotmmon garden vegetables flourish all winter, oranges ripen on the trees, roses bloom, and mocking-birds sing. A few times we have frost-three times, I believe, last winter. Do not suppose there are no changes of temrnperature, though there are fewer than in any other State. There are many, and, at times, they are sudden; but the thermometer rarely goes down to freezing, and the shock is far less to a delicate constitution than where it goes far below. During the greater part of the time the sun shines brightly, and invalids can be in the open air. This is the greatest benefit of the climate. I hlave known many who dared not set foot on the ground from November to April at the North, who have spent part of every day walking, riding, playing croquet, or hunting and fishing. Often, parties are formed who go down the peninsula, camping out, and, as they get beyond the reach of frost within 100 mniles south of St. Augustine, such life is most enjoyable for those who have strength for it. Much of the time during every winter we sit with open doors and windows. Above all things, it is important for those who come here for health to keep as much as possible in the open air.” SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS.

The soil is generally sandy. In the hummocks, however, it is mixed with clay. It is fertile, and yields abundant returns with judicious culture.

The best lands in the State are in the marshes. With a proper system of drainage they could be made the most productive spots in America. The natural growth of the State is very rich. The live oak and other varieties of this tree, so highly prized by ship-builders; the Cyprus, pine, hickory, dogwood, magnolia and laurel abound. The timber trade of the State is very valuable, and is growing in importance every year. “Cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes, and fruits are the princi 668

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FLORIDA. pal crops, but under the present system of culture yields are small and agriculture lnot profitable. In a number of counties cotton has been the specialty, but under present prices its production will doubt less decline in favor of other crops. Sugarcane is considered a good crop, and is gettiingr more in favor; it is easily cultivated, and, as our Leon corresl)ondent says,‘would be a good crop for white labor.’ In Baker county, sea-island cotton and sugarcane are the chief pro ductions. Duval county, sweet potatoes, corn, and sugarcane; corn yielding twenty bushels per acre, sweet potatoes one hundred to two hundred bushels, sugarcane two hundred gallons syrup and two hundred pounds of sugar; the latter is the most profitable crop. In Alachua, sea-island cotton is the specialty, of which our reporter says:‘The price of this cotton last year ranged from 40 cents to $1.60 per pound; this year, from 35 to 90 cents. The average yield is about eighlty-five pounds of lint per acre, but as high as four hundred pounds have been raised. At 50 cents, with the present labor, it is a paying crop. Cotton is a hard crop to raise, takes the whole year, and, for the labor expended, is the least paying crop in the country.

During the past season ninety-nine out of every hundred have lost money.

Corn produces an average of eight bushels on pine lands, and fifteen bushels on hummocks. Sugarcane does well, but is raised for home consumption only.’ Wheat is not grown as a crop in Florida, though a correspondent writes from Levy county, that he thinks it would do well on their hummock lands; and our Manatee reporter says he has sown a package sent from this department, and it now looks as well as he has ever seen wheat in Maryland or elsewhere. There are a variety of natural grasses growing throughout the State, and, as a general rule, cattle are pastured on the wild lands and without expense, frequently the whole year rotInd.

Among the grasses named by our correspondents are, Bermuda grass, crab-grass, crow-foot, joint-grass, carpet-grass, wiregrass, etc. Our Levy county correspondent writes:-‘ The grasses are all wild; stock runs out all the year in the woods. They are gathered in the spring, and penned every night until about August, lwhen they are again turned out to run during the fall and winter. While kept up they are branded, and the cows are milked, though they are generally small, and give but little milk, from one to three quarts per day.’ Tropical fruits are easily cultivated in this State. Agricultural Report for February, 1868. 669

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Oranges and lemons are raised in considerable quantities; also, bananas, citrons, figs and other fruits, and it is believed that coffee can be successfully cultivated in the southern part. the agricultural wealth of the State may be given as follows: Acres of improved land,. Bushels of Indian corn,. Pounds of tobacco…. Bales of cotton….. Pounds of rice,…. Bushels of peas and beans, “C sweet potatoes, Illhds. of cane sugar,. Number of horses,… “4
milch cows,. ” asses and mules, ” swine,… i’ sheep.,.. ……. The undergrowth of the State, as we have remarked, is very rank. Hug,e alligators and snakes abound in the swamps; the rivers are well stocked with fish; and turtle, oysters and wild fowl abound aloing the coast.

COMMERCE. This State has little or no foreign commerce. Its trade is almost entirely with the States north of it, and its exports consist of cotton, rice, naval stores, and fruits. In 1860 the exports of the State amounted to $1,330,230, and the imports to $336,931. MANUFACTURES. Very little attention is paid to manufactures. In 1870 the capital invested in them amounted to $1,679,930. The annual product was valued at $4,685,403.

The lumber trade almost monopolized this, the value of sawed and planed lumber being $2,236,780. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were 466
miles of completed railroads in Florida, constructed at a cost of about $9,000,000. The principal towns are connected with each other, and with all parts of the Union by railroad. 6-70 750,000 2,500,000 2,50,000 -

50,000 425,000 65,000 800,000 1,500 12,000 63,000 9,000 160,000 30,000

……… ………

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FLORIDA. EDUCATION. In 1870 there were 223 public schools in Florida, with 10,132 pupils, and 1 54otherschoolsand academies, with over 10,000 pupils.

They were nearly all closed by the war. The new Constitution makes provision for a system of public free schools, which are to be supported by a special tax levied by the Legislature, and a permanent school fund has been created. The system is in charge of a State Superintendent of Public Instruction. This officer, and the Secretary of State and AttorneyGeneral, constitute the State Board of Education. Two State seminaries, the east Florida and west Florida, have been established. The State Superintendent, in his report for 1870, says free schools are gaining ill favor with the people. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. This State has no penitentiary or charitable asylums. The Constitution makes provision for them, and the Governor strongly recommends their establislhment. Criminals are supported in idleness in the county prisons, by the State, which receives no return for this outlay. The Governor, in his message for 1868, declared that this expense was so heavy that he was compelled to pardon many crimninals in order to save the State from bankruptcy. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 390 churches ill Florida, and the value of church property was $426,520. Many of the churches were destroyed during the war. FINANCES. On the 1st of January, 1874, the State debt amounted to $1,620,809, including $276,325 in outstanding Comrnptroller’s warrants and Treasurer’s certificates. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1874 were $280,837, and the expenditures $254,328. GOVERNMENT.

The present Constitution of the State was ratified by the people in May, 1868. Every male person twentyone years old, without regard to race, color, nationality, or previous condition, who is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have legally declared his 671

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. intention to become a citizen of the United States, and who shall have resided in the State one year, and in the county six months, is entitled to vote at the elections. Persons coming of age, or becomnling citizens after 1880, will not be allowed to vote without being able to read and write, but no10 one who is an elector previous to that year shall be afterwards deprived of the elective franchise because of such ignorance. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 24
members, chosen for four years, onehalf retiring biennially), and an Assembly (of 53 menmbers, elected for two years). The Seminole Indians are entitled to one member in the Asselmbly. He must be a member of that tribe, and chosen by the qualified electors thereof. The Governor and LieutenantGovernor are chosen for four years by the people. The Executive officers are appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. The Legislature meets annually. The courts of the State are the Supreme Court, seven Circuit Courts, and a County Court in each county. All the judges are appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices. For purposes of Government the State is divided into 37 counties. The scat of government is located at Tallahassee. HISTORY. Florida was discovered by the Spaniards, on Easter Sunday, Pascua Florida, and partly on this account, and partly because of its natural beauty, was given its present name, which signifies ” the flowery.” It was first visited by Ponce de Leon, in 1513. Subsequently, Vasquez, a Spaniard (in 1520), Verazzani, a Florentine (in 1523), and De Geray, a Spaniard (in 1524), made voyages to it. In 1526, Charles V., of Spain, granted all the lands between Cape Florida and the Rio Panuco to Pampilo de Narvaez, who, in 1528, landed at Appalachee with a considerable military force. He was stoutly resisted by the Indian tribes, and was finally shipwrecked and drowned on the coast, near the mouth of the Panuco. Only ten of his followers returned to Europe. In 1539, Florida was explored by Fernando de Soto, who penetrated as far into the continent as the Mississippi River. Some years later a colony of French Huguenots was established in Florida. The Spaniards attacked them in 1564, and hanged many of them on the trees. Having driven out the French, they built a fort on the 672

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FLORIDA. spot. It was subsequently taken by a French expedition, and the garrison hanged, in retaliation for the original murders. In 1565, the Spaniards founded the city of St. Augustine, now the oldest Euro pean settlement in the Union. They held it until 1586, when it was captured by the English under Sir FI’rancis Drake. In 1696, Pensacola was settled by the French. The English had claimed the northeastern part of the country nearly a century before, and now made frequent inroads upon tl)e Spanish settlements. In 1702, an expedition from Carolina made all ursuccessftll attempt to capture St. Augustine, and the next year took Fort St. Mark.

The expedition of Oglethorpe, c.-d the counter invasion of Georgia by the Spaniards, have already been related in the preceding chapter. In 1763, Spain ceded the whole of Florida to Great Britain, in exchange for the Island of Cuba, which had been captured by the English. The country was now divided into two provinces, the Appalachicola River being the dividing line. Many settlers came over from Carolina, and a number of emigrants arriv’ed from Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean. The English held the country during the Revolution, and sent out many privateers fromnt it, and incited the Indians to hostilities against the Americans in Carolina and Georgia. In 1778, General Prevost invaded Georgia, from this State, and captured Savannah and other towns. This withdrawal of his forces, however, left Forida at the mercy of the Spaniards, who at once entered it, and in 1781 captured Pensacola, and occupied a considerab)le part of the province. The treaty of 1783 restored Florida to Spain, upon which the majority of the inhabitants abandoned it, and removed to the United States. The cession of Louisiana to the United States, by France, gave the former country a claim to the country west of the Perdido River, which now comprises the extreme southern end of Alabama. This section was promptly occupied by the Federal army. During the second war with England, it was ascertained that the British had been allowed by the Spaniards to fit out an expedition against the United States from Pensacola. General Jackson at once entered Florida with his army, and captured Pensacola. He retook the town in 1818, and also Fort St. Mark, but they were restored to Spain, who, in 1819, sold the whole province to the United States. The American authority was establislhed in Florida, in 1821. Emigrants at once commenced to flock thither, and the territory began to prosper. Thle growth of Florida was much impeded by the war which broke out in 1835, between the Government and the Seminole 673

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Indians, who occupied the best lands in the State, and refused to allow the whites to settle upon them. The war lasted until May, 1858, when the Seminoles agreed to remove to the West, and were at once conveyed thither. The war cost the Government over $30,000,000 and thousands of lives. Florida was organized as a territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union as a slavehlolding State, on the 3d of March, 1845. It seceded from the Union on the 10thi of January, 1861, and joined the Southern Confederacy. The State authorities, in January, 1861, seized the navy yard and the forts at Pensacola, with the exception of Fort Piekens, on Santa Rosa Island, in Pensacola Bay, which was held by its commander, Lieutenant Slemmer. It was afterwards strongly reinforced, and on several occasions bombarded the Confederate works at Pensacola. The State suflered much during the war. Key West, the Tortugas, and Fort Piekens were held by the Government from the beginning of the struggle, and afforded ready means of entering its territory; while the possession of Port Royal, in South Carolina, by the National forces, placed northeasern Florida at their mercy. A large part of the plantations were ruined, several towns were destroyed, and others more or less injured, and several severe battles were fought within the limits of the State. Slavery was abolished by the result of the war, but by that time desertions and disease had greatly reduced the negro population. At the close of the civil war, a Provisional Government was established by the President of the United States, which was the next year repudiated by Congress. In 1867, the State was made a part of the Third Military District, the headquarters of which were at Atlanta, Georgia. In January, 1868, a State Convention assembled at Tallahassee, and adopted a Constitution, which was ratified by the people on the 6th of May, and Congress, approving this action, readmitted the State into the Union on the 25th of June, 1868.

CITIES AND TOWNS. Beside the capital, the principal towns are, Pensacola, Key West City, Jacksonville, St. Augustine, Quincy, and Monticello.

TAI,LLAH ASSEE, The capital of the State, is situated in Leon county, about 25 mnrles from the Gulf of Mexico, and 194 miles east of Mobile.

Latitude, 674

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FLORIDA. 30~ 28’ N.; longitude, 84~ 36’ W. The city lies on elevated ground, is regularly laid out, and contains several tasteful public squares. It is well built, and is regarded as one of the healthiest and pleasantest cities in the South. It lies in the heart of the most populous and fertile portion of the State, and is connected with the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and with Savannah, Ga., bv railway. It contains the State House, Court House, a jail, a Land Office of the United States, several churches, several fine schools, and 2 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. Its importance is due solely to its being the capital of the State. In 1870 the population was 2023. PENSACOLA Is situated in Escambia county, on the west shore of Pensacola Bay, about 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, 180 miles west of Tallahlassee, and 64 miles east of Mobile. It is one of the principal places in the State, and now that it has railway communication with the rest of the Union, is rapidly growing in its commrercial importance. It possesses anl admirable harbor, admitting vessels drawing 21 feet of water. The town is a naval station of the United States, and coIntains an important navy yard. The entrance to the harbor is defended by Fort Piekens, on Santa Rosa Island, and Forts Barrancas and McRea on the mainland. The city presents rather a decayed appearance, and bears many marks of its Spanisll origin. The houses are mostly oldfashioned and of wood; the streets are generally unpaved, and the sidewalks are frequently of wood. The principal building is the Custom House. There are several churches and schools, and 2 newspaper offices in the city. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 3347. Pensacola was permanently settled by the Spaniards about the year 1699. The French made frequent efforts to drive away the Spaniards, and in 1719 captured the place, and held it until 1723, when they restored it to Spain. In 1763 all Florida, including Pensacola, passed into the hands of the British. Pensacola was besieged and recaptured by the Spanish in 1781. In 1783 the whole province was restored to Spain. In 1814
the city was attacked and captured, with its adjacent forts, by General Jackson, whose object was to drive out the British who had been allowed by the Spaniards to establish themselves there. In 1818 the Spaniards being either unable or unwilling to put a stop to the inroads of the Indians from Florida into the 675

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. United States, General Jackson again took possession of the city, and obliged the Spanish Governor, who had taken relilge in Fort Barrancas, to surrender that work. In 1821 Pensacola became a city of the Union by the purchase of Florida. In January, 1861, after the secession of Florida from the Union, the State troops took possession of the navy yard, Forts Barrancas and McRea, and the other Governmnent property. The United States forces, under Lieutenant Slemmer, occupied Fort Pickens, oil Santa Rosa Island, and held it until reinforced. The Southern forces at once laid siege to Fort Pickens, which was also defendedby a naval force. The siege of this fort, and( the blockade of Pensacola, lasted during the greater portion of the civil war.

ST. AUGUSTINE Is situated in St. John’s county, on the north shore of Matanzas Sound, 2 miles from the Atlantic, from which it is separated by Anas tasia Island. It is 200 miles east by south from Tallahassee. It possesses but little trade, although its harbor is safe and large. Large ships cannot enter it, however, as there is but 9 or 10 feet of water on the bar. It is reached by steamer from Jacksonville. It contains the county buildings, several churches and schools, and 1 newspaper office. In 1870 the population was 1717. St. Augustine is the oldest town in the United States, and one of the most interesting. It was settled by the Spaniards in 1564. The site was originally a shell hummock, scarcely 12
feet higher than the surface of the sea. The town formerly stood in a grove of orange trees, but in 1834 a great frost destroyed these. Frost, however, is very rare in this part of Florida. Many winters pass without the slightest mark of it, and snow is almost unknown. “St. Augustine is built along the seaward side of a narrow ridge of land, situated between a salt marsh and estuary half a mile from the beach, two miles from the ocean, in sight of the bar and lighthouse, and in hearing of the surf. The soil is sandy loam and decomposed shell, and is very productive.

Approaching by a bridge and crossing the St. Sebastian River and marsh, the stranger enters a wellshaded avenue, flanked by gardens and orange-groves, which leads directly to the centre of the quaint old city.

Here is the public square, a neat enclosure of some two acres, facing which, on either side, stand the Court House, the market and wharf, the Protestant Episcopal Church-a plain building, in the pointed style, handsomely 676

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FLORIDA. furnished-and, immediately opposite, the venerable Romnan Catholic Church, a striking edifice of seemingly great antiquity, but built only about eighty years ago. It is of the periwig pattern, and in the worst possible taste. One of its bells bears date 1682. Connected with this church is a smnall convent and school. A minute’s wally brings us to the sea-wall or breakwater, a broad line of massive masonry, built about 1840 by order of Government, at great cost, for the pro tection of the city, but whose chief use is that of affording to the in llabitants the pleasantest promenade ill fine weather. This xvwall ex tends half a mile southward to the now deserted barracks and maga ziiie, and as far northward as Fort Maarion (formerly Castle of St. Mark), a picturesque and decayed fortress, which once commanded the whole harbor, looming up out of the fiat landscape, grand as a Moorish castle, and forming the most conspicuous and interesting relic of the Spanish occupation. Parallel to this sea-wall, run north and south, with short intersections, the three principal streets or lanes, long, narrow, without pavement or sidewalk, irregularly built up with ‘ dumpy’ but substantial houses, rather dingy and antediluvian, mostly of stone, or with the lower stories stone and the upper of wood. They have invariably the chimneys outside, and are ornamented with projecting balconies and latticed verandahs, from which the gay paint has long since faded, being all toned and weather-stained into one sonmbre gray hue, which, in keeping with the surroundings, is the joint result of age, neglect, sun, and saline air. Every house is separated from its neighbor by more or less of garden plot, ill protected by broken fence and crumbling wall, wherein they raise two or more crops of vegetables every year, figs in perfection, and roses in unmeasured abundance. St. Augustine is sometimes styled the’Ancient City.’ Its appearance is in strict keeping with its venerable age, seen in the unequivocal markls of decay or decrepitation. Perhaps the friable nature of the common building material contributes to this ruinous appearance, all the older houses being constructed of a stratified concrete of minute shell and sand called’ coquina,’ in blocks conveniently obtained, and easily worked, hardening by exposure, but abrading and crumbling in course of time. Coquina houses are invariably dark, and always damp in winter, oni which account frame dwellings, though not so cool, for summer houses, are much preferred by the innovating Yankees. But the Minorcan, or sub-Spanish population, still adhere to their traditions, and refuse to be reformed. They build for the ~unmer time the longest season. Northerners seeking in Florida a 42 677

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ST. AUGUSTINE. mild climate generally prefer St. Augustine; and with the best reason. The proximity of the Gulf Stream renders it warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the settlements on the St. Johni’s River. It is at present the most southern habitable place on the eastern coast; and it has peculiar advantages over all other towns in East Floridain its churches, its company, and its comforts. Good society may be always had there; the citizens are hospitable, and among the visitors are always some agreeable persons, cultivated and distinguished. Visitors begin to arrive about the holidays.

From the middle of MIarch to the middle of April is the height of the season, and then the hotels are crowded. Deliciously fresh and mild is the atmosphere during the first spring heats. Then the soft souah wind fills the senses with a voluptuous languor, and the evening land breeze comes laden with the fragrance of orange-blossoms and the breath of roses. A moonlight walk upon the sea-wall suggests thie Mediterranean, and the allusion is heightened by the accents of a foreign tongue. The effect of these happy climatic and social conditions is very noticeable. The most morose tenmpers seeil to lose their acerbity, and even the despairing invalid catches the contagion of cheerfulness. Twothirds of the population of St. Augustine are of Spanish origin, and still speak the Spanish language. The women are pretty, modest, dark-eyed( brunettes; dress neatly in gay colors, are skilful at needlework. and good lhousewives. The men exhibit equally characteristic traits of race and nationality. The people are generally poor. There are no 678

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FLORIDA. manufactures. The town produces little,. and exports nothing-its chief support, since the loss of its orange-groves, being derived from Government offices, and receipts fromn strangers. It has one saw-mill, rarely running.” KEY WEST CITY, In Monroe county, in the most populous town in the State. It is situated on the island of Key West, about 60
miles southwest of Cape Table, latitude 24~ 33’ N.; longitude 81~ 40’ W.

It is a well-built town, of nearly 700 houses. The streets are 50 feet wide and cross each other at right-angles. It contains 4 churches, 5
schools, and a fine JlIaiine Hospital belonging to the United States.

About 30,000 bushels of salt are made annually at Key West by solar evaporation. Large quantities of sponges, turtles, and fish are exported to the Atlantic cities. The principal business of the place, however, is wrecking. About forty-five or fifty vessels are annually wrecked in tile vicinity of the island, and the inhabitants derive an annual profit of about $200,000 from the salvages and other perquisites of these vessels.

This business is conducted under equitable and strict laws, and is of benefit to ship-owners as well as to the islanders. Key West was first settled in 1822. It is one of the most important military stations of the United States, as it is the key to the Florida Pass and the Gulf of Mexico. The harbor is large and safe, and will admit vessels drawing 22
feet of water. Its entrance is defended by Fort Taylor, a powerful work.

The steamers from Char]eston and New York touch at this port once a week, and furnish the only regular communication with the mainland. In 1870 the population was 5000. 679

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ALABAMA. Area…………..50,722 Square Miles. Population in 1860………946,244 (Whites, 526,431; Negroes, 419,813) Population in 1870……..996,992 THE State of Alabama is situated between 30~ 10’ and 35~ N. latitude, and between 85~ and 88~ 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Tennessee, on the east by Georgia, on the south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Mississippi. TOPOGRAPHIIY. The northeast part of this State is occupied by the southwest end of the Alleghany Mountains, which terminate here. They gradually sink down into a fine rolling country, which covers the whole surface of the State to within sixty miles of the Gulf, where it becomes level. The principal rivers are the Alabama, Tennessee, Tombigbee, Black Warrior, and Coosa.

The Perdido separates the State from Florida in the southeast, and the Choctawhatchic, Pea, Yellow, Connecuh, and Escambia rivers rise in the southern part of the State, and flow south into Florida. The Alabama River, the most important stream in the State, is formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa, which unite about 10 miles above Montgomery. It flows in a generally southwest direction, ala’ apties through Mobile Bay into the Gulf of Mexico. About - niles above Mobile, it is joined by the Tombigbee.

Below this, it is called the Mobile River. It is navigable at all seasons for firstclass steamers.. The Tallapoosa is navigable for a short distance, and the Coosa for about 160 miles. The length of the main stream is 680’

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ALABAMA. about 300 miles. Its tributaries are the Canawba an Tombigbee, besides several small streams. Mr. Russell, the correspondent of the London Times, draws the following picture of this celebrated river in its prosperous timnes: “The vessel was nothing more than a vast wooden house, of three separate stories, floating on a pontoon which upheld the engine, with a dining-hall or saloon on the second story surrounded by sleeping berths, and a nest of smaller rooms up-stairs; on the metal roof was a’

musical’ instrument called a’calliope,’ played like a piano by keys, which acted on levers and valves, admitting steam into metal cups, where it produced the requisite notes-high, resonant, and not un pleasing at a moderate distance. It is 417 miles to Mobile, but at this season the steamer can maintain a good rate of speed, as there is very little cotton or cargo to be taken on board at the landings, and the stream is full.

“The river is about 200 yards broad, and of the color of chocolate and milk, with highl, steelp, wooded banks, rising so much above the surface of the stream, that a person on the upper deck of the towering Southern Republic, cannot get a glimpse of the fields and country beyond. High banks and bluffs spring up to the height of 150 or even 200 feet above the river, the breadth of which is so uniform as to give the Alabama the appearance.of a canal, only relieved by sudden bends and rapid curves. The surface is covered with masses of drift wood, whole trees, and small islands of branches. Now and then a sharp, black, fang-like projection standing stiffly in the current gives warning of a snag, but the helmsman, who commands the whole course of the river, from an elevated l-ouse amidships on the upper deck, can see these in time; and at night pine boughs are lighted in iron cressets at the bows to illuminate the water.

“The captain, who was not particular whether his name was spelt Maher, or Meaher, ol Meagher (les tros oi se disent), was evidently a character-perhaps a good one. One with a grey eye flil of cunning and of some humor, strongly-marked features, and a very Celtic mouth of the Kerry type. He soon attached himself to me, and favored me with some wonderful yarns, which I hope he was not foolish enough to think I believed. One relating to a wholesale destruction and massacre of Indians he narrated with evident gusto. Pointing to one of the blutff,, he said that some thirty years ago the whole of the Indians in the district being surrounded by the whites, betook themselves to that spot, and remained there without any 681

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. A BLUFF ON TIlE ALABASIA RIVER. means of escape, till they were quite starved out. So they sent down to know if the whites would let them go, and it was agreed that they should be permitted to move down the river in boats. When the day camne, and they were all afloat, the whites anticipated the boat-massacre of Nana Sahib at Cawnpore, and destroyed the helpless redskins. Many hundreds thus perished, and the whole affair was very much approved of. “The value of land on the sides of this river is great, as it yields nine to eleven bales of cotton to the acre-worth 101. a bale at present prices. The only evidences of this wealth to be seen by us consisted of the cotton sheds on the top of the banks, and slides of timnber, with steps at each side down to the landings, so constructed that the cotton bales could be shot down on board the vessel. These shoots and staircases are generally protected by a roof of planks, and lead to unknown regions inhabited by niggers and their masters, the latter all talking politics. And so they talk through the glimmering of bad cigars for hours. “The management of the boat is dexterous,-as she approaches the landing-place, the helm is put hard over, to the screaming of the steam-pipe, and the wild strains of’Dixie’

floating out of the throats of the calliope, and as the engines are detached, one wheel is worked forward, and the other backs water, so she soon turns head up stream, and is then gently paddled up to the river bank, to which she is just kept up by steam-the plank is run ashore, and the few passengers who are coming in or out are lighted on their way by the flames of pine in an iron basket, swinging above the bow by a long pole. Then .; 2

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ALABAMA. we see them vanishing into black darkness up the steps, or coming down clearer and clearer till they stand in the full blaze of tile beacon, which casts dark shadows on the yellow water. The air is glistening with fire-flies, which dot the darkness with specks and points of flame, just as sparks fly through the embers of tinder or half-burned paper. “Some of the landings were by far more important than others. Thlere were some, for example, where an iron railroad was worked down the bank by windlasses for hoisting up goods; others where the negroes, half-naked, leaped ashore, and rushing at piles of fire-wood, tossed them on board to feed the engine, which, all uncovered and open to the lower deck, lighted utip the darkness by the glare from the stoke-holes, which cried forever’ Give, give! as the negroes cease lessly thrust the pine-beams into their hungry maws. I could under stand how easily a steamer can’burn up,’ and how hopeless escape wvould be under such circumstances. The whole framework of the vessel is of the lightest resinous pine, so raw that the turpentine oozes out through the paint; the hull is a mrere shell. If the vessel once caught fire, all that could be done would be to turn her round, and irun her to the bank, in the hope of holding there long enough to enable the people to escape into the trees; but if she were not near a landing, many must be lost; as the bank is steel) down, the vessel (altnot be run ag,round; and in some places the trees are in eight or ten feet of water.

A few minutes would suffice to set the vessel in a blaze from stem to stern; and if there were cotton onl board, the l)ales would burn almost like powder. The scene at each landing was repeated, with few variations, ten times till we reached Selmna, 110 miles distance, at 11.30 at night.

“Selma, which is connected with the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers by railroad, is built upon a steep, lofty bluff, and the lights in the windows, and the lofty hotels above us, put me in miind( of the old town of Edinburgh, seen from Princes Street. Beside us there was a huge storied wharf, so that our passengers could step on shore from any (leek they pleased. “The cabin of one of these steamners, in the month of May, is not favorable to sleep. The wooden beams of the engines creak and scream ‘
consuimedly,’ and the great engines themselves throb as if they would l)reak through their thin, pulse covers of pine,-and the whistle sounds, and the calliope shrieks cut’Dixie’ incessantly. So, when I was up tand dressed, breakfast was over, and I had an opportunity of seeing the slaves on board, male and female, acting as stewards and stew 683

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ardesses, at their morning meal, which they took with much good spirits and decorum. They were nicely dressed-clean and neat. I was forced to admit to myself that their Ashantee grandsires and grandmothers, or their Kroo and Dahomey progenitors, were certainly less comfortable and well clad, and that these slaves had other social advantages, though I could not recognize the force of the Bishop of Georgia’s assertion, that from slavery must come the sole hope of, and machinery for, the evangelization of Africa. I confess I would not give much for the influence of the stewards and stewardesses in Christianizing the blacks. “The river, the scenery, and the scenes were just the same as yesterday’s-high banks, cotton slides, wooding-stations, cane-brakesand a very miserable negro population, if the specimens of women and children at the landings fairly represented the mass of the slaves. They were in strong contrast to the comfortal)le, well-dressed domestic slaves on board, and it can well be imagined there is a wide difference between the classes, and that those condemned to work in the open fieldls must suffer exceedingly.” The Toiibigbee River, or, as it is familiarly called by the natives, the Bigbee, rises in Tishomingo county, in the extreme northeast of tlhe State of Mississippi, and flows southward to Columbus, in that State, where it turns to the east, enters the State of Alabama, and flows southeast to Demopolis, where it receives the waters of the Black Warrior, after which it flows south into the Alabama River, 45 miles north of Mobile. It is 450 miles long, and is navigable for steamers to Columbus, Miss., 366 miles from Mobile. Flat-bottomed steamboats can ascend to Aberdeen, 40 or 50 miles above Columbus. The Tombigbee flows through a fine, fertile country, and its banks are lined with cotton plantations.

Its principal branchl, the Black Warrior, extends into the northeast part of the State, and is navigable for 150 mniles, to Tuscaloosa, 305 miles from its mouth. It flows through a country rich in mineral resources. The Tennessee River has 130 miles of its course in Alabama, flowing westward across the northern part of the State. It will be described in another chapter. Mlobile Bay divides the extreme southwest part of the State in half. It extends southward from the mouth of the Mobile River to the Gulf, with which it communicates by two channels separated by Dauphin Island. It is 35 muiles long, and from 3 to 15 miles wide. It was the scene of a desperate naval battle between the Federal and Confederate fleets, in which the latter was destroyed by Admiral 684

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ALABAMA. Farragut. It communicates with Mississippi Sound on the west, and, in connection with that body of water, which is protected from the waves of the Gulf by a chain of low, sandy islands, furnishes an inner and safe water route from Mobile to Lake Pontchartrain and New Orleans. SOIL, CLIMATE, MINERALS, PRODUCTS, AND MANUFACTURES. “The soil varies with the geographical locality and elevation. The mountain region of the north is well suited to grazing and stockraising, and is interspersed with valleys of excellent soil. The undulating surface of the central portion is well watered, and, especially in the river bottoms, highly charged with fertilizing elements. The valley of the Alabama is one of the richest on the continent. The removal of the canebrakes of Marengo and Greene counties, has disclosed soil of surpassing quality. Toward the coast the vegetation becomes decidedly tropical. Cotton is the great staple, but sugarcane is cultivated on the neck between Mississippi and Florida, and indigo has been produced in considerable quantities. Oaks in great variety, poplars, hickories, chestnuts, and mulberries, cover the northern and central parts, while in the south the pine, cypress, and loblolly are the prevailing species. “The climate varies with the latitude, approaching within seven degrees of the tropics. The southern coast is strongly assimilated to the torrid zone in its temperature. The nights, however, are alleviated, even in the hottest weather, by the Gulf breezes. During the coldest seasons the rivers, even in the north, are seldom frozen, and the general winter temperature of the State is very mild. The low lands near the rivers are malarious, but the State generally is remarkable for salubrity. “The agricultural statistics of 1860 disclose an advance, in ten years, of fifty per cent. in the amount of land brought under cultivation, and of nearly two hundred per cent. in the value of farms and farm implements. “Live stock presents some enlargement of aggregate numbers, and more than doubles in value. Animal products, such as butter, cheese, wool, honey, and slaughtered animals, have increased fifty per cent. Cereals, tobacco, cotton, potatoes, and hay show like increment.

Market garden-products nearly double in value, while orchard products increase nearly fifteen fold. Like the neighboring Gulf States, 685

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OUR COUNT’RY AND ITS RESOURCES. an illjudiciouis cultivation of cottoll, tobacco, and other heavy staples, has somewvhat exhausted the fertility of portions of the lan(d. Tillage and rotation of crops will remedy the mischief and restore the elements of productiveness. The agricultural development of Alabama awaits the final adjustment of the system of labor, the State possessing elements promising a bright future. “The mineral resources of Alabama are sufficiently known to indicate their abundance and variety. The central region is underlaid by vast beds of iron ore, alternating with thick coal measures of great extent. The juxtaposition of these minerals favors mining operations and the processes of preparing iron for market. Lead, manganese, ochres, and marbles, are found in different localities, and even gold is reported. Sulphur and chalybeate springs are of frequent occurrence. “The returns of 1870 show 2188
manufacturing establishments, with capital of $5,714,032, producing articles valued at $13,040,644, at an outlay for labor and raw material of $9,280,805; the margin of profits was $3,759,839, or over 50 per cent. on the capital invested. A new era in manufacturing enterprise may be expected ill the reorganization of labor now in progress in this and other States, in which this great industrial interest will find its true position and influence in the social system.”* In 1 69 there were 6,385,724 reies of improved land in Alabama. In the same year the agrieult,~~mI statistics were as follows: Bales of cotton………. Pounds of rice (est,iua’ed),…. Bushels of wheat……… ” Indianr corn,…….

Deas and beans…… ” sweet potatoes (estimated), oats………. Tons of hay………… Pounds of butter……… nlnmber of horses……… mules and asses,…. milch cows,……. sheep……… ” swine,…….. ” young cattle,.. value of domestic animals,….. * Report of the General Land Office. 686 510,000 300,000 930,000 30,200,000 65,780 5,000,000 567,000

68,000 6,028,478 165,063 140,687 270,537 680,960 2,500,000 600,347

$49,111,911

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ALABAMA. COMMERCE. Alabama, having 1500 miles of river navigation, and one of the best harbors’on the Gulf (Mobile), possesses considerable commerce The export of cotton and lumber is very large. In 1860 the total value of the exports of the State was $38,670,183 (making Alabama the third State in the Union as regards the value of its exports that year), and that of the imports, $1,050,310. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were 1671
miles of comrpleted railroads in Alabama, constructed at a cost of about $40,000,000. The capital and the principal towns are connected with each other, and with all parts of the Union. The great railroad route between Memphlis and the Eastern States extends across the northern part of the State, and there is a main route direct from Mobile to the Ohio River. The roads of the State were almost destroyed during the war, but are slowly regaining their former prosperity. EDUCATION. Alabama was one of the most enterprising States in the South in the cause of education previous to the war. In 1870 the State contained 9 colleges, with about 1000 students; 2812 public schools, with about 62,000 pupils; and 148 academies and other schools, with about 10,000 pupils. The Unliversity of Alabama is located near Tuscaloosa. It was a flourishing institution previous to the war, and held a high rank amongst the colleges of the country. Its buildings were destroyed by fire in 1865. Measures were at once taken to restore them upon a larger and more perfect plan. The schools of the State were generally closed by the war, many of them having been destroyed during the struggle. The new Constitution places the educational system of the State in the hands of a State Board of Education, consisting of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Governor of the State, who is a member ex officio, and two members from each Congressional District. They also constitute a Board of Regents of the State University. The Board meets annually at Montgomery, at the opening of the session of the Legislature, and sits for the transaction of business for a period not to exceed 20 days. The Board is required to establish one ot 687

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. more free public schools in each school district. A permanent school firnd is established, and the Legislature is required to levy taxes for the support of the public schools. In 1860 the State contained 395 libraries, with 13,050 volumes. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.

The State Penitentiary is located at Wetumpka, and contains about 200
prisoners, threefourths of whom are negroes. The penitentiary is let out to contractors, and is self-supporting. The convicts are put to work, outside the prison, on railroads, and in the iron and coal milles, a guard being kept over them. The Insane Hospital is at Tuscaloosa. It was established in 1852, and opened for the reception of patients in July, 1861. It is an excellenit institution, is well managed, and is prosperous.

In 1866 there were 151 patients under treatment here. Those who are able to pay their expenses are charged a moderate sum. The institution will accommodate 350 patients. The Institutionfor the Deaf, Dumnb, and Blind is at Talladega. It contains 40 pupils, who are being instructed in the various branches of a good education. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1860
there were 1875 churches in the State, but many of these were destroyed during the war. FINANCES. The total bonded debt of the State in July, 1874, was $10,452,593. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30th, 1874, were $1,870,757, and the expenditures $1,624,363. There were 2 National Banks in the State, with a capital of $500,000, in 1868. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted by the people in February, 1868. Every male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State six months, and has taken the oath to support the Constitutiou and laws of the United States, and of Alabama, are entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, 688

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ALABAMA. Secretary of State, Treasurer and Receiver-General, Auditor and Attorney General, and a General Assembly, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Executive officers are elected by the people, and all except the Auditor, who is chosen for four years, hold office for two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, Chancery Courts, Courts of Probate, and such inferior courts as the General Assembly may see fit to establish. The Supreme Court consists of three judges, and has appellate jurisdiction only. All the judges in this State are chosen by the people. For purposes of government the State is divided into 52 counties. The seat of Government is at Montgomery.

HISTORY. The word ALABAMA is an Indian expression, signifying, ” Here we rest.” The first white man who entered the State was Fernando de Soto, who traversed it in 1540, defeating the Indians who sought to oppose his progress in several severe battles. He found the savages less barbarous and more civilized in this part of the country than in the other sections visited by him. He crossed the State from the northeastern part to Maubila, said to have occupied the present site of Choctaw Bluff, just above the confluence of the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers. “This place consisted of eighty handsome houses, each sufficiently capacious to contain a thousand men. They were encompassed by a high wall, made of immense trunks of trees, set deep in the ground and close together, strengthened with cross-timbers and interwoven with large vines.” After De Soto’s arrival in the town, he and his followers were treacherously attacked by the Indians to the number of ten thousand. A battle ensued, which lasted nine hours, and resulted in the destruction of six thousand Indians and the town of Maubila. The Spaniards suffered terribly, and lost eighty men, forty-five horses, and all their baggage and camp equipage.

After this De Soto proceeded northward to the Mississippi River. In 1702, Bienville, the French Governor of Louisiana, entered Mobile Bay, and built a fort and trading-post at the mouth of Dog River. He called the post Fort St. Louis de la Mobile. This was for nine years the seat of government, but in 1711, the French ascended to the head of the bay, and founded the present city of Mobile. Bienville made treaties of friendship and alliance with the 689

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. neighboring Indian tribes, and for awhile the colony prospered, but finally the colonists became so much harassed by the English, who incited the Indians against them, that they abandoned Mobile. Negro slaves were first brought into the colony by three French ships of war, ill 1721. The treaty of 1783 surrendered the French possessions in Alabama to Great Britain. “George Johnson, the first British Governor, organized a military government, garrisoned the fort at Mobile, and that of Toulouse, up the Coosa. The first English inhabitants of Mobile died in great nulnhers, from habits of intemperance, exposure, and contagious disorders, introduced by the military. The exports of Mobile, in 1772, were indigo, raw hides, corn, cattle, tallow, rice, pitch, bear’s oil, lumber, fish, etc. Cotton was cultivated in small quantities. The charter granted to Georgia comprised within its limits all the territory westwvard to the Mississippi. That State, considering its title to these lands as perfect, made grants to various companies, for the purpose of settlement. Two sets of these, known as the’ Yazoo Giants,’

have acquired a celebrity in history. By the first, five millions of acres in Mississippi were granted to the South Carolina Yazoo Company; seven millions to the Virginia Yazoo Company; and 3,500,000 acres in Alabama to the Tennessee Company. The United States authorities opposed these grants, and the several companies having failed to pay the purchase money, Georgia rescinded her patents. Several years afterwards, Georgia made other and more considerable grants. These sales raised a storm throughout the country; they were denounced by General Washington, in his message to Congress, and, eventually, they were declared nutll and void. “Alabama, at this period, was almost entirely in the occupation of the natives. There was a garrison of Spanish troops at Mobile, and also at St. Stephens, on the Tombigbee, with trading-posts upon the Oconee, and on other points in the south and west. The whole country west of the present limits of Georgia, to the Mississippi, was now purchased by the United States, and, in 1817, was erected into the’Mississippi Territory.’ Fort Stoddard was built near the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee, and the county of Washington laid out, embracing a space out of which 20 counties in Alabama and 12 in Mississippi have since been made. “At the period of the second war with Great Britain, Alabama was a theatre of Indian warfare, as a great part of the State was then 690

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ALABAMA. inha’,ted by a number of tribes of Indians, of whom the Creeks were the principal. In 1812, the Creeks having been stirred up to war by Tecumseh, the celebrated Shawnee warrior, commenced hostile opera tions.

In August, they fell on Fort Mimms; the garrison made a desperate resistance, but out of three hundred men, women, and children, only seventeen survived the massacre. The adjoining States were now roused to action. In November, General Jackson, assisted by Generals Coffee, Floyd, and Claiborne, entered the Indian country, and defeated the Indians at Talladega, where 290 of their warriors were slain. In November, General Floyd attacked the Creeks on their sacred ground, at Autossee. Four hundred of their houses were burned, and 200 of their bravest men were killed, among whom were the kings of Autossee and Tallahassee. “The last stand of the Creeks was at Tohlopeka, a place called the ‘HorseShoe Bend.’ Here the Indians fought desperately, but were entirely defeated with the loss of nearly 600 men. The victory ended in the submission of the remaining warriors, and ill 1814, a treaty of peace was concluded, and the Creeks have now removed westward of the Mississippi. In 1816, a cession was obtained from the Indians of all the territory from the head waters of the Coosa westward to Cotton Gin Point, and to a point running thence to Caney Creek on the Tennessee. The territorial government being established, the seat of government was located at St. Stephens. William W. Bibb was appointed Governor, and the first legislature was convened in 1818. “The floodgates of Virginia, the two Carolinas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Georgia were now hoisted, and the mighty streams of emigration poured through them, spreading over the whole territory of Alabama. In 1819, Alabama was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The General Assembly convened at Huntsville, and W. W. Bibb was inaugurated Governor.”

The State grew rapidly in wealth and population. In 1860, it was the fourth State of the South in importance, and the second in the amount of cotton produced. Slavery was the basis of its agriculture. On the 11th of January, 1861, the State seceded fromt the Union, and joined the Southern Confederacy. In the spring of 1862, after the fall of Fort Donnelson and Memphliis, the northern part of the State became the scene of constant military operations, and continued Barber’s History of all the Western States, p. 573. 691

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to be torn by the two armies till near the close of the war. The losses in the upper counties were immense, and the central counties were frequently desolated by raiding parties. The forts (Gaines and Morgan) defending the entrance to Mobile Bay were besieged and taken by the United States forces in 1865, and in the same year the victory of Mobile Bay, the severest naval battle of the war, was won lay the National forces under Admiral Farragut. The Southern Congress first met at Montgomery, the capital of the State, and there organiz(. the new Confederacy. Montgomery was the capital of the Confederacy until its transfer to Richmond in May, 1861. After the close of the war a Provisional Government was established in Alabama, by the President of the United States. It was overturned by Congress, and in 1867 was included in the Third Military District. In November, 1867, a Convention met at Montgomery, and framed a State Constitution, which was ratified by the people on the 4th of February, 1868, and on the 25th of June, 1868, Congress readmitted the State into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Mobile, Tuscaloosa, Huntsville, Selma, Kingston, Tuscumbia, Decatur, Cahawba, and Marion MONTGOMERY, The capital and second city in the State, is situated in Montgomery county, on the east bank of the Alabama River. Latitude 32~

21’ N., longitude 86~ 25’ W. It is 197 miles (by road) northeast of Mobile, or 331 miles by water, and 839 miles southwest of Washington. The city is located on rising ground, which increases in elevation as it recedes from the river. It is regularly laid out, is well built, an(l contains a number of handsome buildings. The State House is the principal building. It stands on Capitol Hill, at the head of Market street, and though small in size, is all imposing structure. It was in this building that the Provisional Government of the Southern Confederacy was organized.

TIhe other prominent buildings are the churches, the Court House, the Theatre, and the Exchange Hotel. The schools of the city are numerous. The city contains many handsome private residences. It is lighted with 692

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ALABAMA. CAPITOL AT -IONTGOMIERY. gas, and is supplied with pure water fiionI artesian wells in the centre ,)f the city. MAIontgomnery is a place of considerable trade. It lhas direct com munication by ralilwvay with all parts of the State and Union, and has water transportation along the navigable portion of the Alabama and its tributaries. Tile Alabama is never closed by ice, and very rarely sutaffers from drought. Large steamers ply between Montgomery and Mobile during the entire year. Large steamers also ascend the Coosa River, as far as MVetumpka. About 75,000
bales of cotton are annually shipped from Montgomery. Several newspapers are published in Montgomery. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council.

In 1870 the population was 1 0,588. M\ontgomery was settled about the year 1792. It was a place of *-onsiderable importance during Jacklson’s operations against the Creek 1Indians, in 1813-14. In 1847 it became the capital of the State. ‘he Provisional Congress of the Confederate States met at Montg,omnery in February, 186(1, and( there, in the same month, Jefferson Davis was inaugurated “President of the Confederate States.” The city continued to be the capital of the Confederacy until May, 1861. In April, 186(5, the Confederates, upon evacuating the place, set fire to the cotton warehouses, and burned them together with 80,000 bales (-)f’

(otton. A week later the arsenal, railway depots, and foundry were destroyed by She United States troops. 693 43

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OUR COUNTRY AND IrS RPESOURCES. MOBIT,F, The largest city of Alabama, and the metropolis of the the State, is. situated on the west bank of the Mobile River, just above its entrance into Mobile Bay. It is 197 miles southwest of Montgomery, 30 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, 165 miles east bv north from New Orleans, and 1033 miles southwest of WV.tslingt()n. The city is built upon a level l)lain, about 15 feet above highl water in the bay, and is laid off’ withl toleratt)le regularity. The streets arc wide, and in thle business portion of the city are paved. They arce shaded with fine trees. In this portion the city is compactly built. In the upper portion it is scattered over a great deal of ground. The general appearance of thle city is liandsoiae, tlhough there are no very fine public buildings. The business houtses ire generall plain. The p)rivate residences of the city will compare favorably with anything in the Union.

As a rule they stand in the midst of large grounds, and the orange and finer fiuits form a prominent part of the foliage withl which tlhev are surrounded. Government street is the mnost attractive in the city, and( is the favorite promenade. The principal public lbuilding is the Custom Hoitse, a showy edifice of white marble. The others, the MIunicipal Buili(ns, the Theatre, the -Markets (the handsomtest in the South), the OdIl Fellovs’ and Tentpetracee Hals, and thle Battlk ottoe, the principal hotel. The churches are numerous and handsome. The Benevolent Institutions are, tl-he Blind As.ltbt,m, the City Hospital, the Romi(tt Catholic M(tle cind Femate Oiph(et i Asylums, the P,‘otesta,it Oi’phagt Asylumi, the Unite(d States lcui oie sHo.pital, and several societies for the relief of the poor and sufferi.)g. The schools of the city are excellent. There are 14 large public schools, and a number of private seminaries. The.Iob)ile (-(llege is a flourishing institution. pSprig Ifitl College, 6 miles from-tlhe city, is regarded as one of the schools of Mobile. It is controlled by the Roman Catholic Church. The city is lighted with gas, and is sup)plied with spring water, brought from a distance of 2 miles in iron pipes. It possesses anil efficient police force, and a steamn fire engine department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 32,184. The position of Mobile has made it a place of great commercial importance. It is the natural outlet of the great cotton country lying north of it, and watered by the Alabama and its tributaries. The 694

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ALABAMA. THE LANDING, MIOBILE. city extends along the river shore for more than two miles east ain(l west. The bay is slhallow and difficult of navigation, and it is (dangcrous for vessels drawing more than 7 feet of water to attempt to reach the city. Large vessels lie near the mouth of the bay, and their cargoes are sent down to them on lighters or schooners.

Mobile is the second cotton port of the Union, ranking next to New Orleans in the amount of its shipments of this great staple. A large portion of its shipments are made direct to Europe. Previous to the civil war it exported annually about 632,000 bales of cotton. It is rapidly renewving its former importance. Consi(lerable shipping is owned in the port. There is daily communication by steamboats with the towns on the Alabama and its tributaries, and withl New Orleans by way of’ Lakes Borgne and Pontchlartrain. A considerable trade is maintained by sailing vessels with the Atlantic and Gulf ports. The harbor i; defended by Forts Morgan and Gaines. Mobile was settled in 1702 by the French under Bienville, and was for many years the capital of the Colony of Louisiana. Its early history is very interesting, but must be passed over here. In 1723 the seat of government was removed to New Orleans. In 1763 Mobile, with all that portion of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi, and 695

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. north of Bayou Iberville, Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, passed into the possession of Great Britain by the terms of the Treaty of Paris. In 1780 the fort and townI were captured by the Spaniards, and in 1783 the occupancy of the place was confirmned to Spain by the cession to that Power of all the British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico. In April, 1813, the town was surrendered by the Spaniards to the United States forces under General Wilkinson, and since then it has remained in the possession of the Republic. In 1819 Mobile was incorporated as a city. It then contained a population of 800. During the civil war Mobile was one of the principal ports of the Confederates. It was blockaded by the United States forces during the war. In the spring of 1865 Forts Morgan and Gaines were reduced by the United States army, and the Confederate fleet, under Admiral Buchanan, was defeated and destroyed by the squadron of Admiral Farragut, in the desperate battle of Mobile Bay. These sue,esses on the part of the United States forces resulted in their occupationI of the city of Mobile. MISCELLANY. BATTLE OF THiE

HIORSE-SHIOE BEND. The Creeks concentrated their forces at the great bend of the Tallapoosa, usually called HorseShoe by the whites, and Tohopeka by the Indians, a word in tlheir language said to signify a horseshoe.

The peninsula formed by the bend econtained about 100 acres, on which was a village of some 200 houses. About 1()00 Indians, from the adjoining districts, had fortified themselves on the peninslila with great skill, having a formidable breastwork built of large logs. They hld also an ample supply of provisions and ammunition. On the 16th of M1arch, 1814, General Jackson, having received considerable reinforcements of volunteers from Tennessee, and friendly Indians, left Fort Strother with his whole disposable force, amounting to about 3000 of every description, on an expedition against this assemblage of Indians. He proceeded down the Coosa 60 miles to the mouth of Cedar Creek, where he established a post called Fort Williams, and proceeded on the 24th across the ridge of land dividing the waters of the Coosa from the Tallapoosa; and arrived at the great bend on the morning of the 27thl, having the three preceding days opened a passage throughl the wilderness of 52 miles. On the 26th, he passed the battle ground of the 22d of January, and left it 3 miles in his rear.

General Coffee was detachled, with 700 cavalry and mounted gunmen, and 600
friendly Indians, to cross the river below the bend, secure the opposite banks, and prevent escape. Having crossed at the Little Island ford, 3
miles below the bend, his Indians were ordered silently to approach and line the banks of the river, while the mounted men occtupied the adjoining heights, to guard against reinforcements, which might be expected from the Oakfusky towns, 8 miles below. Lieutenant Bean, at the same time, was ordered to occupy Little Island, at the fording place, to secure any that might attempt to escape in that direction. In the meantime, General Jackson, 61,16

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ALABAMA. with the artillery and infantry, moved on in slowv and regular order to the isthmus, and planted his guns on an eminenice 150 yards in front of the breastwork. On perceiving, that General Coffee had coml)lcted his arran,(gements below, he opened a fire upon the fortification, but found lie could lmake no otlier impression with his artillery than boring shlot-lhoes thlrough tlhe logs. General Coffee’s Indians, on the bank,!iearing, the roaring of the cannon in front, andl observing, considerable confusion onl the peninsula, supposing; the battle to be nearly wonl, crossed over and set fire to thle village, and attacked the Creeks in the rear. At this m1omnent General Jackson ordered an assault upon thlle works in front. I’The regulai troops, led by Colonel Williams, accompanied by a part of the m1ilitia of General Doughlerty’s brigade, led on by Colonel Russell, presently got possession of a part of the works, amid a tremendous fire from behind thenm. The advance guard was led by Colonel Sisler, and the left extremity of the line by Captain Gordon of the spies, and Captain Ml’AMarry, of General JohnIsoni’s brigade of West Tennessee militia. The battle for a short time was obstinate, and fought musket to musket thllrough the port-lholes; when the assailants succeeded in getting possession of the opposite side of the works, and the contest ended. The Creeks were entirely routed, and the whole margin of the rivcrI strewed with the slain. The troops under General Jackson, and General Coffee’s Indians, who had crossed over into the peninsula, continued the work of destruction as long as there was a Creek to be found. General Coffee, on seeing his Indians crossing over, hadl ordered their places to be supplied on the bank by his riflemen; and every Indian that attempted to escape by swimming the river, or crossing the Little Island below, was met and slain by General Coffee’s troops. The battle, as long as any appearance of resistance remained, lasted five hours; the slaughter continue(l until dark, and was renewed the next morniing, when 16 more of the unfortunate savages were hunted out of their hidcling places and slain. Five hundred and fifty-seven warriors were found dead on the peninsula; among whom was their famous prophet ilanahlell, and two others, the principal instigators of the war 250 more were estimated to have been killed in crossing the river, and at other places, which were not found.

General Jackson’s loss was 26 white men, and( 23 Indians, killed; and 107
white men, and 47 Indians, wounded. This decisive victory put an end to the Creek war. In the short period of five montlhs, from the 1st of Novenmber to the 1st of April, 2000 of their warriors, among whom were their principal prophets and kings, had been slain, most of their to-wns and villages burned, and the strong places in their territory occupied by the United States troops. After this battle, the miserable remnant of the hostile tribes submitted. Weatherford, the principal surviving clhief and prophlet, who led the Indians at Fort Mimms, accompanied his surrender with this address to General Jackson: “I fought at Fort MIimms-I foulght the Georgia army-I did you all the injury I could. Had I been supported as I was promised, I would have dlone yon more. But my warriors are all killed. I can fighlt no longer. I look back withl sorrow that I have brought destruction upon my nation. I am now in your power. Do with me as you please. I am a soldier.” 69 i

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M I SS I SS I PP I. Area,…………. 47,156 Square Miles. Poptulatioll ill 18 60……. 791,305 (Wlhites, 353,901; Negroes, 437,404.) Pol)tluation ill 1870…….. 82‘7,992 TIIE State of Mississippi is situated b)etween 30~ 20’ and 35~ N. latitude, and betweeni 88~ 12’ and 91~ 40’ WY. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Tennessee, on the east by Alabama, on the southl by the Gulf of Mlexico and Louisiana, and on the west by Louisiana and Arkansas, from which it is separated by the Mississippi River. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 400
mniles, and its average width, from east to west, about 150 miles.

TOPOGRAPHY. The nlorthern and eastern sections of the State constitute a fine rolling country, which, exten(ding westward, approaches the Mississippi iu many parts in high bluffs or in high hills. The southern part of the State is level. Muchl of the State is marshy, while the country along the Yazoo and Sunflower rivers is almost a continuous swamp, and exceedingly fertile. The northeastern counties are fine prairie land, and the southeastern covered with a dense growth of pine, known as the “Piney Woods.” The Jlississippi Riirer, already described, washes the entire western shore of the State. Its tributaries in this State are, beginning on1 the north, the Yazoo, Big Black, and Homoehito, and a number of small streams. The Yazoo is fbrm-ed by tlhe confluence of the Tallahatchie and Yallobtusha rivers, at Leflore, in Carroll county. The general direction of the main stream and its branches is southwest. The former 698 ~

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MISSISSIPPI. flows into the Mississippi about twelve miles above Vicksburg. It is 290 miles loing, and flows through a country remlarkable for its fertility. It is navigable for its entire length for steamers at all sea sons of the year. It is very tortuous in its course, fully equalling tlhe Mississippi in this respect. Its principal branch, the Tallahatchie, is said to be as long as the Yazoo, and is quite as serpentine in its course. It is navigable for 100 miles. The Suifiower River flows into the Yazoo near its mouth. The Biy Black Rivet rises in Clloctaw county, flows southwest for 200 miles, and empties into the Mississippi at Grand Gulf. It is navigable for 50 miles. The country along its banks is highly fertile and is lined with fine cotton plantations, but is sickly. The Pearl River rises in the central part of the State and flows southwest to Jackson, the capital of the State, where it changes its course, and flows southeast, through Lake Borgne, into the Gulf of Mexico.

It forms the west boundary between the extreme southern part of Mississippi and Louisiana. It is 250 miles long, and is only navigable at high water, in consequence of being obstructed by numerous sand-bars and accumulations of driftwood. The southeast part of the State is watered by the Paseagoula, whiclh is formed by the union of the Chickasawbay and Leaf rivers, which in their turn receive the waters of numerous small streams.

Light-draft steamers ascend the Pascagoula and the Leaf to a point 100
miles from the Gulf of Mexico. A chain of low islands extending along the southern coast, at some di,;tance from the mainland, encloses a number of smtall soulnds, of whlich Mississippi Sound and Biloxi Bay are the principal. Lake B.(rgne lies partly in this State, and receives the waters of the Pearl R.i ver. CLIMATE. The climate varies in the northern and southern parts of the State. Iii the former it is mild and pleasant in the sumnmer, but severer in winter than the climate of the northeastern part of South Carolina. The writer can testify that northern Mississippi in winter deserves ayiv title rather than that of the “Sunny South.” Fine apples and wheat ire raised here. The climate of the southern part is hot and trying. Tropical fruits ripen thoroughly here. The fig and the orange grow to great perfection without requiring shelter. Cotton and Indian corn are raised here. - 699

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OU”R COU:NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. PICKING COTTON. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The northeast part of the State, as we have said, is occupied by fine prairie lands. Here the soil consists of a rich black loam. In the southeast it is sandy. Fruits flourish here. The best lands lie between the Tennessee border and the Big Black River, particularly between the Yazoo and its tributaries and the Mississippi. Previous to the war cotton was the great staple, this State producingl more of that article than any other member of the Union. Thle Report of the United States Bureau of Agriculture for March, 1868, thus speaks of the capacity of the State for producing other staples: “In the rich alluvial soils of Washington county,’ wheat was grown during the war, and its yield was thirty bushels per acre.’ White and red varieties have been grown to some extent in Yazoo; white preferred, ~s less liable to rust. In Leake, a preference is givell 700

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MISSISSIPPI. to the hardier re(d wheat. Red wheat is preferred in VWinston. In Pike, little attention is paid to wheat,‘though the grain is plump and the bran is thiner than in more northern latitudes.’ In De Soto, ‘wheat has never been to any extent an article made for market, though the county has two or three times before 1860 sent the first to the St. Louis market. In 1860, fully half thie flour consumed was grown here; in 1866
and 1867, very little was grown, though the land in wheat in 1867 yielded a good crop. A very large breadth of land is now in wheat.’ The usual time of sowving is between the 15th of October and first of November, though many sow in tie early part of October, and some in the latter portion of Septemiber. The time of harvesting is generally the last week in AMtay; early varieties, with good season, are cut somewhat earlier. The lenlgtll of the season is variously stated, fiomn six to twelve months. The fact is, that stock are never fed to any appreciable extent, with the exception of horses and mules. Sheep and cattle pick up their living in the winter months, as in sunmmer. It is true that sheep and hlorllec(l stock, as well as horses, are sometimes treated to occasional winter pasturage upon rye or barley sown in September. WVithl this help it is possible to keep large flocks of sheep, with little expense; and other kinds of farm animals may be brought through the winter in good condition without other feed. The price of pasturage is estimated at very low rates; in some counties as low as $2 or $3 per season, while others range higher, up to $1 per month.

Figs and peaches everywhere abound, growing rapidly and bearing profusely and surely. Until lately no profit was derived from tlhem, and now only on the line of railroad running lengthwise through the State. Formerly peaches were pecuniarily profitable onily in port-making. The crop is very sure in the southern part of the State; in the northerm, it is sometimes injured by frosts. Apples do pretty well, if kinds are selected which suit the climate. Small fruits pro(tduce in great abund(lance. The pear is apt to blight, buit is favorably mentioned it some localities. Grapes do well in the poorest soils, and are free from disease.” Since the war much of the land that was formerly planted in cotteon hlas beenii devoted to raising wheat and corn. In 1869 there were 5,065,755 acres of cultivated land in Mississippi. The other agricultural returns for the same year were as follows: Bales of cotton…………. 725,000 Pounds of rice (estimated)…………400.000 701

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of wheat,……. Inldian cornl,…… peas and beans,…., ” sweet potatoes (estimated), Tons of hay……… Pounds of butter,……. Number of horses,…….. ” mules and asses,… ” milch cows,…… sheep,…….. ” swine…….. young cattle,……. Value of domestic animals,…. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES.

Mississippi has no foreign commerce of her own. Her cotton is exported from Mobile and New Orleans, and her imports are draw~n mainly thlrough New York and Newv Orleans. Lumber and naval stores are becoming prominent articles of export. But little attention is paid to manufactures, agriculture being the principal pursuit of the people. In 1870 the State contained 1731 mianufacturing establishments, employing a capital of $4,501,714, and yielding an annual product of $8,154,758. Of the above 265
weri saw-mills, producing $2,160,677 worth of lumber. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were in MIississippi 900 mniles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of about $28,000,000. Tile main line of travel froia N,ew York to New Orleans, and from the west to that city, passes through the centre of the State from the Tennessee line southward into Louisiana. Another line, from Vicksburg to the Alabama line, crosses the centre of the State, from west to east, and the road from Mobile to the Ohio River, extends from north to south, through almost the entire eastern tier of counties, while the northeast county is crossed by the great line from Memphis to Chattanooga, Tenn., and the Atlantic States.

These roads place all points of the State within rapid communication with each other, and with the whole country. EDUCATION. In 1870, there were in the State, 19 colleges, with over 1300 students; and 1545 other schools, with over 40,000 pul)ils. The school system of this State was one of the best in the South but was entirely broken up by the civil war. 702 267,000

. 30,000,000 . 1,988,806 . 4,500,000 40,000 . 5,006,610 117,870 121,960

300,101 500,340 . 1,750,101 600,708 . $49,891,692

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MISSISSIPPI. The new Constitution makes a lil)eral provision for the cause of education. The school system is placed under the control of a State Superintendent and a Board of Education, who nominate to the State Senate suitable persons for the office of County Superintendent. Each county constitutes a separate school district, also each city of more than 5000
inhabitants. The State Board and Superintendent have power to prescribe the course of studies for the schools. The inmmediate management of the schools is confided to local Boards of School Directors appointed by the County Superintendents. The Constittution requires an annual taxation by the County Supervisors upon the taxable property of each district, of not more than ten mills on the dollar, for schoolhouse purposes, and of not more than five mills o0l the dollar fbr a teachers’ fund. It is hoped that the new system will be fairly ina(ugurated witlhin the present year. The Utirei-sity of Jlississippi, at Oxford, was the principal institutic)n of learning in the State previous to the war, and held a deservedly high rank in the South. It was closed during the war, but has since resumed its exercises with success. PU BI,IC INSTITUTIONS. The State A,sylit,. for the Bli)d conitains about 21 pulpils, and is located at Jackson. The In,sane tospital is at the same place, and contains about 150 patients. The Deaf and Dumb of the State have been for somne )-ears cared for at the Louisiana Asylum at Baton Rouge. Thle State Peniteitiaury, at Jackson, contains at present about 350 prisoners, and is in a rather embarrassed condition. FINANCES. In 1874 the public debt due by the State amounted to $3,558,629. The total receipts of the Treasury of the State were $2,255,824, of which $795,936 was in uncurrent funds. The disbursements for the same period were $1,238,140. GOVERNMENT. The State election, under the )rovisions of the Reconstruction Act, :ook place on the 30th of Novermber, and the 1st of December, 1869, and at this election the new Constitution of the State was ratified by the people. On the 17th of February, 1870, the State was readminitted into the Union. The State Govetutment is vested in a Governor, Licutenallt-G(iv 703

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OUR COUNTRY ANTD ITS RESOURCES. ernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor of Public Accounts, an(i Attornley-General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate of 33 mnembers, and a House of Representatives of 107 members. By the terms of the Constitution, all mnale inhabitants of this State, except idiots and insane persons, and Indians not taxed, citizens of the United States, or naturalized, 21 years of age, who have resided in the State six months, and in the county one month, are entitled to vote at the elections, unless disqualified by reason of crime. There is a Supreme Court, consisting of three judges appointed by the Governor.

These elect one of their number to the office of Chief Justice. It is a high court of errors and appeals. The State is divided into 15 districts, each possessing its Circuit Court presided over by a judge, and having criminal jurisdiction and jurisdiction in civil suits at coiimmon law. The judges of these courts are prohibited from practising law in any of the State or United States courts during their terms of office. For the purposes of Chancery Courts, the State is divided into 20 districts, for ea(hl of which( a Chancellor is to be appointed by the Governor, ly an(l wvithl the advice and consent of the Senate. A Chancery Court is to be held in each county four times a year. The seat of Government is located at Jactkson. IISTORY. Fernando de Soto and his companions, who entered the State in 1540, were the first Europeans who trod the soil of Mississippi.

At that time the present territory of the State was divided between the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians. La Salle descended tl-he Mississippi River from the Illinois country to the Gulf in 1681, and in 1700, Iberville, the Frence Governor of Lollisiana, planted a colony on Ship Island, on the Gulf coast, from which the settlement was removed to Biloxi on the mainland. In 1716, Bienville, then Governor of ILouisiana, established a post on the Mississippi River, and called it Fort Rosalie.

In 1700, Iberville had designated this spot as a good site for a town, and had called it Rosalie, in honor of Rosalie Countess of Pontchartrain, of France. Th-e present city of Natchez occupies this site. In 1729, the Natchez Indians, becoming alarmed at the growing power of the French, resolved to exterminate them. On the 28th of November, of this year, they fell upon the settlement at Fort Rosalie, and massacred the garrison an(l settlers, 700 in number. When the 704

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MISSISSIPPI. news of this terrible tragedy reached ANew Orleans, Bienville resolved to retaliate severely upon the aggressors. He applied to the Chieka saws, the enemies of the Natchez, for assistance, and was furnished by them with 1600 warriors. With these and his own troops, Bien ville besieged the Natchez in their fort, but they escaped under cover of the night, and fled west of the Mississippi. They were followed lIy the French and forced to surrender; after which, they were taken to New Orleans, and transported to the Island of St. Dominlgo, and soldl as slaves. Being a small nation, these measures literally exter iinated them. It was well known to the French that the Chickasaws, a powerful tribe dwelling in the fertile regions of the upper Tombigbee, had in (ited the Natchez against them, and Bienville resolved to turn his ,aruis against them. In 1736, he sailed firom New Orleans to Mobile with a strong force of French troops and 1200 Choctaw warriors. Iopon reaching Mobile, he ascended the Tombigbee River, in boats, tor 500 miles, to the southeastern border of the present county of Pontotoc. The site of his landing is now known as Cotton Gin Port. The Chickasaw fort, a powerful stronghold, was about 25
miles from this point. Having taken measures to secure his boats, Bienlville ad vanced against the enemy. He made a determined assault on the hostile fort, but was repulsed with a loss of 100 men, which so dis (.oiraged him that he dismissed the Choctaws with presents, threw his (cannon in the Tombigbee, and reenmbarking in his boats, floated down the river to Mobile, whence hle returned to New Orleans. “One important part of the plan of the campaign against the (.‘ickasaws was to have the cooperation of a force of French and Ind(ians from Canada. D’Artaguette, the pride and flower of the French it the North, procured the aid of’

Chicaqo,’ the Illinois chief from the shore of Lake Michigan. His lieutenant was the gallant Vin,,cJ~tes, from the settlement on the Waliash. These heroes came down tli( river unobserved to the last Chick(,saw bluff, and from thence p)(fi.etrated into the heart of the country. On the 10th of May they (,iaeamnped, it is supposed, about six miles east of the present town of l’,iitotoc, near the appointed place of rendezvous with the force of IBieniville. Having waited for some time in vain for intelligence frori the chief commautter, the Indian allies of D’Artaguette became imlpatient for war and plunder, and could not be restrained, when D’Artaguette consented to lead them to the attack. He drove the Chickasaws from two of their fortified villages, but was severely wounded in 701-)

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. his attack on the third. His allies, the red men of Illinois, dismayed at this check, fled precipitately, and D’Artaguiette was left weltering in his blood. Vincennes, his lieutenant, and the Jesuit Senat, their spiritual guide and friend, refusing to fly, shared the captivity of their gallant leader. They were treated with great care and attention by the Chickasaws, who were in hopes of obtaining a great ransom from Bienville, then advancing into their country. After his retreat, the Chickasaws, despairing of receiving anything for thieir prisoners, tortured and burnt them over a slow fire, leaving but one alive to relate their fate to their countrymen.” In 1763 the French possessions east of the Mississippi, and the Spanish province of Florida, passed into the hands of the English. In 1783 the country north of the 31st parallel was included withlin the limiits of the United States. The territory of Georgia extended( under its charter to the Mississippi; and in 1795 was sold to the General Government by the Legislature of Georgia. In 1798 the territory of Mississippi was organized, and on the 10thi of December, 1817
was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 9th of January, 1861, the State seceded from the Union and joiined the Southern Confederacy, of which Jefferson Davis, an emiinent citizen of Mississippi, was chosen President. In 1862 the northern part of the State became the scene of military operations, and continued to be occupied at various times by the two armies until the close of the war. The bloody battles of Iuka, and Corinth, and a number of minor conflicts, were fought in this part of Mississippi. In 1862 the city of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi River, which was said to be the strongest place in the South, was attacked by the Federal fleet. From this time until its capture by General Grant in July, 1863, it was the object of the most persistent efforts of the ITnited States forces. During the operations connected with the siege of this place, severe battles were fought at Jackson, Champion Hills, and other points backl of the city. The State was traversed repeatedly by raiding parties of cavalry from the Union lines, which inflicted great damage upon it. The destruction of property caused by the war was immense. Industry of all kinds was paralyzed, and at the close of the struggle the state of affairs was made temporarily worse by the abolition of slavery, which threw the labor system into confusion. Upon the return of peace a Provisional Government was established in tlhe State by the President of the United States. It was repudiated and abolished by Congress, and in 1867 the State was made a part 706

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MISSISSIPPI. of the Fourth Military District. It remained subject to military rule until the close of the year 1869, vwhen it was readmitted into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns, besides the capital, are, Vicksburg, Natchez, Coltumbus, Holly Springs, Grenada, Oxford, Canton, Raymnond, Port Gibson, and Corinth. There are no large cities in Mississippi. JACKSONT, The capital of the State, is situated in Ilinds county, on the right bank of the Pearl River. Latitude, 32~ 23’ N.; longitude, 90~ 8’ W. It is 45 miles east of Vicksburg, alnd 1010 miles southwest of WVashington. It is built oni a level plain, is regularly laid out, and contains some handsome buildings, but is indiffeibrently built in the main. The State House is a han(lsomne structure, as is also the Governor’s IY/~ansion. The other public buildings are, the St(te Lunatie Asyltum, the Penitentiary, and the UiTtited St(tes Land Office. It contains several churches and schools, and 3 newspaper offices, and is lighted with gas. In 1870 the population was 4234. Jackson is the point of intersection of the railway line from the North and West with that from Vicksburg to Meridian, Mobile, etc., and previous to the war possessed a considerable trade, shipping annually about 30,000 bales of cotton. It is gradually recovering this 707

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708 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. trade. ThIe Pearl River is navigal)le from its mouth to the city for small steamers. Jackson suffered severely from the war. It was twice captured by the Federal armies, and its streets were the scene of severe battles. The city and public buildings were greatly damaged by the effects of tile caninonacling and by fire.

NATCIIEZ. NATCHEIZ, The second city in the State, is situated in Adams county, on the east )bank of the Mississippi River, 100 miles southwest of Jackson, and 279 miles (I)y water) northwest of Newv Orleans. It is situated on a lluff, 200 feet in height, overlooking the river and the great cypress swampl)s of Louisiana. The business portion of the city is located along the river shore. This portion is known as Natchez-under-thleHill, and it is here that the river trade, which is the principal source of the city’s prosperity, is conducted. The retail stores and private residences are located on the bluff. The city proper is regularly laid out and well built. The principal i,pLblic buildings are handsome edifices. They are the Court House, Oir)hani As ylite, and -iI(isonic IIa7tl. The streets are wide, and are well shaded. The private residences are among the handsomest in the South, and are pleasantly situated in the midst of gardens adorned with flowers, orange trees, etc.

There are 6 churches, a hospital, a rwjmber of schools, and 2 newspaper offices in the city.

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\’\ I XX. I.V \\ _________ t<~ jiU]~j7~>I\>‘y 4’>’ Iii ji~~;‘

‘I $!I

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‘-DUUSXDIA

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MISSISSIPPI. MISCELLANIES. EXTERMINATION OF THE NATCHEZ INDIANS. This remarkable tribe, the most civilized of all the original inhabitants of the States, dwelt in the vicinity of the present city of Natchez. Their religion, in some respects, resembled that of the fire-worshippers of Persia. Fire was the emblem of their divinity; the sun was their god: theit chiefs were called “suns,” and their king was called the “Great Sun.” In their principal temple a perpetual fire was kept burning by the ministering priest, who likewise offered sacrifices of the first fruits of the chase. In extreme cases, they offered sacrifices of infant children, to appease the wrath of the deity. When lberville was there, one of the temples was struck by lightning and set on fire. The keeper of the fane solicited the squaws to throw their little ones into the fire to appease the angry divinity, and four infants were thus sacrificed before the French could prevail on them to desist fromn the horrid rites. After Iberville reached the Natchez tribe, the Great Sun, or king of the con federacy, having heard of the approach of the French commandant, determined to pay him a visit in person. As he advanced to the quarters of Iberville, he was borne upon the shoulders of some of his men, and attended by a great retinue of his people. He bade Iberville a hearty welcome, and showed him the most marked attention and kindness during his stay. A treaty of friendship was con cluded, with permission to build a fort and to establish a trading-post among them; which was, however, deferred for many years. A few stragglers soon after took up their abode among the Natchez; but no regular settlement was made until 1716, when Bienville, Governor of Louisiana, erected Fort Rosalie, which is supposed to have stood near the eastern limit of the present city of Natchez. Grand or Great Sun, the chief of the Natchez, was at first the friend of the whites, until the overbearing disposition of one man brought destruction on the whole colony. The residence of the Great Sun was a beautiful village, called the WVhite Apple. This village spread over a space of nearly 3 miles in extent, and stood about 12 miles south of the fort, near the mouth of Second Creek, and 3 miles east of the Mlississippi. M. de Chopart,. the commandant, was guilty of great injustice toward the Indians, and went so far as to command the Great Sun to leave the village of his ancestors, as he wanted the ground for his own purposes. The Great Sun, finding Chopart deaf to all his entreaties, formed a plot to rid his country of’ the tyrant who oppressed them. Previous to the tragedy, the Sieur de Mace, ensign of the garrison, received advice of the intention of the Natchez, through a young Indian girl who loved him. She told him, crying, that her nation intended to massacre the French. Amazed at this story, he questioned his mistress. Her simple answers, and her tender tears, left him no room to doubt of the plot. He informed Chopart of it, who forthwith put him under arrest for giving a false alarm. The following is from “Monette’s History of the Valley of the MIississippi: “At length the fatal day arrived. It was November 29thl, 1729. Early in the morning Great Sun repaired, with a few chosen warriors, to Fort Rosalie, and all were well armed with knives and other concealed weapons. “The company liad recently sent up a large supply of powder and lead, a7id provisions for the use of the Dost. The Indians had recourse to stratagem to pro 44 711

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cure a sul)ply of ammunition, pretending that they were preparing for a gra t huntting excursion. Before they set out, they wished to purchase a supply of ammunition, and they had brought corn and poultry to barter for powder an,td lead. Having placed the garrison off their guard, a number of Indians were pi,rmitted to enter the fort, and others were distributed about the company’s waxnehouse. Upon a certain signal from the Great Sun, the Indians immediately dr( w their concealed weapons, and commenced the carnage by one simultaneous anud furious massacre of the garrison, and all who were in and near the warehouse. ” Other parties, distributed through the contiguous settlements, carried on the bloody work in every house as soon as the smoke was seen to rise from the houses near the fort. “The massacre commenced at 9 o’clock in the morning, and before noon the whole of the male population of the French colony on St. Catharine (consisting of about 700 souls) were sleeping the sleep of death. The slaves were spared for the service of the victors, and the females and children were reserved as prisoners of war. Chopart fell among the first victims; and, as the chiefs disdained to stain their hands with his despised blood, hle was dispatched by the hand of a common Indian. Two mechanics, a tailor, and a carpenter were spared, because they might be useful to the Indians. “While the massacre was progressing, the Great Sun seated himself in the spacious warehouse of the company, and, with apparent unconcern and complacency, sat and smoked his pipe while his warriors were depositing the heads of the French garrison in a pyramid at his feet. The head of Chopart was placed in the centre, surmounting those of his officers and soldiers. So soon as the warriors informed the Great Sun that the last Frenchman had ceased to live, lihe commanded the pillage to commence. The negro slaves were employed in bringing out the plunder for distribution. The powder and military stores were reserved for public use in future emergencies. “While the ardent spirits remained, the day and the night alike presented one continued scene of savage triumph and drunken revelry. With horrid yells they spent their orgies in dancing over the mangled bodies of their enemies, which lay strewed in every quarter where they had fallen in the general carnage. Here, unburied, they remained a prey for dogs and hungry vultures. Every vestige of the houses and dwellings in all the settlements were reduced to ashles. “Two soldiers only, who happened to be absent in the woods at the time of the massacre, escaped to bear the melancholy tidings to New Orleans. As they approached the fort and heard the deafening yells of the savages, and saw the columns of smoke and flame ascending from the buildings, they well judged the fate of their countrymen. They concealed themselves until they could procure a boat or canoe to descend the river to New Orleans, where they arrived a few days afterward, and told the sad story of the colony on the St. Catharine. “The same fate was shared by the colony on the Yazoo, near Fort St. Peter, and by those on the Washita, at Sicily Island, and near the present town of Monroe. Dismay and terror were spread over every settlement in the province. New Orleans was filled with mourning and sadness for the fate of friends and countrymen. “The whole number of victims slain in this massacre amounted to more than 200 men, besides a few women and some negroes, who attempted to defend their masters. Ninety-two women and 155
children were taken prisoners. Among the victims were Father Poisson, the Jesuit missionary; Laloire, the principal 712

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MlISSISSI1-PlI. a?,( nt of the comipany; MI. Kollys and Son, who had purchased A. Hlubert’s in terest, and had just arrived to take possession.” YNihenl the news of this terrible disaster reached New Orleans, the French commenced a war of extermination against the Natchez.

The tribe eventually were driven across the Mississippi, and finally scattered and extirpated. The Great Sun and his principal war chliefs, falling into the hands of the French, were shipped to St. Domingo and sold as slaves. Some of the poor prisoners were treated with excessive cruelty; four of the men and two of the women were publicly burned to death at New Orleans. Somle Tonica Indians, who had broulght dclown a Natchez woman, whom they had discovered in the woods, were allowed(l to execute her in the same manner. The unfortunate woman was led forth to at platform erected near the levee, and, surrounded by the whole population, was slowly consumed by the flames! She supported her tortures witlt stoical fortitude, not shedding a tear. “On the contrary,” says Gayarre, “slie upbraided lher torturers with their want of skill, flinging at them every opprobrious epithet she could think of.” The scattered remnants of the tribe sought an asylum among the Chickasaws :ud other tribes who were hostile to the French. Since that time, the individuPlity of the Natchez tribe has been swallowed up in the nations with whom they were incorporated. Yet no tribe has left so proud a memorial of their courage.

their independent spirit, and their contempt of death in defence of their rights and liberties. The city of Natchez is their monument, standing upon the field of their glory. Such is the brief history of the Natchez Indians, who are now considered extinct. In refinement and intelligence they were equal, if not supIerior, to any other tribe north of Mexico. In courage and stratagem they were inferior to none. Their form was noble and commanding; their stature was seldomi under G feet, and their persons were straight and athletic. Their countenance indicated more intelligence than is commonly found in savages. The head wsas compressed from the os frontis to the occipult, so that the forehead appeared high,l and retreating, wliile the occiput was coml)ressed almost in a line with tlie neck and shoulders. This peculiarity, as well as their straight, erect form, is ascribed to the pressure of bandages during infancy. Some of the remaining in(lividuals of the Natchez tribe were in the town of Natchez as late as the year 1782, or more than half a century after the Natchez massacre.

MASON, THE OUTlLAW. Among the incidents in the early history of the Mississippi Territory was the violent death of the notorious robber, Mason. This fearless bandit had become the terror of the routes from New Orleans and Natchez through the Indian nations. After the organization of the Territorial Government, and the opening of roads through the wilderness to Tennessee, the return of’ traders, supercargoes, and boatmen to the Northern settlements, with the proceeds of their voyage, was o)n foot and on horseback, in parties for mutual protection, through the Indian nations; and often rich treasures of specie were packed on mnules and horses over these long and toilsome journeys. Nor was it a matter of surprise, in a dreary wilderness, that bandits should infest such a route.

It was in the year 1802, when all travel and intercourse from New Orleans and the Mississippi Territory was necessarily by way of this solitary trace, or by the slow-ascending barge and keel, that Mason made his appearance in the Mississippi Territory. 11, i )

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714 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. L)ng accustomed to robbery and murder upon tile Lower Ohio, during the Spanish dominion on the Mississippi, and pressed by the rapid approach of the Ame,rican population, he deserted the ” Cave in the Rock,” on the Ohio, and began to infest the great Natchez Trace, where the rich proceeds of the river trade were the tempting prize, and where he soon became the terror of every peaceful traveller through the wilderness. Associated with him were his two sons and a few other desperate miscreants; and the name of Mason and his band was known and dreaded from the morasses of the southern frontier to the silent shades of the Tennessee River. The outrages of Mason became more frequent and sanguinary. One day found him marauding on the banks of the Pearl, against the life and fortune of the trader; and, before pursuit was organized, the hunter, attracted by the descending sweep of the solitary vulture, learned the story of another robbery and murder on the remote shores of the Mississippi. Their depredations became at last so frequent and daring, that the people of the territory were driven to adopt measures for their apprehension. But such was the knowledge of the wilderness possessed by the wily bandit, and suchl his unliring vigilance and activity, that for a time he baffled every attempt for his capture. Treachery at last, however, effected what stratagem, enterprise, and courage had in vain attempted. A citizen of great respectability, passing with his sons through the wilderness, was plundered by the bandits. Their lives were, however, spared, and they returned to the settlement. Public feeling was now excited, and the Governor of the Territory found it necessary to act.

Governor Claiborne accordingly offered a liberal reward for the robber, M-ason, dead or alive. The proclamation was widely distributed, and a copy ot’f it reached Mason himself’, who indulged in much merriment on the occasion. Two of his band, however, tempted by the large reward, concerted a plan by which they might obtain it. An opportunity soon occurred; and while Mason, in company with the two conspirators, was counting out some ill-gotten plunder, a tomahawk was )buried in his brain. His head was severed firom his body and borne in triumph to Washington, then the seat of the Territorial Government. The head of iMason was recognized by many, and identified by all who read the proclamation, as the hleadl entirely corresponded with the description given of certain scars and peculiar marks. Some delay, however, occurred in paying over the reward, owing to the slender state of the treasury. M!eantime, a great assemblage trom all the adjacent country hadl taken place, to view the grim and ghastly head of the robber chief. They were not less inspired with curiosity to see and converse with the individual whose prowess had delivered the country of so great a scourge. Among those spectators were the two young men, who, unfortunately for these traitors, recognized them as companions of Mason in the robbery of their father. It is unnecessary to say that treachery met its just reward, and that justice was also satisfied. The reward was not only withheld, but the robbers were imprisoned, and, on the full evidence of their guilt, condemned and executed at Greenville, Jefferson county. The band of Mason, being thus deprived of their leader and two of his most efficient men, dispersed and fled the country. Thus terminated the terrors which hlad infested the route through the Indian nations, known to travellers as the ‘ Natchez and Nashville Trace.”’

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I LOU I S I A N A. Area,………i.. Population ill 1860,……. (Whites, 357,629. Negroes, 350,373) Population in 1870,………. THE State of Louisiana is situated between 29~ and 330 N. latitude, and between 88~ 50’

and 94~ 20’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Arkansas and Mississippi, on the east by Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Tex,as. Its extreme length from east to west is about 292 miles, an, its extreme width from north to south about 250 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the entire State is low and flat, its highest point l)being less than 200 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico. The southern portion is so low that it is always subject to overflows, when the rivers are full. In the northlern part, the country is slightly rolling, except in the northwest, where it is converted into a series of extensive marshes by the Red River and its tributaries. The Gulf coast is extensive, and is cut up into innumerable bays, lakes, bayous, and inlets. The principal are, Lake Borgne in the southeast, which is, strictly speaking, a bay through which Lalke Pontchartrain discharges its waters into the Gulf. Black Lake Bay lies south of this. On the southern coast are (beginning on the east) West, Barataria, Timbalier, Terre Bonne, Pelto Lake, Caillou, Atchafalaya, Cote Blanche, Vermilion bays, and Mermenteau, Calcasieu and Sabine lalkes. The majority of these afford excellent harbors. They are principally the extensions of the rivers with whicl lower 715 41,346 Square Mliles.

708,002

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Louisiana is cut up. A number of low islands lie along the coast Somle of them are productive, while others are worthless. Small lakes are very numerous in the southern part of the State, the whole of which is more or less marshy. Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain lie ill the southeast part of the State, near the city of New Orleans. Lake MIaurepas is but an e.xtension of the Amite River and flows into Lake Pontchartrain, which in its turn pours its waters through Lake Borgne illto tlhe Gulf. Lake Pontchartrain is about 40 miles long and from 8 to 24 nliles,wide, and has a mnaximumt depth of from 16 to 20 feet.

It is navigable for steamers, and is connected with New Orleans by a canal. Several pleasant towns lie on its shores. The Ilississippi River, already described, forms the eastern boundary of the northern half of this State, as far as the southern line of the State of Mississippi. It then flows southeast through the centre of lower Louisiana, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southeast corner of the State. It receives the waters of the Red River just above the Mississippi line, and pours its own floo(l into the Gulf through several channels besides its own mouths. These channels are called bayous, and leave the main stream below the mouth of the Red River, and west of the Mississippi. They empty into the Gulf in the southern part of the State, and are almost all of them navigable for steamers. In this way New Orleans has abundant direct water communication with the southwest parishes. Trhe principal of these are the Atchafalaya and Lafourche rivers or bayous, the former 250, and the latter 150 miles long. The former is more properly an outlet of the Red than of the Mississippi, and is b)elieved to have been the original channel of the Red River. The Bed River, already described, flows across the State from northwest to southeast. It is navigable for steamers to the border of Arkansas. Its principal branch, the TVashita, flows into it near its mouth, and is 500 miles long. It is navigable for large steamers to Camden in Arkansas, 300 miles from its mouth. The TVashita, in its turn, receives the waters of the Tensas, a short distance above its mouth. This river is 250 miles long, and navigable for 150 miles. The Teche Rive, or B(a,you, commences a short distance southeast of Alexandria, on the Red River, and flows southeast into the Gulf of Mexico. It is about 200 miles long, is very tortuous, and flows through a low, flat prairie region ill which cotton and sugar grow to great perfection. It is navigable at high water fbr nearly its entire length. The Cal 716

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LOUISIANA. casieu River, about 250 miles long, drains the southwest part of the State. It is not navigable. The Sabine River, which rises in Texas, and has a length of about 500 miles, forms a part of the western boundary of Louisiana, and flows into Sabine Lake. It is shallow at its mouth, and navigable only for very small steamers at high water. MINERALI,S. “In the soil and timber are to be found the chief resources of this State, but few minerals, except salt, having as yet been developed or discovered, though some coal, iron, and copper are reported to exist in Union parish. Timber is abundant in all parts of the State, embracing many varieties of oak, ash, cottonwood, cvpress, gum, elm, sycamore, pecan, hackberry, pine, etc., and presenting great inducements for development, some of the pine forests capable of producing quantities of turpentine On one of the islands within the limits of St. MAlary’s parish-Petite Anse or Salt Island-there exists an immense bed of salt. By boring, parties have proved that the bed is half a mile square, and it may extend a mile or more. They have gone thirty-eight feet into the solid salt, and find no signs of the bottom of the stratum. The surface is about on a level with tidewater, and the earth covers the salt from eleven to thirty feet. On the sutirface of the salt they found a soil like that of the surrounding marshes, and above this sedge or marsh grass in a good state of preservation. Above the latter the soil appears to be the workings of the hillsides above.”

CLIMATE. The climate is mild as a general rule, but the winters are severer than those of the Atlantic States lying along the same parallel.

The summers are long, hot, and dry, and cause a poisonous exhalationi from the marshy soil which is the fruitfiil source of yellow fever. The spring is early aInd pleasant. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The best soil is along the rivers and in the marshy district. Almost all the land in the lower part of the State is fertile, but in the northern part, away from the rivers, it is poor. The swamp lands are easily drained, and are almost inexhaustible. Tropical fruits grow well in the southern parishes, but neither the orange nor the sugarcane thrives above the 31st parallel of north latitude, which marks the southern boundary of the western part of the State of Mississippi. In the northern part the fruits of the Middle States thrive. 7 I’t

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GATHERING SUGARCANE. The Report of the Bureau of Agriculture for 1868 thus speaks of this State: “Cotton, sugar, corn, and potatoes are the principal crops in LIouisiana, and before the war the cultivation of the first two named was very profitable, but our correspondents uniformly represent the production of cotton as ruinous to the planter during the past year. Jackson parish reports two hundred pounds of lint cotton to the acre, fifteen bushels of corn, one hundred and fifty bushels of sweet potatoes, and twenty bushels of peas. Tensas parish, one to one and a half bales to the acre in good season, fifty to seventy-five bushels of corn; in cultivation, nine acres of cotton allotted to one laborer, and five acres of corn. In Union parish about six bales of cotton to the hand was expected before the war. In Carroll parish cotton will produce 718

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LOUISIANA. six hundred pounds lint to the acre when newly cultivated, and a tfair laborer call make eight bales of cotton and one hundred bushels of corn, yielding about $500 to the hand; but under the present system the average is two and a half bales cotton and twentyfive bushels corn to the hand. Prior to the war the parish of Rapides produced fromn 30,000 to 40,000 bales cottonl, 15,000 to 18,000 hogsheads sug,ar, and 30,000
barrels molasses, but the production has mluch deteriorated, though with the labor and capital at comtmarnd, the capabilities are still as great.

In the southern tier of parishes sugar, rice, and tobacco are made specialties, and fruits are extensively grownI, wvith great inducements for the increase of the latter prodnction. “Louisiana possesses great capabilities for fruit culture, and the climate a(nd soil present strong inducements to persons desiring to engage in such production. In St.

Mary’s parish they have fruits of various kinds from April to November:‘The Japan plum grovws all winter and ripens in April; dewberries also ripen in April, aid grow in abundance; strawberries, blackberries, andl miulberries ripen in lMay; plum s in June; peaches, quinces, and figs in July; and gIapes and apples in August. The muscadine, a species of scupper,ong, growvs wild, and ripens in August; pears ripen in August, and grow in great perfection; oranges ripen in October, and usually remain good on the trees till December; I)ananas, limes, and lemons ripen in October.’ The yield of orang,es per acre is enormous. Our correspondent writes that’ it is usual to plant about one hundred trees to the acre below New Orleans on the river. Some orchards yield( from $10,000 to $20,000 annually. A full-growil tree will bear 1000 oranges, and a single tree has been known to yield 5000 oranges. Trees commence bearing when five years old, when properly managed.’ What we quote in regard to the capabilities of this parish may be said, with slight variation, of most of the lower counties of the State, while in the more northern regions many of the fruits named grow in perfection, and in some localities the apple succeeds well. Our Rapides reporter writes:’ I have a second crop of apples this year. They are hard, small, and poor, though they are eaten.’

“In Washington parish a small orchard, chiefly peaches, in one season yielded a profit of $4000, the fruit being early an(] within close proximity to New Orleans nmarkets. Our East Feliciana correspon dent writes:‘This is one of the finest fruit regions in the world. Apples, peaches, pears, quinces, pluans, figs, grapes, berries, etc., do 719

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. well, and wild blackberries grow in great abundance, from which a superior wine is made. We have, as yet, but few orchards. One man this season sold $600 worth of pears from fourteen trees.’ Though but little attention has heretofore been given to fruit culture, the capabilities of the State are so evident, and the inducements so strong, in a pecuniary point of view, that the production must, at an early day, become a leading interest of Louisiana.” The civil war laid prostrate the agricultural interests of the State. The plantations inll many cases were utterly ruined. The levees of the rivers were cut or allowed to give way, and many of the finest cotton and sugar fields were thus converted into worthless swamps. It will require many years to repair these losses. are as follows: Bushels of Indiani corni……, Pounds of rice……… lhds of sugar………. Gallons of molasses…….. Bales of cotton,……… Bushels of sweet potatoes (estimated), Number of horses,…….. asses and mlules,…. ” milchi cows,…….

sheep………….. ” swine,… ” young cattle,….. Value of domestic animials,…. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. More attention is being paid to manufactures. In 1870 the capital invested in them amounted to $18,313,974. With respect to its commercial advantages the State is unequalled by any portion of the world. The Mississippi and its tributaries bring to it the products of nearly one half the Union. New Orleans is the principal port, and is actively engaged in trade with all parts of the world. In 1860 the exports of Louisiana amounted to $108,417,798, and the imports to $22,992,773. In spite of the losses of the war, they were as follows in 1870: exports, $107,657,042; imports, $14,993,754. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. WVithin the limits of the State the great abundance of water transportation does away with the necessity for many railways. In 1868S 720 The returns of the State . 8,000,000 .

16,000,000 85,000 . 4,860.000 400,000 . 1,100,000 65,000 64,000 110,000

120,000 340,000 210,000 $16,000,000 t

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there were 539 miles of completed railway il the State, constructed at a cost of about $20,000,000. A main line extends north through Mississip)pi to the States of the East and West, and roads are in construction from a point opposite to Vicksburg, Miss., to Shreveport and northeastern Texas, and from Algiers along the Gulf coast to Galveston, Texas. EDUCATION. In 1870 there were in Louisiana 13 colleges, with over 1600 students; 400academiesand otherschools, with about25,000 pupils; and 178 public schools, with over 25,000 pupils. With the exception of the schools of New Orleans, nearly all the educational institutions of the State were destroyed or discontinued by the war. Since the return of peace, Centenary College, at Jackson, and several academies and private schools have been reopened with success. The new Constitution establishes a system of public education, and requires that at least one free public school shall be opened in each parish in the State. A permanent school fund is established, and the Legislature is required to levy taxes for the support of the schools. Appropriations by the State for the support, assistance, or encouragement of any private school or private institution of learning, whatsoever, are forbidden..

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. A University, with collegiate, law, and medical departments, is established at New Orleans, and supported in part by the State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State has but a few charitable institutions of its own, depending naialy on similar establishmenits in the city of New Orleans, to the support of which it contributes. The Penitentiary is located at Baton Rouge, the old capital. It was destroyed during the war, but has since been restored. There were 342 males and 12
femnales confined there in 1870. The institutionl is supported to a great extent by the labor of the convicts, who are engaged ill the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods. Two hundred looms, with the necessary machinery, are in operation. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 599 churches in Louisiana, and the value of church property was $4,048,525. The greater part of this amount is owned in New Orleans. In the rest of the State the loss was heavy during the war. l FINANCES. The finances of Louisiana are in a very unfortunate condition. The amount of the public debt is disputed, but the Governor estimates it at $24,634,407, inclusive of an olb)ligation to issue about $15,000,000. worth of bonds.

The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending Novemnber 30, 1870, were $6,537,959; while the total expenditures for the same period amounted to $7,050,636. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of Louisiana was adopted by the people April 23d, 1868. Every male person, 21 years old, born in tihe ‘United States, or naturalized, without respect to race, color, or previotis condition, who has resided in the State one year, and in the parish ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Criminals, and( certain persons concerned in the Rebellion, are excluded from the franchise. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieuteinaut-Governor, Secretary of-State, Auditor, Treasurer, AttorneyGeneral, and a General Assenibly, consisting of a Senate (36 imembers, elected for four 722

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Thte udicial power is vested in a Supreme Colr,Yt s D-strct i o)rt, onsists of a Chief Justice alnd four Associate Justices, appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, foi a period of eight years. Except in specified cases, this court has ap pellate jurisdiction only. The ju(dges of the other courts are chosen the - -ga l Ra,e Tv tht wapke thie war aton ouge was the capiftal In I691 La Salle discovered the mouth of the Mississippi River, and took })ossession of the country in the name of the King of France. In 1699 Iberville attempted to form a settlement along the lower M’ ississippi, but his attempt ended in the establishment of the Coloiy of Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi. In 1712 Louis XIV., of France, named the region in honor of himself, and granted it to \1. Crozat, a wealthy capitalist, who, in 1717, surrendered his charter to the Governient, coniplaining, that he had not l)eeln properly sup)orted by the authorities, and that hle had suffered such losses in at, tempting to settle the province as almost to ruin him.

In 1717 the lkmous John Law, living in Paris, obtained a charter for a bank, and for a Mississippi company, to wIhom the king granted the province. A remarkable financial scheme was conceived by Law in connection wsith these grants, and for a while carried out so successfully that the stockl of the bank went up to six hundred times its par value. It finally exploded(, however, and ruined every one concerned in it, having accomplished nothing but the settlement of New Orleans, in 1717. In 1732

Law’s company surrendered their charter to the king, who (ldeclared the commerce of Louisiana free to all nations. In 1760 war was begun between Great Britain and France, and Canada was conquere(l by the former power.

Large numbers of Canadians now emigrated to Louisiana, and settled in the country west of the Missisgippi, founding the settlements of Attakapas, Opelousas, and Avoyeclles. In 1762 France ced(led her possessions in

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Louisiana west of the Mississippi to Spain, and the country east of that river to England. The Spanish authorities soon took possession of New Orleans, and inaugurated a series of cruel and oppressive measures, whichl filled the French settlers with dismay. They held the province during the American Revolution, and towards the close of the war the Spanish Governor of New Orleans captured the British garrison at Baton Rouge. The treaty of 1783 opened the navigation of thle Mississippi River to all nations, but the Spaniards at New ()rleans effectually neutralized this concession by seizing all merchan(lize brought to that city in any but Spanish ships. This gave rise to a long and vexatious dispute between the United States and Spain, wvhlicll was terminated only by the acquisition of Louisiana by the iuirmer power. The manner in which this territory passed into our hands, is thus related by Bonner, in his “History of Louisiana:” “In 1763 Louisiana was ceded to Spain, and by a secret article in the treaty of St. Ildefonso, concluded in 1800, that power ceded it back to France. Napoleon, however, wished to keep this cession secret until he should have-as hle hoped to do-reduced St. Domingo to submission. Failing in this, he was rendered indifferent to his new acquisition. In January, 1803, he sent out Laussat as prefect of the colony, which was the first intimation that the inhabitants had of’

the transfer, which gave them great joy. “On being informed of this retrocession, President Jefferson had ,ispatched instructions to Robert Livingston, the American minister .t Paris, to represent to the First Consul that the occupation of New ()rleans by France would endanger the friendly relations between the two nations, and, perhaps, even oblige the United States to make commion cause with England; as the possession of this city by the formler, by giving her the command of the Mississippi, the only outlet to the p)roduce of the Western States, and also of the Gulf of Mexico, so important to American commerce, would render it almost certain that the conflicting interests of the two nations would lead to an open rtl).. ture. Mr. Livingston was therefore instructed not only to insist upon the free navigation of the Mississippi, but to negotiate for the :cquisition of New Orleans itself, and the surrounding territory; and Mr. Monroe was appointed with full powers to assist him in the negotiation. ” Bonaparte, who always acted promptly, soon came to the conclusion that what he could not defend, he had better dispose of on the best terms; but before deciding, he summoned two of his ministers in council, on the‘10th of April, 1803, and thus addressed them: 724

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LOUISIANA. “‘I am fully sensible of the value of Louisiana, and it was my wvish to repair the error of the French diplomatists who abandoned it in 1763. I have scarcely re(overed it before I run the risk of losing it; but if I am obliged to give it up, it shall hereafter cost more to those who force me to part with it, than to those to whom I yield it.. The English have despoiled France of all her northern possessions in America, and now they covet those of the south. I am determined that they shall not have the Mississippi. Although Louisiana is but a. trifle compared to their vast possessions in other parts of the globe, yet, judging from the vexation they have manifested on seeing it re turn to the power of France, I am certain that their first object will be to gain possession of it.

They will probably commlence the war in that quarter. They have twenty vessels in the Gulf of Mexico, and our affairs in St. Domingo are daily getting worse, since the death of Le Clerc. The conquest of Louisiana might be easily made, and I have not a moment to lose in putting it out of their reach. I am not sure but that they have already begun an attack upon it. Such a measure would be in accordance with their habits; and in their place I should not wait. I am inclined, in order to deprive them of all l)rospect of ever possessing it, to cede it to the United States. Indeed, I can hardly say that I cede it, for I do not yet possess it; and if I wait but a short time, my enemies may leave me nothing but an empty title to grant to the Republ)lic I wish to conciliate. They only ask for one city of Louisiana, but I consider the whole colony as lost; and I believe that, in the hands of this rising power, it will be more usefill to the political, and even the commercial interests of France, than if I should attempt to retain it. Let me have both your opinions on the subject.’ “One of the ministers, Barbe Marbois, fully approved of the cession, but the other opposed it. They debated the matter for a long time, and Bonaparte concluded the conference without making his determination known. The next day, however, he sent for Marbois, and said to him: “‘Tho season for deliberation is over; I have determined to renounce Louisiana. I shall give up not only New Orleans, but the whole colony, without reservation.

That I do not undervalue Louisiana I have sufficiently proved, as the object of my first treaty with Spain was to recover it. But, though I regret parting with it, I am convinced it would be folly to persist in trying to keep it. I commission you, therefore, to negotiate this affair with the envoys of the 725

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72C) OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. United States. Do not wait the arrival of Mr. Monroe, but go this very day and confer with Mr. Livingston.

Remnember, however, that I need ample funds for carrying on the war, and I do not wish to commence it by levying new taxes. For the last century France and 8pain have incurred great expense in the imnprovement of Louisiana, for which her trade has never indemnified them. Large sums have been advanced to different companies, which have never returned to the treasury. It is fair that I should require repayment for these. MWere I to regulate my demands by the importance of this territory to the United States, they would be unbounded; but, being obliged to part with it, I shall be moderate in my terms. Still, remember, I must have 50,000,000
francs, and I will not consent to take less. I would rather make some desperate effort to preserve this fine country.’ “The negotiations commenced that very day. Mr. Monroe arrived at Paris on the 12th of April, and the two representatives of the United States, after holding a private conference, announced that they were ready to treat for the cession of the entire territory, which at first Mr. Livingston had hesitated to do, believing the p)rol)osal of the First Consul to be only a device to gain time. “On the 30th of April, 1803, the treaty was signed. The Unite(l States were to pay $15,000,000 for their new acquisition, and be indemnified for some illegal captures; while it was agreed that the vessels and merchandise of France and Spain should be admitted into all the ports of Louisiana, free of duty, for 12 years. “Bonaparte stipulated in favor of tLouisiana that it should, as soon as possible, be incorporated into the Union, and that its inhabitants should enjoy the same rights, privileges, and inmmunities as other citizens of the United States; and the third article of the treaty, securing to them these benefits, was drawn up by the First Consul himself, who presented it to the plenipotentiaries with these words: “‘Maake it known to the people of Louisiana that we regret to part with them; that we have stipulated for all the advantages they coul(l desire; and that France, in giving them up, has insured to them the greatest of all. They could never have prospered under any European government as they will when they become independent.

But, while they enjoy the privileges of liberty, let them ever remember that they are French, and preserve for their mnother-country that affection which a common origin inspires.’ “The completion of this important transaction gave equal satisfaction to both parties.‘I consider,’ said Livingston,‘that from this

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LOUISIANA. day the United States takes rank with the first powers of Europe, and now she is entirely escaped from the power of England; and Bonaparte expressed a similar sentiment in these words:‘By this cession of territory I have secured the power of the United States, and given to England a maritime rival, who, at some future time, will humble her pride.’ These words appeared prophetic when the troops of Britain, a few years after, met so signal an overthrow on the plains of Louisiana. “The boundaries of the colony had never been clearly defined, and one of Bonaparte’s ministers drew his attention to his obscurity.’ -No matter,’

said he,‘if there was no uncertainty, it would, perhaps, be good policy to leave some;’ and, in fact, the Americans, interpreting to their own advantage this uncertainty, some few years after seized upon the extensive territory of Batonil Rouge, which was ill dispute between them and the Spaniards. “On the 30tll of November, 1803, Laussat took possession of the country, when Casa Calvo and Salcedo, the Spanish commissioners, presented to him the keys of the city, over which the tri-colored flag floated but for a short time. The colony had been under the rule of Spain for a little more than 34 years. “On the 20thl of December, in the same year, General Wilkinson and Governor Claiborne, who were jointly commissioned to take possession of the country for the United States, made their entry into New Orleans at the head of the American troops. Laussat gave up his command, and the star-spangled banner supplanted the tri-colored flag of France.”

In 1804, Louisiana was erected into a Territory by Congress. In 1810, the Spanish post at Baton Rouge was seized by the United States forces under General Wilkinson, and the territory connected with it added to Louisiana, which in 1812, was admitted into the Union as a State. Diring the second war with England, the British made several attempts to get possession of the mouthlis of the Mississippi, but were finally and decisively defeated on the plains of Chalmette, below New Orleans, on the 8th] of January, 1815, by an American force under General Andrew Jackson. The territory purchased from France by the Louisiana treaty is now occupied by the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Oregon, and the Territories of Dacota, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Wrashing~ ton., The reader will thus see the inmportance of the transaction. 45 727

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. On the 26th of January, 1861, the State withdrew firnom tile Union and joined the Southern Confederacy. One of the first objects of the Federal Government was to secure the city of New Orleans, which was captured early in 1862 by the fleet of Admiral Farragut. From this tilme the lower part of the State was more or less overrun by the forces of the North and South. The country along the rivers suffered terribly. In 1863, the Confederate stronghold at Port Hudson, on the Mississippi River, a slhort distance above Baton Rouge, was besieged by the forces of General Banks. The fall of Vicksburg, in July, 1863, compelled the surrender of this place. Subsequently tihe northwest part of the State-the Red River country-was invaded by a powerful force under General Banks. He was defeated by the Confederates in two severe battles and forced to retreat. While tihe siege of Vicksburg was in progress, a severe battle was fought at Baton Rouge, which town was almost destroyed during the war. Several towns along the Mississippi were burned, and the lower parishles generally desolated. Attempts were nmade, in 1864, to organize a “restored government”’ for the State, and Representatives were electe(l to Congress. The whole system was repudiated by Congress subsequently. In 1865, a Provisional Government was recognize(d b)y the President, and overthrown by Congress, which body, in 1867, placed the State under military rule as a part of the Fifth Military District. A Conventioi met in New Orleans, in November, 1867, and adopted a State Coiistitution, which was ratified by the people on the 23d of April, 1868.

The State was readmitted into the Union on the 25th of June, 1868. CITIES

AND TOWNS. The most important cities and towns in the State are Donaldsonville, Algiers, Baton Rouge, Jefferson, Carrolton, Plaquemine, Thibodeaux, Alexandria, Shreveport, Homer, and Opelousas. NEW ORLEANS, The capital and commercial and social metropolis of the State, is also the ninth city of the United States with respect to population, and the largest and most important city in the South. It is situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, about 100 miles from the mouth of that stream. Latitude 290 58’ N.; longitude 90~ 7’ W. It is 1663 miles southwest of New York, 2000 miles south-by-east of the 728

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LOUISIANA. Falls of St. Anthony, the head of navigation on the Mississippi, 1628 miles south-by-west of Chicago, and 1438 miles southwest of Wash ington. “New Orleans is built around a bend in the river, from which cir cuimstance it has been denominated the’Crescent City.’ The site inclines gently from the margin of the Mississippi towards the marshy ground in the rear, and is from 2 to 5 feet below the level of the river at the usual spring freshlets. To prevent inundations, an embank mrient or levee, about 15 feet high in some places, and 6 feet in others, has been raised, extending 120 miles above the city, and to Port Plaquemine, 43
miles below it. This forms a delightful promenade. In consequence of the change of the course of the river opposite New Orleans, large quantities of alluvion, swept from the north and held in suspension b)y the current, are here deposited. New formations from this cause, in front of that portion of the quay most used for the purposes of commerce, have been so rapid that it has been necessary within a few yea’rs to build piled wharves jutting out from 50 to 100 feet into the Mississippi. The levee here has also been gradually widened, so that an additional tier of warehouses has been erectdd between the city and the river. The old city proper, originally laid out by the French, is in the form of a parallelogramn, 1320 yards long and 700 yards wide. Above this are what were formerly the faubourgs of St. Mary, Annunciation, and La Course; below, Miarigny, Dunois, and Declouet; and in the rear, Trem( and St.

John’s. Lafayette, until a few years ago under a separate government, is immediately above the city.” The city is regularly laid out. The streets are narrow in the older portion, and wide in the new, and are well paved.

Since the civil war, the city has been kept unusually clean. The principal business thioroughfare, Canal street, is 190 feet wide, with a turfed promenade, 25 feet wide, extending along the middle of the entire street.

Esplanade, Rampart, and Basin streets have similar grass-plots. The city is well built, the buildings being mostly of brick. Owing to the marshy nature of the ground-water being found two feet below the surfacethe houses have no cellars. A basement, about 6 feet in height, takes thle place of the cellar. In the business portions, the buildings are 5 and 6
stories in height, but in the private sections thev are lower. The dwellings in the suburbs, especially in Lafayette, are surrounded by orange, lemon, magnolia and other trees which fill the air wit’ a delicious perfume. Many of the better class dwellings are palatial in their external and internal appointments, and there is, perhaps, no 729

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. city in the country where’ the higher classes are more luxurious in their tastes and style of living. The general aspect of the city is bright, cheerful and inviting. It is so thoroughly French in its general characteristics, that this could hardly be otherwise. “In the old city, many of the dwellings are constructed with a carriage-way and gate leading directly from the street to an interior courtyard enclosed by the main building. Most of the signs over the shlops are inscribed in French, or both French and English. This portion of the city, with the old Faubourg Treme in its rear, constitutes the 2(1
district, formerly the 1st municipality. Next above, extending from Canal street to Felicity road, lies the 1st district, formerly the Faubourg St.

Mary, and subsequently the 2d municipality; while still beyond is the 4th district, prior to 1852 the city of Lafayette. In these two districts, the buildings are more modern, and most of the streets are wider, though very irregular in their directions. In the 4th district, many of the dwellings are spacious and of great elegance, with ample grounds for shrubbery, etc.

Below the old city, again, lies the 3d district, formerly the Faubourg Marigny, and afterwards the 3d municipality, which is the residence of a large portion of the Creole and foreign population. The nomenclature of the streets is remarkable. French, Spanish, and Anglo-American ideas and personages are all represented. The 9 Muses, with other heathen divinities, give name to one series, while in other quarters are found St.

Charles, St. Mary, St. Louis, and the like, together with’Love,”Piety,”Virtue,”Religious,’ etc. The Pontchartrain railway runs through the Elysian Fields, a street, and by no means the most attractive one of the city. ‘Greatmen,”Goodchildren,”Frenchmen,”Crops,’

etc., are specimens of other odd and apparently whimsical names. The same street repeatedly changes, not only its direction, but its designation.

Thus Royal, one of the original streets of the old city, becomes St.

Charles on entering the 1st district, and still higher takes the pagan and poetical name of Nayades; while its continuation in the opposite dire-ee tion, thlrough the 3d district, commemorates the Marquis Casa Calvo, the last of the Spanish Governors. In like manner, Bourbon becomes Carondelet and then Apollo in one direction, and declines into Bagatelle in the other.” The city contains a number of handsome public squares. The p’ucipal of these is the Netv City Park, in the northeastern portion, near Metarie road and Monroe avenue. It contains about 150 acres, and is handsomely laid out. Jackson Square, formerly the Place 730

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LOUISIANA. VIEW IN ST. CIIARLES STREET, NEW ORLEANS. d’Armes, covers the centre of the river front of the old Town Plot, now the 1st district. It is the favorite place of resort. It is beautifully laid out in shell walks, and is ornamented with the rarest plants and flowers of the South, statuary, etc. In the centre is an equestrian statue of General Jackson.

The Cathedral of St. Louis and the Court buildings front the square.

Lafayette Square is in the 2d district, and is bounded by St. Charles and Camp streets. The City Hall and several handsome buildings face it. Tivoli Circle, Annunciation and TVashington Squares, and Circus Place, are the others. The last namied is better known as Conyo Square, and is famous as the favorite play-ground of the negroes. The Public Buildings of New Orleans are numerous and handsome. The U. S. Custon. House, on Canal street, near the levee, is still incomplete, but when finished will be, next to the Capitol at Washing 731

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ton, the largest building in the United States. It is built of granite from Quincy, MIass. Its main front, on Canal street, is 334 feet long. Its depth is 297 feet. The Post Office and other Government offices are iocated in the building. The -Yint is a large edifice of brick, stuccoed in imitation of brown stone, and was used by the Federal Government for the coining of money until the breaking out of the civil war. The City Hall is a handsome building of white marble, at the intersection of St. Charles and Lafayette streets. It is in the Grecian Ionic style of architecture, and is 208 feet by 90. It con taiins the offices of the City Government. In the absence of a State Capitol, it is also used by the Governor of Louisiana alnd the Secretary of State.

Lyceumi Hall is a handsome building on St. Charles street, (ontaininig a lecture hall and the City and State Libraries. Odd Fell()?s Hall is a showy edifice of brick stuccoed in imitation of marble. -iasoniie Hall and the JLereclants’ Exchantqe are also imposing structures. T\vo handsome buildings in the Doric and Tuscan orders, used by the city courts, are located on Jackson Square, one on each side of the Cathedral. They were constructed towards the close of the last (eilitury, thlrougih the liberality of the founder of the Catlhedral, Don Andire Al tonaster. Thle Benevolent and Charitable institutions are numerous, and are fji,aous for their efficiency. Perhaps no city in the Union has a greater number of such institutions, in proportion to its population. They are liberally supported by the city and the citizens. The most important are the U.S.

S3arine Hospital, the Charity Hospital, with beds for 450 patients, the Female Orphan Asylum, with accommotlations for 160 cllildren; the Poyd)us emale Orphan Asylum; the Male O)-phan Asylum; the Asylum of St. Elizabeth, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy; and the Iatison de Sai’te. The Penal and Reformatory establishments consist of a Parish Jail and a Police Jail, andg a IWorkhouse in each municipality. The jails are 3 stories high, and( are built of brick stuccoed in imitation of granite. The workhouses of the 2d and 3d municipalities are model instittations, and are devoted to the reformation of criminals, especially of juvenile offenders. The city contains between 55 and(] 60 churchl edifices. About onehalf of these are Roman Catholic. The principal church edifice is the Cathedral of St. Louis, on Jackson Square, begun in 1792 and com1)leted in 1794, by Don Andr6 AlInonaster, perpetual regidor, and Alvarez Real, of the province. It is plain and simple, but venerable and imposing lir appearance. 732

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LOUISIANA. The schools of New Orleans consist of 4 high schools, and 38
primary and grammar schools, which are public and designed for both sexes.

In addition to these are 18 schools for colored children. The I-iversity of Louisiana was organized in 1849, and consists at present of a law and medical school, both of which are in a flourishing condition. The city contains but few public libraries, and these are unimportant. The City Library contains about 20,000 volumes. The best libraries in New Orleans are those of private individuals, and such collections are said to be numerous. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the Mississippi. The water is pumped by steam into an elevated reservoir, and thence distributed through the city in the ordinary way. Street railways and omnibuses connect the principal points. There is a police and firealarm telegraph in operation in thie city, which has also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The government consists of a Mayor and Commnon Council. The newspapers of the city are among the most infiueatial and the ablest in the country. More than 15
journals, daily and weekly, are pul)ished here, several in the French language. Tile cemeteries of New Orleans are among its most peculiar features. There are 10 or 12 of these. Each one is enclosed with a brick wall, of arched cavities, or ” ovens,” as the natives call them, made just large etlough to admit a single coffin, and built tier upon tier, to a height of about 12 feet, with a thickness of 10. The whole enclosure is divided into plots, with gravel paths intersecting each other at right ang,les, and is densely covered with tombs built wholly above ground, and from one to three stories high. Many of these tombs are very handsome.

Burial beneath the surface is impracticable, and is only resorted to by persons too poor to buy a tomb for their friends. Strangers, the fi’iendless, and the very poor are taken to the Potters’ Field, and literally laid in the water, which is found 2 feet below the surface. The marshy soil often casts these coffins up again, leaving the bodies to rot under the fierce sun. The Jlarkets are characteristic and numerous. “The principal are the vegetable and meat (French) markets on the levee near Jackson Square and the French Cathedral. To be seen to the greatest advantage, they should be visited on Sunday morning, between the hours of 8 and 9 o’clock. At break of day the gathering commences-all colors, nations, and tongues, commingled in one heterogeneous mass 733

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. JACIKSON SQUAITE, NEW ORLEANS. r’he nilisic, far from being unpleasant, however, is musical to tlhe straii,ger’s car. A visit thitller is thus described by a well-knowii writer:‘One morning we rose early to visit the market of the 1st municipality, and found the air on the bank of the Mississippi filled(l with miist as dense as a London fog, but of a p)uire whlite instead of yellow color. Thlrough this atmosplhere the innilmerable masts of tihe ships alongside the wharf were dimnly seen. Among other fruits iii the market we observed abundance of bananas, and good pine-apples, for twentyfive cents each, front the West Indies. There were stalls where hot coffee was selling, in white chinia clips, remin(linng us of Paris. Among other articles exposed for sale were brooms made of palmetto-leaves, and wagon-loads of the dried Spanish moss, or l’illandsia. The quantity of this plant hanging from the trees in the swamps of Louisiana, and(
everywhere on the Delta of the Mississippi, mighlt suffice to stuLff all the mattresses in the world. Tlhe Indians formerly used it for another purpose-to give porosity or lightness to their building materials. Whenl passing thlroug,h the stalls, we vwere surrounded by a population of negroes, mulattoes, andl quadroons, sonme talking French, others a patois of S)anishl and trench, an(l others a mixture of iFrench and English, or English translated froln French, and with the French accent. They seemed very mierr,-, 73i

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LOUISIANA. especially those who were jet black. Some of the Creoles also, both of French and Spanish extraction, like many natives of the South of Europe, were very dark.’” The hotels of New Orleans are among the largest in the country, and are well kept. The principal are the St. Charles, the St. Louis, tile St. James, and the City Hotel. There are 3 Theatres, and 2

Opera Houses in the city. They are well supported-especially the Opera Houses and the Orleans Theatre, at the last of which the performances are in the French language. New Orleans is the commercial metropolis of the South, and the most important cotton market in the Union. It is admirably situate(i for commerce. It lies within 100 miles of the mouth of the Mississippi, and 2000 miles friom the Falls of St. Antihony. All the immense trade of the Mississippi and its tributaries can be brought to the city wAithlout reshipment. Thus New Orleans is the natural gateway, through which pours the commelce of the entire Mississippi Valley. The river in front of the city is d(leep enough for the largest vessels, but the bar at the mouth of the river will not admit vessels drawing over 18
feet of water. The Levee, or steamboat landing, is one of the most interesting places in the city, and is thoroughly indicative of its immense trade. It extends along the river shore for about 4 miles, and has an average breadth of 100 feet. Here miay be seen every description of craft navigating the Mississippi and the adjacent waters. At one portion are hundreds of flat boats drawn up on the lan(], some filled with hay, corn, potatoes, butter, cheese, apples, and cider, and some with horses, mutles, cattle, hogs, sheep, etc. The levee here is piled up with flour, pork, and all sorts of agricultural produce in the greatest profusion.

Bevond this is the steamboat landing, where as many as 1200 steamers may be seen in the busy season, discharging and receiving freight. The levee at this point is con0red with immense piles of cotton in bales, and steamers are constantly arriving from, and departing for all parts of the Mississippi Valley. Above and below the steamer landing are dense lines of steamships and sailing vessels, in rows two and three deep, bringing the products of every country, and carrying away the products of the great valley. The whole of the commerce of the city, however, is not carried on upon the levee. The railways bring enormous quantities of produce into New Orleans, and the trade which comes by way of Lake Pontchartrain is important. The lake is connected with New Orleans by leans of a railway and a canal. This canal terminates in a spacious 735

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. basin near the centre of the city. This basin is always filled with sloops, schooners, and other vessels engaged in the trade with the ports on the Gulf coast to the eastward. The river trade of New Orleans is immense, and its foreign and coastiing trades are in proportion. The war for the time destroyed both, but they are now reviving. In 1860, the year before the civil war, there were received at New Orleans 2,255,458 bales of cotton, and in the same year 2,214,315
bales were exported. In the same year $185,211,254 worth of Southern and Western produce were re ceived. Thle separate products were valued as follows: cotton, $109, 389,228; sugar, $18,190,880; molasses, $6,250,335; tobacco, $8,717, 485; other products, $42,663,326. Iln the same year the exports of the city were valued at $108,293,567, and the imports at $22,920, 849. During the year ending June 30, 1860, the entrances at the port of New Orleans amounted to 2052 vessels, withl a tonnage of 1,212,029; and the clearances to 2235 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,248,526. During the year ending August 31, 1860, the arrivals of steamboats were 3566, and of fiatboats 831. These figures show the trade of the city in its palmiest days. During the year ending September 1, 1870, there were received at New Orleans 1,208,000 bales of cotton, valued at $120,000,000; 57,956 bhls. of rice; produce fronm the interior to the amount of $200,000,000; and manufactured articles from the Northern States to the amount of $50,000,000. During the fiscal year ending Jtune 30, 1870, the foreign exports of New Orleans amounted to $107,657,042, and the imports to $14,993,754. The entire value of the commerce of the city for the same year was more than $500,000,000. The exports coastwise amounted to nearly $60,000,000. In the same year 4406 vessels were entered andl cleared( at the Custom House, with an aggregate tol*age of 3,126,319 tons.

The arrivals of steamboats were 3650, withl an aggregate tonnage of 3,000,000 tons. In the same year 2 large cotton mills were in operation in the city, also a number of factories engaged in making oil from cotton seed. One of the greatest drawbacks to the prosperity of New Orleans is the unhealthiness of the city and the region in which it is situated.

During the first 70 or 80 years after its settlement it was regarded as eminently healthful. Since its transfer to the American Government it has been repeatedly ravaged by yellow fever. Apart from this disease, the city is regarded as thoroughly healthful, and the natives and acclimated residents compare favorably with those of any 736

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LOUISIANA. LAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS. other large city in respect of health and longevity. According to some writers, yellow fever made its first appearance with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1769; according to others, it did not appear until 1796. Previous to this it had appeared in Europe and in the more northern cities of North America. In 1819,‘22,‘29,‘33,‘35,‘37,‘39,‘41,‘43, ‘47,‘53, and‘58, it raged with fearful violence. In 1853, between May 26th and October 22d, 8500 persons are said to have died of the fever. The greatest mortality was on the 22d of August, when 283 persons died. During the summer season large numbers of persons leave the city, and trade is very dull. In 1870 the population of New Orleans was 191,322, and is made up of native Americans, persons of foreign descent called Creoles, foreigners, and negroes and persons of African descent. “Those who would form a just estimate of the social character and appearance of the Creole population of the city, should visit the opera in the height of the season. The French Creole ladies, many of them descended from Norman ancestors, and of pure, unmixed blood, are very handsome. They are usually attired in Parisian fashion, not over-dressed, nor so thinly clad as are the generality of American women-their luxuriant hlair, tastefully arranged, fastened with ornamental pins,.and adorned with a colored ribbon or a single flower. The word’creole’ is used in Louisiana to express a nativeborn 737

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. American, whether black or white, descended from old-world parents, for they would not call the aboriginal Indians Creoles. It never means persons of mixed breed; and the French or Spanish Creoles in New Orleans would shrink as much as a New Englander from intermarriage with one tainted, in the slightest degree, with African blood. The frequent alliances of the Creoles, or Louisianians, of French extraction, with lawyers and merchants from the Northern States, help to cement the ties which are every day binding more firmly together the distant parts of the Union. Both races may be improve(l by such connection, for the manners of the Creole ladies are, for the most part, more refined; and many a Louisianian might justly have felt indignant if he could have overheard a conceited young bachelor from the North telling me’how much they were preferred by the fair sex to the hard-drinking, gambling, horse-racing, cock-fighting, and tobacco-chewing Southerners.’

If the Creoles have less depth of character, and are less striving and ambitious than the New Englanders, it must be no slight source of happiness to the former to be so content with present advantages. They seem to feel, far more than the Anglo-Saxons, that if riches be worth the winniig they are als( worthl enjoying. The quadroons, or the offspring of the whites and mulattoes, sit in an upper tier of boxes approp)riated to them. When they are rich, they hold a peculiar and very equivocal position in society. As children they have often been sent to Paris for their education, and, being as capable of improvement as any whites, return with refined manners, and not unfrequently with more ecultivated mninds than the majority of those fronm whose society they are shut out.‘By the tyranny of caste they are driven, therefore, to form among themselves a select and excluisive set. Among other stories illustrating their social relation to the whites, we are told that a young man of the dominant race fell in love with a beautiful quadroon girl, who was so light-colored as to be scarcely distinguishable from one of pure breed. He found that, in order to render the marriage legal, he was required to swear that he himself had negro )blood in his veins; and, that he might conscientiously take the oath, he let some of the b)lood( of his betrothed into his veins with a lancet. The romance of this doubtful tale was greatly diminished, although I fear that my inclination to believe in its truth was equally enhanced, when the additional circumstance was related, that the young lady was rich.’ The foregoing sketch of society and social life in New Orleans, I need hardly remind my reader, was penned 788

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LOUISIANA. long before the late rebellion had so changed the aspect of every thing throughout the South. The visitor will, however, be sur prised as well as delighted at the extent to which the manners and culstomrns of the’old reyinme’ are still perpetuated among the descend ants of the early settlers in the Crescent City.” Many of the European customs are still observed in New Orleans. “The holiday season, which includes Christmas and New Year’s Day,” says the writer quoted above, “is the best time to visit the city. No place on the broad continent presents such numerous and varied attractions at this festive season, and stolid, indeed, must be the stranger who is not impressed with his experiences. The distinguished author from whom we have so largely quoted, thus writes of the Carnival and the ceremonies of Mardi Gras:‘It was quite a novel and refreshing sighlt to see a whole population giving up their minds for a short season to amusement. There was a grand procession parading the streets, almost every one dressed in the most grotesque attire, troops of tlhem on horseback, somne in open carriages, with bands of music, and in a variety of costtimes-some as Indians, with feathers on their heads, and one, a jolly fat’man, as Mardi Gras himself. All wore masks, and here and( there in the crowd, or stationed in a balcony above, we sawv persons armed with bags of flour, whliclt they showered (lown cop)iously on any one who seemed particularly proud of his attire. The strangeness of the scene was not a little heiglhtened by the blending of negroes, quadroons, and mulattoes in the crowd; and we were amused by observing the ludicrous surprise, mixed with contempt, of several unmasked, stiff, grave Anglo-Americans firom the North, who were witnessing for the first time what seemed to them so much mummery and tomfoolery. One wagoner, coming out of a cross street in his working dress, drove his team of horses and vehicle, heavily laden with cotton-bales, right throulgh the procession, causing a long interruption. The crowd seemed determined to allow nothing to disturb their good humnor; but although many of the wealthy Protestant citizens take part in the ceremony, this rude intrusion struck me as a kind of foreshadowing of coming events, emblematic of the violent shock which the invasion of the Anglo-Americans is about to give to the old reqinte of ILouisiana. A gentleman told me that, being last year in Rome, he had not seen so many masks at the Carnival there; and, in spite of the increase of Protestants, he thought there had been quite as much.” flour and fun ” this year as usual. The proportion, however, of strict Romanists is not so great as formerly, and to-mor 739 a

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. row, they say, when Lent begins, there will be all end of the trade in masks; yet tie butchers will sell nearly as much meat as ever. Dur ing the Carnival the greater part of the French population keep open houses, especially in the country.”’ New Orleans was first settled in-1718, by Bienville, who had be come satisfied of the propriety of removing the seat of government of the French province of Louisiana fromn Mobile to the more productive region of the lower Mississippi. In 1722, it contained about 100 log cal)ins and a population of 200 persons. In 1723, the seat of Govern ment was permanently removed from Mobile to New Orleans. In 1727, the construction of the levee was begun. It was more than a mile in leng,th, and was designed to protect the city from the over flows of the river. Smaller levees were constructed for 15 miles above, and 15 miles below the city. In the same year, a company of Jesuit Fathers, and one of Ursuline nuns arrived. The Jesuits re mained until 1763, when they were expelled. The city grew gradu ally. In 1745, the population was estimated at 800 persons, exclusive of women and children, 200 soldiers, and 300 negroes. In 1763, the city of New Orleans passed into the hands of Spain, with the rest of Loulisiana. Thle inhabitants, however, bitterly opposed the transfer, and the Spaniards did not take actual possession of the city until 1769, at which time the entire population numbered 3190. Many of the best inhabitants removed to the West Indies, rather than live under Spanish rule. Under the later Spanish Governors, low ever, matters took a difelrent turn, and the city grew rapidly. InI 1785, it contaiined 4980 inhabitants. In March, 1788, a fire destroyed 900 houses. Provisions raii low, and a famine was imminent.

Between 1792 and 1797, the streets were lighted, fire companies were organized, and the Carond(lelet Canal was opened. In 1800, Spain receded the province of Louisiana to France; and in 1803, Louisiana was purchased by the United States, and New Orleans became an American city. The population of the city at this time was 8000. During the second war with England, the English were very anxious to capture New Orleans, which was a prize of great value as controlling the navigation of the Mississippi.

They made their grand attempt on the 8thl of January, 1815, on the plain of Chalmette, near the city, and were Re,fcated with heavy loss by a small American force under General And(lrew Jackson. In 1836, the city was divided, by anl Act of the Legislatt.re, into three municipalities, each with a separate government; but, in 1852, these municipalities were consolidated, and 740

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LOUISIANA. the limits of the corporation were extended to include the town of Lafayette, lying in the adjacent parish of the same name. At the beginning of thie civil war, the city and the forts coml})anding the lower Mississippi were held by the Confederates. On the 25th of April, 1862, Admiral (then Commodore) Farragut passed the forts with his fleet, defeating and destroying the Confederate squadron which sought to bar his way. This victory opened the city to the United States army, which occupied it on the 1st of May, 1862, and held it until the close of the war. Soon after its capture, Newv Orleans became the capital of the State.

MISCELLANY. THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. On his arrival in the city, General Jackson, in conjunction with Judge Ha,ll, and many influential persons of the city, on the 16th of December, 1814, issued an order declaring the city and environs of New Orleans to be under strict martial law. Every individual entering the city was required to report himself to the adjutant-general, and no person by land or water was suffered to leave the city without a passport. The street lamps were ordered to be extinguished at 9 o’clock; after which any persons found in the streets, or firom their homes without permission in writing, and not having the countersign, were ordered to be apprehended as spies. This measure at once converted the whole city into a camp, and subjected the persons and property of the citizens to the will of the co,mnmanding general. Writs of habeas corpus, and all other civil processes by means of whichi the lives and properties of the people are protected, were for the time suspended. Such was the alarm and confusion of the moment, that few inquiries were made whence the commanding general of a military station derived such powers, to be exercised over the inhabitants of the adjacent country, in nowise connected with his camp. Although the brilliant success which afterward attended the operations of General Jackson seemed to justify the measure, yet the people saw in it a precedent, which, though it might have saved New Orleans, might at some future period extinguish their liberties. A most rigid police was now instituted. Spies and traitors, with which, the Governor complained, the city abounded, and who had been industriously employed in seducing the French and Spanish inhabitants from their allegiance, now fled; and the remaining citizens cordially cooperated with the general in the means of defence. Fort St. Philips, vlwhich guarded the passage of the river at the Detour la Plaqemine, was strengthened and placed under the command of Major Overton, an able and skilful engoineer. A site was selected for works of defence, 4 miles below the city, where its destinies were ultimately to be determined. The right rested on the river, and the left was flanked by an impenetrable cypress swamp, which extendled eastward to Lake Pontchartrain, and westward to within a mil( of t,ec river. Between the swamp andl the river was a large ditch or artificial bayou, which had been made for agricultural objects, but which now served an important military purpose. On the northern bank of this ditch the entrenchments were thrown up. 741

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Each flank was secured by an advance bastion, and the latter protected by bat. teries in the rear. These works were well mounted with artillery. Opposite this position, on the west bank of the river, on a rising ground, General MIorgaln, with the city and drafted militia, was stationed; and Commodore Patterson, with the crews of the Caroline and Louisiana, and the guns of the latter, formed another, near General Mlorg,an’s; both of which entirely enfiladed the approach of an enemy against the principal works. A detachment was stationed above the town to guard the pass of the Bayou St. John, if an attempt should be made from that quarter. These arrangements, promptly and judiciously made, gave entire confidence to the citizens, and inspired them with zeal to second the general’s exertions. Reinforcements were daily arriving, and as they arrived were immediately conducted to their respective stations. Landing of the British.-In the meantime the British were actively employed in making preparations for the attack; believing the pass from Lake Borgne to Lake Pontchartrain to be defended according to General Wilkinsol’s plan, by the fortress of Petit Coquille, they determined to land from Lake Borgne by the Bayou Bienvenue. For this purpose they concentrated their forces on Ship Island, 80 miles distant from the contemplated place of landing. The depth of water in Lake Borgne was such that this distance could be traversed only by boats and small craft, and must necessarily be passed several times in order to bring up the whole armament. The first object of the British general was to clear the lake of the American gunboats; and, for this purpose, 40 British launches were sent in pursuit of them, and, after a desperate resistance, captured and destroyed the whole American flotilla, stationed on Lakes Borgne and Pontchartrain, for the defence of New Orleans, consisting of 5 gunboats and a small sloop and schooner. By this success, they obtained the undisturbed possession of the lake; and, on the 22d of December, proceeded from their rendezvous on Ship Island, with all their boats and small craft capable of navigating the lake, to the Bayou of Bienvenue; and having surprised and captured the videttes at thle mouth of the bayou, the first division accomplished their landing unobserved. Major-General Villiere, of the New Orleans militia, living on the bayou, to whom the important service of making the first attack, and giving notice of the enemy’s approach, was entrusted, found them on his plantation, 9 miles below the city, without any previous knowledge of their approach. Skirmishes on the 23d.-Notice was immediately given to General Jackson, who came out and attacked them onl the evening of the 23d. In this affair the British sustained a loss, in killed, wounded, and missing, of 500. The British entrenched themselves at the Bienvenue plantation, 4 miles fiom the American camp, making the plantation house, in the rear of their works, their headquarters. General Jackson established his headquarters at M’Carty’s plantation, on the bank of the river, and in full view of the British encampment. Two armed schooners, the Caroline and Louisiana, constituting all the American naval force on the river, dropped down from the city, anchored opposite the British encaml)ment, and opened a brisk fire upon their lines with considerable effect. On the 27tl, the Caroline, Captain Henly, got becalmned within reach of the British batteries, and was set fire to and destroyed by their hot shot: the other succeeded in getting out of their reach. On the 28thl, the British advanced to within half a mile of the American lines, and opened a fire of shells and rockets; but were driven back by the artillery with considerable loss. On the night of the 31st of Decem. ber, the enemy again advanced to within 600 yards’of General Jackson’s position. 742

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LOUISIANA. and erected three batteries, mounting 15 gtins, an(l at 8
o’clock in the morning opened a heavy fire. In the course of the day, unlder cover of these batteries, three unsuccessful attempts were made to storm the American works. 13By 4 in the afternoon, all the batteries were silenced, and in the following night they rCe turned to their former position. On the 4thl of January, General Adair arrived with 4000 Kentucky militia, principally without arms. The muskets and muni tions of war destined for the supply of this corps, were provided at Pittsburgh, and did not leave that place until the 25tli of December; passed Louisville the 6thl of January, and arrived at New Orleans several days after the battle of the 8th. On the 6th, the last reinforcement of 3000 men arrived from England, under Major-General Lambert. Before the final assault on the American lines, tlle British general deeimed it necessary to dislodge General Morgan and Commodore Patterson from their positions on the right bank. These posts so effectually en tiladed the approach to General Jackson’s works, that the army advancing to the assault must be exposed to the most immiy nent hazard. To accoml)lishl this ob ject, boats were to le transported across the island from Lake Borgne to the Mississippi; for this purp)ose the British had been laboriously employed in deep ening and widening the canal or Bayou Bienvenue, on which they first disem barked.

Oni tlhe 7thl, they succeeded in opening the embankmnent on the river, and completing a communication from the lake to the Mississippi. In pushing thie l)oats throtugh, it was found at some places the canal was not of sufficient wAidth, and at others the banks fell in and choked the passage, which necessarily occasioned great delay and increase of labor. At lentli, however, they suc ceeded in llhaulilng through a sufficient number to transport 500 troops to the right )ank. At dawn of day, on the 8th, was the period fixed for the final assault on the American lines. Colonel Thornton was detached with 500 men, to cross the river anid attack tlhe l)batteries on tlhat side. at the same time that the main assault was to be made, of which lie was to be informed by a signal rocket. The American general had detaclled Colonel Davis, with 300 Kentucky militia. badly armed, to reinforce GenIertl Mlorigaii. Tlhese were immnediately or(lc(d to the water-e(ldge, to oppose the cneniiy’s lauding. Unlal)le in tlieir sitluation t() cotend with a superitor force of regtlar troops, well armed, they soon broke an(l fled. and the Louisiana militia at General Morgian’s battery followed their example. Commodore Pattersoin’s nlarine battery being now unprotected, his cirew,s were obliged to yield to an overwhlelmi,ng torce, and the British succeeded in silencing bothl; but the olposition which Colonel Thornton met witlh prevented this operationI from being completed until the contest was nearly ended on the opposite side of the river. At dayli,ght, on the morning of the 8th, the main body of the PBritisl-l, under their conmmander. in-chlief, General Packenhlam, were seen advancing from their encampment to storm the American lines. On the prece(ling evening, they had erected a batteiy withlin 800 yards.

wlhich now opened a brisk fire to protect their advance. Tlhe British came on in two colnumns, the left along the levee on the bank of the river, directed against the American right, while their righlt advauced to the swalmp, with a view to turn General Jackson’s left. The country being a perfect level, and the view unol)structed, their miarchl was observed from its conimencement. They were suffered to approach in silence and uinmolested, until within 300 yards of the lines. This period of suspense and expectation was employed by General,Jackson and his officers in stationing every man at his post, ind arranging everything for the decisive event. When the British columns ha( 46 743

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. advanced within 300 yards of the lines, the whole artillery at once opened i-pon them a most deadly fire. Forty pieces of cannlon, deeply charged with grape, canister, and musket balls, mowed them down by hundreds; at the same time the batteries on the west bank opened their fire, while the riflemen, in perfect security behind their works, as the British advanced, took deliberate aim, and nearly every shot took effect. Through this destructive fire the British left coltumn, under the immediate orders of the commnander-in-cliief; rushed on with their fascines and scaling-ladders to the advance bastion on the American right, and succeeded in mounting the parapet; here, after a close conflict with the bayonet, they succeeded in obtaining possession of the bastion, when the battery planted in the rear for its protection, opened its fire and drove the British from the ground. On the American left, the British attempted to pass the swamp and gain the rear, but the works had been extended as far into the swamp as the ground would permit. Some who attempted it sunk into the mire and disappeared; those behind, seeing the fate of their companions, seasonably retreated and gained the hard ground.

The assault continued an hour and a quarter: during the whole time the British were exposed to the deliberate and destructive fire of the American artillery and musketry, which lay in perfect security behind their earthen breastworks, through which no balls could penetrate. At 8
o’clock, the British columns drew off in confusion, and retreated behind their works. Flushed with success, the militia were eager to pursue the British troops to their intrenchments, and drive them immediately from the island. A less prudent and accomplished general might have been induced to yield to the indiscreet ardor of his troops; but General Jackson understood too well the nature both of his own and his enemy’s force to hazard such an attempt. Defeat must inevitably have attended an assault made by raw militia upon an intrencled camp of Britislh regulars. The defence of New Orleans was the object; nothing was to be liaz. arded wvhichl would jeopardize the city. The British were suffered to retire be.

hind their works without molestation. The result was such as might be expected from the different positions of the two armies. General Packenhllam, near the crest of the glacis, received a ball in his knee.

Still continuing to lead on his men, another shot pierced his body, and lie was carried off the field. Nearly at the same time,,lajor-General Gibbs, the second in command, within a few yards of the lines, received a mortal wound, and was removed. The third in coinmmand, MIajor-Genlleral IKeane, at the head of his troops near the glacis, was severely wounded.

The three commanding generials, on marshaling their troops at 5 o’clock in the morning, promised them a plentiful dinner in New Orleans, and gave them Booty and Beauty as the parole and countersign of the day. Before 8
o’clock the three generals were carried off the field, two in the agonies of death, and the third entirely disabled; leaving upwards of 2000 of their men, dead, dying, and wounded, on the field of battle. Colonel Raynor, who commanded the forlo,n hope which stormed the American bastion on the right, as he was leading his men up, had the calf of his leg carried away by a cannon shot. Disabled as hlie was, he was the first to mount the parapet, and receive the American bayonet. Seven hundred were killed on the field, 1400 wounded, and 500 made prisoners, making a total on that day of 2600. But 6 Americans were killed and 7 wounded. Of General Morgan’s detachment on the west bank, and in a sortie on the British lines, 49 were killed, and 178 wounded. After the battle, General Lambert, who had arrived from England but two days before, and was now the only surviving general, requested a truce for the 744

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LOUISIANA. purpose of burying his dead. This was granted until 4 o’clock in the afternoon of the 9th. Lines were drawn 100 rods distant tfrom the American camp, within which the British were not permitted to approach. In the ditchl, and in front of the works, within the prescribed lines, 482

British dead were picked up by the American troops, and delivered to their companions over the lines for burial. The afternoon of the 8thll, and the whole of the 9th, was spent by the British army in burying their dead. The American sentinels guarding the lines during this interval, frequently repeated in the hearing of the British, while tumbling their companions by hundreds into pits, “Six killed, seven wounded.” Retreat of the British.-OOn the nilght of the 18thS, they broke up their encamp ment, and commenced their retreat to the place of their first landing. To accom plishl this with safety, it was necessary that the army should move in one body. With this view, immediately after the battle of the 8thl, large working parties had been employed in constructing a road through a quagmire, for a considerable dis tance along the margin of the bayou: by binding together large quantities of reeds, and laying, them across the mire; in the course of nine days, these parties had constructed someting resembling a road from their encampment to the place of debarkation. Along this insecure track the British army silently stole their march in the nighlt of the 18th of January. By the treading of the first corps, the bundles of reeds gave way, and their followers had to wade up to their knees in mire. Several perished in the slouglhs, the darkness of the night preventing their companions fiom affording relief. At the mouth of the bayou were a few huts, which afforded shelter for fishermen in the season of catching fish for the New Orleans market; here the troops halted and bivouacked previous to their emnbarkation. Their provisions being exhausted, a few crumbs of biscuit and a small allowance of lrum was their only support. Here they were 80 miles from their ships, the whole of which distance they had to traverse in small open boats; and having but few of these, the embarkation occupied ten days. On the 27th, the whole land and naval forces which remained of this disastrous expedition, to their great joy, found themselves on board their ships. Their ranks thinned, their chiefs and many of their companions slain, their bodies emaciated with hunger, fatigule, and sickness. they gladly quitted this inauspicious country. The sulrviving commanding general observes, “that the services of both army and navy, since their landing on this coast, have been arduous beyond anytliing lihe (ever before witnessed, and difficulties have been gotten over with an assiduity and perseverance beyond example by all ranks.” A British officer of distinction, an actor in the scene, thus describes his tour from the encampment to the emb.arklation: “For some time our route lay along the high road beside the brink of the river, and was ag,reeablle enough; but as soon as we began to enter upon the path through the marsh, all comfort was at an end. Being constructed of materials so slight, and resting upon a foundation so infirm, the treading of the first corps unavoidably beat it to pieces: those whichl followed were therefore compelled to flounder on in the best wvay they could; and by the time the rear of the column gained the morass, all trace of a way had entirely disappeared. But not only were the reeds torn asunder and sunk by the pressure of those who had gone before, but the bog itself; which at first might have furnished a few spots of firm footing, was trodden into the consistency of nmud. The consequence was, that every step sunk us to the knees, and fi’equently highler. Near the ditches, indeed, many spots occurred which we had the utmost difficulty of crossing at all; and as the night was dark, there being no moon, nor any light, except 745:

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746 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. what the stars supplied, it was difficult to select our steps, or even to follow those who called to us that they were safe on the other side. At one of these places, I myself beheld an unfortunate wretch gradually sink, until he totally disappeared.

I saw him flounder in, heard him cry for help, and ran forward with the intention of saving him; but before I had taken a second step, I myself sunk at once as high as the breast. I could feel no solid bottom under me, and continued slowly to go deeper and deeper till the mud reached my arms.

Instead of endeavoring to help the poor soldier, of whom nothing now could be seen except the head and hlands, I was forced to beg assistance for myself, when a leathern canteen strap being thrown me, I laid hold of it, and was dragged out just as my fellow-sufferer became invisible. Over roads such as these did we continue our marchl during the whole of the night, and in the morning arrived at a place called Fishermen’s huts, consisting of a clump of mud-built cottages, standing by the edge of the water, on a part of the morass rather more firm than the rest. Here we were ordered to halt; wearied with exertions and oppressed with want of sleep, I threw myself on the ground without so much as taking off my muddy garments, and in an instant all cares and troubles were forgotten. Nor did I awake from that deep slumber for many hours; when I arose, cold and stiff, and addressed myself to the last morsel of salt pork mny wallet contained. Without tents or huts of any description, our bed was the morass, and our only covering the clothes which had not quitted our backs for more than a month; our fires were composed solely of reeds, which, like straw, soon blaze up and expire again, without communicating any degree of warmthl. But, above all, our provisions were expended, and from what quarter an immediate supply was to be obtained, we could not discover. Our sole dependence was upon the boats. Of these a flotilla lay ready to receive us, in which were already embarked the black corps and the 44th; but they had brought with themn only food for their own use, it was therefore necessary that they should reach the fleet and return again before we could be supplied. But as the nearest shipping was 80 miles distant, and the weather might become boisterous, or the winds obstinate, we might starve before any supply could arrive. As soon as the boats returned, regiment after regiment embarked and set sail for the fleet; but the distance being considerable, and the wind foul, many days elapsed before the whole could be got off; by the end of the month, we were all once more on board our former shlips.”

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T E X AS. Area,…………… 247,356 Square Miles. Population in 1860,…….. 604,215 (Whites, 421,294; Negroes, 182,921.) Population in 1870………. 818,579 THE State of Texas lies between 25~ 50’ and 36~ 30’

N. latitude, and between 93~ 30’ and 107~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Territory and New Mexico, on the east )v Arkansas, Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and the Republic of Mexico, and on the west by the Republic of Mexico and the Territory of New Mexico. It is very irregular in shape, and is the largest of the States. Its extreme length, from northwest to southeast, is estimated at 800 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, at 750
miles. TOPOGRAPHY. “This great State embraces every variety of surface, mountain, plain, hill, and desert within its limits. In the southeast, along the coast is a level belt of land, from 30 to 60 miles in breadth, which is succeeded by an undulating and prairie country, occupying another belt of from 150 to 200 miles in width, which is followed in the west and northwest by the mountainous region and the tableland. The extreme north is invaded by the Great American Desert, which extends, perhaps, about 60
miles within the boundary of Texas. According to Mr. Bartlett, the pleateat of Texas, including part of New Mexico, extends from 30~ to 34~

N. latitude, and from the Rio Grande east for 300 miles. The north portion, called Llano Estacado or ‘Staked Plain,’ is 2500 feet above the sea. This broad district is de 747

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ON THIE GULF’ titute of forest trees and shrubbery, except along the margilns of the stream and even there never extending 100 yards from the banks. Just after rains a short stunted grass springs up, but speedily becomes dry, affording little nourishment. In this region rise the Red, Brazos and Colorado rivers. About 29~ 301 N.

latitude the tableland breaks off into spurs, which descends to the prairies. The rivers have generally alluvial bottoms of from 3 to 20 miles in width, which are of great fertility, and heavily timbered. The belts referred to above run across the State in a direction nearly northeast and southwest so that almost all the northern part of Eastern Texas is included in the second division, or the undulating country. Little is known of the elevated lands of the west and northwest as they are yet the home of few white men except the hunters, who pursiue its buflaloes and other wild 748

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TEXAS. animals. It is, however, represented as being a well-watered and fertile region. A low range of mountains, called the Colorado Hills, runs ill a northern and southern direction, east of the Colorado River; indeed, the whole section of the State in the same parallel, between the Colorado and the Brazos rivers, is broken with low mountains. Between the Colorado and the Rio Grande, and north of the sources of the Nuteces and San Antonio, the country is crossed by broken ranges of mountains, running in various directions, but of whose altitude and character we have little re(liable information. They appear, however, to be outlying ridges of the great Rocky Mountain chain. Of these the Organ, Hueco or Waco, and Guadalupe Mountains extend from the northwestern extremity of Texas, where they terminate, in a northern direction into New Mexico. According to Bartlett, the first are about 3000 feet above the Rio Grande, and the last the same altitude above the plain. “The coast of Texas is lined with a chain of low islands, which form a series of bays, sounds, and lagoons; the most important of which are Galveston, Matagorda, Espiritu Santo, Aransas, and Corpus Christi bays, and the Laguna del Madre. Commencing at Galvestoni Bay, in the northeast, they lie along the Gulf of Mexico in the order ill which they are nanled. Galveston Bay, the largest of these, extends about 35 miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico, in a direction nearly north. Matagorda Bay, 60 miles long by 6 to 10 wide, and Laguna del Madre, 90 miles long by 3 to 6 wide, are sounds rather than bays, and run nearly parallel with the shore. Tile inlets of these are much obstructed by bars; Galveston Inlet, the best, is said to have but 12 feet water, the entrance of Matagorda Bay 11 feet, and that of San Luis but 10 feet.

Aransas Bay extends in a northeastern and southwestern direction about 25
miles, by about 12 miles in width; Corpus Christi Bay, 40 miles from north to south, by 20 miles from east to west; and Espiritu Santo is 20 miles long by 10 wide; Copano Bay, opening into Aransas, is 20 miles long by 3
wide. A writer in’De Bow’s Resources in the South and West,’ however, says-‘ Steamshlips of 1200 to 1500 tons, and sail vessels of 1000 tons, can enter the port of Galveston.’ Texas is crossed by several long rivers, generally rising in the tablelands of the west and northwest, and pursuing a southeastern course, discharge their waters into the Gulf of Mexico. Commencing with the Rio Grand(le, the largest river in Texas, 1800
miles long, and which forms its southwestern boundar7, and proceeding along the coast, we have the Nueces, San Antonio. 749

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TEXAS. ginning to be known. Various salt springs have been found, and salt of good quality, produced by natural evaporation, can be obtained in itimmense if not inexhlaustible quantities at the salt lagunes below Corpus Christi, and at the salt lake in Hidalgo county, forty miles from the Rio Grande. “CLImATE.-As a sample of the climate, we give the mean tenmperature of every month in the year 1859, as observed by Professor C.

G. Forshley, in Fayette county, on the Colorado, in latitude 30~: January, 50~ 57’; February, 62~ 44’; March, 61~ 50’; April, 65~ 31’; May, 75~ 61’; June, 81~ 56’; July, 84~ 76’; August, 84~ 90; September, 79~ 42’; October, 66~ 29’; November, 63~ 92’; December, 43~; annual mean, 68~ 04’. “‘In point of climate,’ says Olmsted,‘Texas claims, with at least as mnuch justice as any other State, to be called the Italy of America. The general average of temperature corresponds, and the skies are equally clear and glowing. The peculiarities over other climates of latitude are found in its unwavering summer sea-b)reeze and its winter northers. The first is a delightful alleviation of its summer heats, flowing, in eachi day from the Gulf, as the sun’s rays become oppressive, and extending remotely inland to the farthest settlements, with the same trustworthy steadiness.

It continues through the evening, and is descrilb)ed as hlaving so great effect that, however oppressive the day may have been, the nights are always cool enough to demnand a blanket and yield invigorating rest.’ “The severe northers occur from December to April, and usually occupy not much over 40 days. The rapid reduction of the tempe,ature from 70 or 75

(legrees, to 30 or 40 degrees, and the driving wind, are keenly felt. When most cold and violent, and accompanied with rain and sleet, they sometimes cause considerable destruction among domestic animals exposed to their fury. These instances, however, are rare, and the shelter of a grove or hill, or even a good farm wall, is sufficient to prevent such consequences. They are regarded as healthful and invigorating, and, notwithstanding the sudden change of tenmperature accompanying them, do not cause, or even exasperate, pulmonary diseases. It is claimed that consumption does not originate in the region where they prevail. “As in all new, warm, and highly fertile countries, the low, rich river bottoms-especially those of southern Texas, which are covered with a boundless profilsion of semi-tropical vegetation -are not healthy to unacclimated persons. The higher lands between those 751

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TEXAS. ginning to be known. Various salt springs have been found, and salt of good quality, produced by natural evaporation, can be obtained in immense if not inexhaustible quantities at the salt lagunes below Corpus Christi, and at the salt lake in Hidalgo county, forty miles from the Rio Grande. “CLIMATE.-AS a sample of the climate, we give the mean teriperature of every month in the year 1859, as observed by Professor C.

G. Forshley, in Fayette county, on the Colorado, in latitude 30~: January, 50~ 57’; February, 62~ 44’; March, 61~ 50’; April, 65~ 31’; May, 75~ 61’; June, 81~ 56’; July, 84~ 76’; August, 84~ 90 1; September, 79~ 42’; October, 66~ 29’; November, 63~ 92’; December, 43~; annual mean, 68~ 04’.

”’ In point of climate,’ says Olmsted,‘Texas claims, with at least as mluchl justice as any other State, to be called the Italy of America. The general average of temperature corresponds, and the skies are equally clear and glowing. The peculiarities over other climtates of latitude are found in its unwavering summer sea-b)reeze and its winter northers. The first is a delightful alleviation of its summer heats, fli,,)wing in each day from the Gulf, as the sun’s rays become oppressive, and extending remotely inland to the farthest settlements, with the same trustworthy steadiness. It continues through the evening, and is descrilb)ed as having so great effect that, however oppressive the day may have been, the nights are always cool enough to demanad a blanket and yield invigorating rest.’

“The severe northers occur from December to April, and usually occupy not much over 40 days. The rapid reduction of the temperature from 70 or 75

(legrees, to 30 or 40 degrees, and the driving wind, are keenly felt.

Whlen most cold and violent, and accompanied with raini and sleet, they sometimes cause considerable destruction among domestic animals exposed to their fury. These instances, however, are rare, and the shelter of a grove or hill, or even a good farm wall, is sufficient to prevent such consequences. They are regarded as healthful and invigorating, and, notwithstanding the sudden change of temperature accompanying them, do not cause, or even exasperate, pulmonary diseases. It is claimed that consumption does not originate in the region where they prevail. “As in all new, warm, and highly fertile countries, the low, rich river bottoms-especially those of southern Texas, which are covered with a boundless profilsion of semi-tropical vegetation -are not healthy to unacclimated persons. The higher lands between those 751

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rivers are usually considered healthy, where judicious dispositions are made by the emigrant; but the Northern emigrant runs some risk of undergoing a’seasoniing’ course of chills and fever. The hilly regions of the west are as free fronm mnalaria as any other new countries we ever heard of-far more so, we judge, than were large portions of Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan, when first settled. We have known of hundreds of people from the Northern, Middle, and Western States, who have emigrated to the sheep-region, presently to be described, and we scarcely remember of hearing of one who incurred any disease ill the p)rocess of acclimation. Great numbers of invalids, especially of consumptive invalids, from the older Southern States, resort to the region around San Antonio fior the improvement of their health. The native Mexicans used to tell a story in regard to its healthfulness which lhas a regular Yankee smack to it. They said some travellers approaching San Antonio met three disconsolate looking persons who were hastening away fromn tlhe city. They asked themi what was the matter, and where they were going. The three disconsolate looking persons replied that they had met with reverses, that they wished to die, and were going to some place where people could die. “Yellow fever is imported into the coast towns, as it is imported into New York and Philadelphia, but it does not originate in them. Its ravages, as would( be expected in such a climate, are sometimes severe; but it does not penetrate into the hilly region anv more than it penetrates into the interior of Newv York or Pennsylvania. “SOILS AND

PRODUCTS.-In the north, the rich, black soil is especially adapted to the production of wheat, yielding in ordinary seasoIns, and under the very imperfect cultivation it receives, an average of 21 bushels to the acre.

It is of superior quality, and very heavyin occasional instances reaching 72 pounds to the bushel. The wheat region proper embraces about 30
counties, of which Dallas is the centre. “The eastern counties, unlike the rest of the State, were covered by forests. The most northerly of these are highly adapted to a diversified husbandry…..The southeastern and central southern counties are the most fertile in Texas, and include the best cotton-growing reg,ion of anything like an equal area in the world.

The cotton counties proper constitute about one-third of the State…..

Sugar has been produced to considerable extent near the mouths of the Brazos and Colorado. The soil of western Texas, exclusive of the barren region.between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, consists generally of black, calcareous loam, and its pasturages are probably unequalled by any’ other natural ones in the world… 752

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TEXAS. ‘…. ” Corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, sorghum, Illsti potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, beans, turnips, pumpkins, and garden \ egetables of every kind, produce remunerative, and some of them abundant, crops on all the good soils of the State, and from many of them two crops might be taken in a season. Fruits can be grown in boundless profusion….. Horses, neat cattle, sheep, and hogs require so little artificial food that they can be raised at the most trifling expense.” In 1869 there were 2,650,781 acres of improved land in the State. The returns for the same year were as follows: Bushels of wheat,……… Indian corn,….. peas and beans,… sweet potatoes (estimated), ” oats,……..

Bales of cotton……… Pounds of butter…….. Number of horses,…….. ” i asses and mules,…., milch cows,…… ” sheep,……

“4 swine……. ” young cattle,….. Yalue of domestic animals,…..

COIMMIERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Texas has a large and profitable trade with the Northern States, and with Mexico, and some European commerce. In 1860
thie exports of the State amounted to $6,783,934, and the imports to $2,436,408. Manufactures receive but little attention. In 1870 the capital invested in them amounted to $5,284,110. The annual product was valued at $11,517,302. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Considering that Texas was but recently settled, and that it is still very sparsely populated, we must admit that it hals made very decided progress in internal improvements.

Good roads connect the various parts of the State, and there is railroad communication between Madison, on the Sabine River, and Houston, Austin, and Galveston. A railroad is in progress across southern Louisiana, from the Sabine River 753 . 1,250,000 . 23,000,000 341,961 . 1,500,000 .

1,250,000 465,000 . 5,850,5S3 600,000 93,800 640,320 998,972 . 1,580,600 .

2,540,300 . $49,825,447

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to New Orleans. In 1872 the State contained 865 miles of railroad, constructed at a cost of about $30,000,000.

EDUCATION. In 1870, Texas contained 8 colleges, with 588 students; 527
acadenlies and other schlools, with over 20,000 pupils; and 13 public schools with 800 pupils. There was a Board of Education for the State, whichl controlled the system. The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in 1868, wrote as follows concerning the schools of his State: “There is no school systemi in Texas, and the school fund which had been accumrulating, was mainly ruined and dissipated by the war. A plan for free schools, in essentials similar to the systems of the States of the North and West, has been submitted to the Reconstruction Committee, nowv in session, and strong hopes are entertained of its adoption. The number of children who should be at school in Texas, exceeds 200,000; the number actually enjoying school privileges is about 20,000.” Since 1868 a public school system similar to that of the other States has been adopted, but had not gone into operation in 1870. The permanent school fiund of the State amounts to $2,575,000, nearly all of which is available. PUBLIC

INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Huntsville. It was erected in 1848. We have no recent returns fronm it. The Texas Institution for the Deaf and Dumb is located on the west bank of the Colorado River, opposite the city of Austin. It is in great need of suitable build(linos, and is sadlyembarrassed by the unsettled condition of the State. In 1868
it contained 22 pupils. There are also a Blind Asylumn and a State Lunatic Asylum in operation, both of which are supported by the State. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 647 churches in Texas, and the value of church property was $1,035,430. F INANCES. The finances of Texas are in a prosperous condition. The State debt, January 1st, 1875, amounted to about $4,012,421. The resources 754

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of the State are amply sufficient to meet its liabilities. The receipts from September, 1867, to April 16th, 1870, were $1,384,190, and the expenditures for the same period, $1,024,891, leaving an unexpended balance in the Treasury of $379,531. Adding the balance of the Convention fund still on hand, the cash balance in the Treasury amounted to $416,709.

GOVERNMENT. Until the latter part of the year 1869, the State constituted a part of the Fifth Military District. Between the 30th of November, and 3d of December, 1869, the people by their votes ratified the new Constitution, and onl the 30th of March, 1870, the State was readmitted into the Union. By the terms of the new Constitution, every male citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, except criminals, lunatics, and Indians not taxed, without regard to race, color, or previous condition, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county six months, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government consists of a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller; and a Legislature, consistilng of a Senate of 30 members, and a House of PRepresentatives of 90 memnbers, all elected by the people. The highest judicial tribunal is the Supreme Court, consisting of three judges. The State is divided into 35 judicial districts, for each of which, a District Judge is elected, who is required to hold three terms of his court annually, in each county of his district. There are also Justices of the Peace, with jurisdiction in petty cases, who try causes by themselves, or with a jury of 6 men. For the purpose of repressing crime and lawlessness, there is a State police force, consisting of 4 captains, 8 lieutenants, 20
sergeants, and 225 privates. The Adjutant-General of the State acts as Chief of this police. All sheriffs, their deputies, constables, marshals of cities and towns, their deputies, and the police of cities and towns, are made ex-offcio members of this force, and as such are at all times subject to the orders of the Governor, or of the Adjutant-General, for the purpose of preventing crime or arresting offenders. The chief and the whole force are subject to the orders of the Governor. For the protection of the settlers against the Indians, companies of rangers are maintained on the frontier, at the expense of the State. Home TEXAS. 755

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. steads of not iiiotre than 200 acres in the country, and a lot or lots not in a village or town exceeding $5000 in value, exclusive of the valtue of the in)mprovernents, are exempted from executions for debt. Liberal inducements in offers of lani(l ire held out to actual settlers. The lands thus offered are among the filest in the State. For purposes of Government the State is divided into 124 counties.

The scat of government is located at Austin. I HISTORY. Texas was first settled by a colony of French under La Salle. It was the intention of the leader of this expedition to found a colony near the mouthl of the Mississippi, but sailing past it throtugh mistake, he entere(d Matagorda Bay, and ascended the Lavaca for five or six miles, lwhere he built Fort St. Louis, about the year 1686. After en(lduring, many hardships, he was murdered by his men on the 20th of Mar(ll, 1687. When the Indians heard of his death, they attacked the fort, the garrison of’ whllich ha(d been mtuchl reduced by quarrels among themselves, captured it, and killed all its defenders but four, whom they carried into captivity. In April, 1689, a Spanish expedition arrived in Matagorda Bay for the purpose of driving away the French, but found the fort destroyed. A few years later several sett]ements were made in Texas by the Spaniards, but in consequence of the hostilities of the Indians, they abandoned them. In 1712, Louis XIV. of France, granted the province, which he claimed, to Crozat, to whom hie had granted Louisiana. This act so alarmed the Spanish authorities in Mexico that tlhev at once made numerous settlements in Texas, in order to secure the territory in advance of the French, who in 1721 made an unsuccessful effort to expel them. In 1728, 400 families were sent out to Texas from the Canary Isles by the Spanishl Government, and were joined in that country by others from Mexico. These settlers founded the city of San Antonio. The Indians of Texas and Louisiana proved very troublesome for some time, but were defeated in a great battle by the Spaniards, in 1732, and quieted for some years. During the American Revolution, the authorities of Texas, after the declaration of war against England by Spain in 1779, carried on active hostilities against the British on the Mississippi. During this period prosperous trade was carried on via N2acogdoches, between the Spanish settlement of Natchez, in Mississippi, and the interior of Texas, and was finally the mneans of making this State known to the Americans. 756.

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TEXAS. In 1803 Louisiana passed into the hands of the United States, and in 1819, a treaty between this country and Spain, fixed the Sabine River as the easternl boundary of Texas upon the Gulf. In 1806, the population numbered 7000 souls, a number of whom were Americans. “West of the Sabine was a tract called the’ N’eutral Ground,’ which was occupied by bands of outlaws and desperate men, who lived as buccaneers, by robbery and plunder, perpetrated upon the traders. The Spanish authorities had endeavored to expel them, but could not. The United States sent a force against themrn, and drove tllem away; but they returned again, and renewed their depredations. About this time, Lieutenant A. W. Magee, a native of Massachusetts, who had commanded an expedition against these outlaws, conceived the idea of conquering Texas to the Rio Grande, and establishing a republican Government. The enterprise was undertaken in the name of Don Bernardo Gutierres, though Magee vwas in reality at the head of the movement. The freebooters of the neutral ground joined his standard, in June, 1812. The civil war at tlhis time raging in Mexico favored the designs of Magee, who had with I)imi nearly every ablebodied man east of the Trinity. He crossed the Colorado with about 800 men. At this point, he learlned that Salcedo, the royalist Governor of Texas, had conme out against lhim as far as the Guadalupe, with 1400 men, where lie lay in ambushl. Magee then made a forced march, and reached La Bilhia on the 14thl of Novremi)er, which was surrendered to him with but little opposition. Here Magee was besieged by Salcedo for three weeks. Previous to the last assault, Magee agreed to deliver up the fort and returin home.

When this agreeJnent was made klnown to the armny, it was unanimously voted down. Major Kemper, the next in command, took the lead. Magee, deeply mortified, retired to hlis tent, and, it is said, died by his own hand a little after midnight. The Spaniards withdrew to San Antonio, after hlaving, continued the siege till the 12thl of March, 1813. “The Americans, beilng reinforced, marcl-hed onl San Antonio. When within about nine miles of that place, they came upon the Spanish army, under Governor Salcedo, about 2500 strong, being about double the number of the Americans. The battle of Rosalis ensued, nearly 1000 of the Spaniards were slain, and some few talkeii prisoners. The next day, Governor Salcedo surrendered, and being l)ut in charge of a company of Bexar Mexicans to be transported to New Orleans5 he, with 13 other officers, among wllom was ex-Gov 757

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ernors Herrera and Cordero, were taken to the bank of the river below the town, where they were stripped and tied and their throats cut! Colonel Kemper, Major Ross, and others, being disgusted with such treachery and barbarity, left the army and returned home. Captain Perry now took the command, and on the night of June 4th, attacked and routed an army of over 2000 sent against them. The republicans, however, were finally defeated by another army, under General Arredondo, on the Medina, with great slaughter. Only 93 Americans reached Natchitoches, among vlwhom were Colonel Perry and Captains Taylor and Ballard. The Spaniards being successful, in revenge, committed horrid attrocities upon the friends of the republican party. Thus ended the first effort at Texan independence. “Ill February, 1819, in a treaty with Spain, the Floridas were ceded to the United States, and the Sabine agreed upon as the boundary of the Spanish possessions. Texas thus being relinquished for Florida, a far less valuable territory, gave much dissatisfaction to the southern portion of the people of the United States. Early in 1819, Dr. James Long raised a company in Natchez, of 75 men, and proceeded( to Nacogdoches, and on his arrival, being joined by Colonel Davenport and Bernardo Gutierres, his command was increased to 300. A provisional Government was then formed, and Texas was declared to be a’free and independent republic.’ They also enacted laws, and fixed the price of lands, those on Red River being estimated at a dollar per acre. They also established the first printing office, Horatio Big(elow being the editor of the paper. Genera Long posted a fewv troops at the crossing of the Trinity, the falls of the Brazes, and at other places; he also dispatched Colonel Gaines to Galveston, in order to obtain the cooperation of Lafitte, the freebooter, in the revolution. This wvas declined, Lafitte stating the forces were entirely inadequate for the purpose. Meantime, the royalists, under Colonel Parez, came and took the post on the Brazos, with 11 prisoners, October llthl, 1819, and on the 15th they took La Bahia (now Goliad), and afterwvards the post on the Trinity, and then proceeded to Nacogdochles, General Long and his men having barely made their escape to the Sabine. Parez proceeded to Cooshattie village, and about 40 miles below that place, after a severe conflict with the republicans, routed them. The latter fled to Bolivar Point, near Galveston, where General Long, afterwards joined tllem. “General Long appears to have continued his headquarters at Bolivar Point for some time; meanwhile Lafitte was obliged to ]eave Gal 758

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TEXAS. veston. Oil the day on which hle left, General Long, with Colonel Milam and others, came over from Bolivar Point and dined with Lafitte.

Soon after, Long, Milam, and Trespalacios, collecting their forces, sailed with them down the coast. General Long landed near the mouth of the San Antonio, and proceeding with a party took possession of La Ba hia. Milam and Trespalacios soon after wenit to Mexico, in order to raise funds from the Republican Government, for at this time the revolutionary cause was gaining ground in Mexico. Notwithstanding this, it appears that the royalists succeeded in capturing General Long soon after, when he was sent to the city of Mexico, and then set at liberty, and finally assassinated.

The wife of General Long, who re mained at Bolivar Point during the absence of her husband, having heard of his death, returned to her friends in the United States. “In December, 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, but for some time a. resident of Missouri, set out for San Antonio de Bexar, to solicit the sanction of the Government, and to procure a tract of land, for the settlement of an Anglo-American colony in Texas. On presenting himself to the Governor, he was, according to the Spanishl regulations respecting foreigners, ordered to leave the province immediately. On crossing the public square, he accidentally met the Baron de Bastrop, with whom he had a slight acquaintance in the United States, many years before. By his influence he obtained a second interview with the Governor, the result of which was that his petition to introduce 300

Anmerican families into Texas was recommended and forwarded to the proper authorities in Mexico. It was granted in January, 1821. Mr. Austin returned before its fate was known, and died shortly afterward. He left special injunctions to his son, Stephen F. Austin, to carry out his cherished plan to establish a colony. “On July 21, 1821, Stephen F.

Austin, accompanied by Senior Seguin and seventeen pioneers, entered the wilderness of Texas to lay the foundation of her present prosperity. He explored various parts, and after meeting with losses and difficulties, located his colony on the Brazos. Austin soon repaired to San Antonio, to report to the Governor, who appears to have been friendly to the enterprise. When he arrived there, in March, 1822, he learned, with much regret, that it was necessary to make a journey to the city of Mexico, to procurea grant from the supreme authorities. On the 29th of April ensuing, Colonel Austin arrived in Mexico, and succeeded in obtaining from Iturbide, then emperor, a confirmation of the grant made to his father. 47

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. When about to return to Texas, Iturbide was overthrown, and his acts declared null and void. Austin was again obliged to apply to the reigning authorities, who renewed the grant, and ill effect clothed him with almost sovereign power. In conjunction with Baron Bastrop, Austin fixed his colonial capital on the Brazos, calling it San Felipe de Austin. “When the Mexican Government, in 1825, abolished slavery within her limits, most of the settlers in Texas being planters from the Southern States, who had brought their slaves with them, felt themselves aggrieved, and petitioned the Mexican congress in vain for relief. On the establishment of Centralism, under Santa Anna, Texas, in 1835, declared her independence. In 1836, Santa Anna, President of Mexico, with a force of several thousand men, moved forward, threatening to exterminate the Americans, or to drive them from the soil of Texas. In March, San Antonio de Bexar was besieged; the Alamo tlhere, defended by only 187 Americans, was carried by storm, and all slain; among them were Colonel Travis, Colonel David Crockett and Colonel Bowie, the inventor of the bowie-knife.

While Santa Anna was engaged at San Antonio, General Urrea marched upon Goliad. He had a severe contest with Colonel Fannin’s troops, who, on March 20th, surrendered themselves as prisoners of war. Nine days afterward the Texan prisoners, to the number of 330, were led out and massacred in cold blood. “On the 7th of April, 1836, Santa Anna arrived at San Felipe with the divisions of Sesma and Tolsa. He proceeded down the west bank of the Brazos, crossed the river at Richmond, and on the 16thl reached Harrisburg. The Texans, under General Houston, now reduced to less than 800 men, retiring before his advance, proceeded down the bank of the Buffalo Bayou, and took a position near the River Sali Jacinto. On the 21st of April, 1836, Santa Anna, with a force of over 1700 men, being encamped near General Houston, was attacked by the Texans. When within about 600 yards, the Mexican line opened their fire upon them, but the Texans, nothing daunted, pressed on to a close conflict, whichl lasted about 18 minutes, when the enemy gave way, and were totally routed, nearly every man was either killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. The Texan loss was but 2 killed, and 23 wounded. This victory secured the independence of Texas. ‘“In 1841, President Lamar organized what has been termed the ‘Santa Fe Expedition,’ the object of which was to open trade with Santa Fe, and to establish Texan authority, in accordance with the 760

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TEXAS. treaty of Santa Anna, over all the territory east of the Rio Grande. Santa Fe, lying east of that river, was still in possession of the Mexi cans. On the 18th of June, the expedition, numbering 325 men, uinder General M’Leod, left Austin, the capital of Texas, and after a journey of about three months, arrived at the Spanish settlements in New Mexico. They were intercepted by a vastly superior force, and sur ren(lered on condition of their being allowed to return; but instead of this, they were bound with ropes and leather thongs, in gangs of six or eight, stripped of most of their clothing, and marched to the city of Mexico, a distance of 1200 miles. On their route, they were treated w;ith cruelty, beaten, and insulted; forced to march at times by night as well as by day; blinded by sand, parched by thirst, and famishing with hunger. “Having arrived at Mexico in the latter part of December, they were, by the orders of Santa Anna, thrown into filthy prisons. After a. while, part were compelled to labor as common scavengers in the streets of the city; while others were sent to the stone quarries of Pueblo, where, under brutal taskmnasters, they labored with heavy chains fastened to their limbs. Of the whole number, three were murdered on the march; several died of ill-treatment and hardship; some few escaped, some were pardoned, and nearly all eventually released. “Soon after the result of this expedition was known, rumors prevailed of an intended invasion of Texas. In September, 1842, 1200 Mexicans, under General Woll, took the town of Bexar; but subsequently retreated beyond the Rio Grande. A Texan army was collee,ted, who were zealous to carry the war into Mexico. After various disappointments and the return of most of the volunteers, 300 Texans crossed the Rio Grande and attacked the town of Mier, which was garrisoned by more than 2000 Mexicans strongly posted. In a dark, rainy night, they drove in the guard, and in spite of a constant fire of the enemy, effected a lodgnment in some houses in the suburbs, and with the aid of the deadly rifle fought their way into the heart of the place. At length, Ampudia sent a white flag, which was accompanied by General La Vega and other officers, to inform the Texans of the utter hopelessness of resistance against an enemy ten times their number. The little band at length very reluctantly surrendered, after a loss of only 35 in killed and wounded, while the Mexicans admitted theirs to have been over 500. “The Texans; contrary to the stipulations, were marched to Mexico, 761

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. distant 1000 miles. On one occasion, 214 of them, although unarmed, rose upon their guard of over 300 men, overpowered and dispersed them, and commenced their journey homeward; but ignorant of the country and destitute of provisions, and being pursued by a large party, they were obliged to surrender. Every tenth man was shot for this attempt at escape. The others were thrown into the dungeons of Perote, where about 30 died of cruel treatment. A few escaped, and the remainder were eventually released. “Early application was made by Texas to be annexed to the United States. Several years passed over without any serious attempts having been made by Mexico to regain Texas, and the political freedomi of the country was thus considered as established.

Presidents Jackson and Van Buren, in turn, objected on the ground of the unsettled boundary of Texas, and the peaceful relations with Mexico.

President Tyler brought forward the measure, but it was lost in Congress.

It having been the test question in the ensuing Presidential election, and the people deciding in its favor by the election of the Democratic candidates, Texas was annexed to the Union by a joint resolution of Congress, February 28, 1845. “The Mexican Minister, Almonte, who had before announced that Mexico would declare war if Texas was annexed, gave notice that since America had consummated’the most unjust act in her history,’ negotiations were at an end. “War with Mexico then ensued. The theatre of war in this State was on the Rio Grande. General Taylor, with the American troops, routed the Mexicans on the soil of Texas, at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and the arms of the United States were everywhere triumphant. The State Government was organized on the 19th of February, 1846. The boundary between New Mexico and Texas, the latter of which claimed the line of the Rio Grande, was adjusted by treaty in 1850.

“The joint resolution by which Texas was annexed to the Union gives permission for the erection of fo)ur additional States from its territory, and in these words-‘ New States, not exceeding four in number, in addition to said State of Texas, and having sufficient population, may hereafter, by the consent of said State, be formed out of the territory thereof, which shall be entitled to admission under the provisions of the Federal Constitution.’” Barber’s History of All the Western States. 762

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TEXAS. On the 5th of February, 1861, the State seceded from the Union, and joined the Southern Confederacy. During the war it had coniparative exemption from hostilities, except along the coast, where considerable suffering was experienced. At the close of the war a Provisional Government was erected, but was repudiated by Congress, and in 1867 the State was made a part of the 5th Military District, and continued under military rule until March, 1870, when it was readmitted into the Union.

CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Galveston, Houston, San Antonio, Brownsville, and New Braunfels. AUSTIN, The capital of the State, is beautifully situated in Travis county, oni the north bank of the Colorado, about 200 miles, by land, from its mouth, 230 miles west-northwest of Galveston, and about 1420 miles southwest of Washington.

Latitude 30~ 15’ N.; longitude 97~ 47’ W. The city is built on a plain elevated about 40 feet above the level of the river. It is well built, but owes its importance entirely to its being the seat of the State Government. The Colorado is navigable to Austin during the winter months, which constitute the season of navigation. The city contains the public buildings of the State. The Capitol stands on an eminience at the head of Congress avenue, the main street of the city. It is a handsome building, and is constructed of an oolite, of a soft white color. It is built in the Ionic style of architecture. The Governor’s Hlouse is a plain edifice of brick, on an eminence about 300 yards from the capitol. The Treasury Departnient, Land Office, and the Lunatic, Blind, and Deaf and Ditmb Asylums, are fine buildings. The scenery in the vicinity of Austin is much admired. The city became the capital of Texas in 1844. In 1870 the population was 4428. GALI,VESTON, The largest city and the commercial metropolis of the State, is situated in the county of the same name, on Galveston Island at its eastern end, at the mouth of Galveston Bay. It is 230 miles east-southeast of Austin, and’ about 200 miles west of New Orleans. The island, which separates the bay from the Gulf of Mexico, is about 30 miles 768

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES GALVESTOIN long and 3 miles broad. The surface is level, and its average elevation above the water is only about 4 feet. From Galveston City the bay extends to the northward for 35 miles to the mouth of Trinity River. The harbor of Galveston is the best in the State, and at low tide has from 12 to 14 feet of water on the bar. Within the harbor the anchorage is anmple and secure, and the city is supplied with a series of excellent wharves. Galveston is the seat of a large coasting trade, and has regular communication by steamship with New Orleans and New York, and steamboats navigate the Trinity and San Jacinto rivers, bringing the produce of the interior to the seaboard. There is railway communication with the principal towlns of the State, and a railway is in progress which will connect Galveston with New Orleans.

MISCELLANY. CAPTURE OF THE ALAMO. The “Fall of the Alamo,” like the famous defeince of Thermopyle, is an event that will long live among the heroic incidents of history. At 2 o’clock in the afternoon, February 23d, 1836, Santa Anna, with the 2d division of the Mexican army, marched into the town of San Antonio, hlaving been preceded by an advance detachment the second day preceding. His army numbered several thousand strong, and comprised the choicest troops of his country. On the same day a regular siege of the Alamo commenced, and lasted eleven days, until the final assault. The Alamo was then garrisoned by 156 men, under Lieutenant-Coloi,el William Barret. Travis, with Colonel James Bowie, second, as is believed, in command. Colonel David Crockett was also with the garrison, but it is unknown whether ha had a command, as he had joined it only a few weeks before. 764

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TEXAS. Santa Anna immediately demanded a surrender of the garrison, without terms. Their reply was a shot from the fort. He then raised a blood red flag on tho church at Bexar, as a token of vengeance against the rebels, and began an attack, and this by slow approaches. Travis sent off an express with a strong appeal for aid, declaring that hlie would never surrender nor retreat. For many days no marked incidents occurred in the siege. On the 1st of March, 32 gallant men, fromi Gonzales, under Captain John W. Smith, entered the Alamo, and raised the effective force to 188
men. On the 2d, Travis sent out by a courier a last appeal, setting forth fully his determination to remain until hle got relief or perished in the defence. About the same time he also wrote an affecting note to a friend: “Take care of my little boy. If the country should be saved, I may make him a splendid fortune; but if the country should be lost, and I should perish, he will have nothing but the proud recollection that he is the son of a mai who died fois his country.” The account of the final assault, with the accompanying description of the Alamo, we take from the ” Fall of the Alamo,” a pamphlet by Captain R. M. Potter, published at San Antonio, in July, 1860. He had unusual opportunities for obtaining all that can be known of the final tragedy, the details of which have not been accurately given, for the reason that not a single defender survived it: ” Santa Anna, after calling a council of war on the 4thl of March, fixed upon the morning of Sunday, the 6thl, as the time for the final assault. Before narratlIng it, however, I must describe the Alamo as it then existed. It had been founded soon after the first settlement of the vicinity, and being originally built as a place of safety for the settlers and their property, in case of Indian hostility, with sufficient room for that purpose, it had neither the strength nor compactness, nor the arrangement of dominant points, which belong to a regular fortification. “As its area contained between two and three acres, a thousand men would barely have sufficed to man its defences, and before a heavy siege train its walls would soon have crumbled. ” This work was not manned against the assault.

According to Santa Anna’s report, 21 guns of various calibres were planted in different parts of the works. Yoakum, in his description of the armament, mentions but 14. Whichever number be correct, however, has but little bearing upon the merits of the final defence, in which the cannon had little to do. They were in the hands of men unskilled in their use, and owing to the construction of the fort each had a limited range, which the enemy, in moving up, seem in a measure to have avoided. ” It was resolved by Santa Anna that the assault should take place at early dawn.

The order for the attack, which I have read, but have no copy of, was full and precise in its details, and was signed by Brigadier-General Amador as head of the staff. The besieging force consisted of the battalions of Toluca, Jimenes, Matamoros, los Zapadores (or sappers), and another, which I think was that of Guerrero, and the dragoon regiment of Dolores. The infantry was directed at a certain hour, between midnight and dawn, to form at a convenient distance from the fort in four columns of attack and a reserve. This disposition was not made by battalions; for the light companies of all of them were incorporated with the Zapadores to form the reserve, and some other transpositions may have been made. A certain number of scaling ladders and axes were to be borne with particular columns. The cavalry were to be stationed at different pointa around the fortress to cut off fugitives. From what I have learned of men ea. 765

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. gaged in the action, it seems that these dispositions were changed on the eve of attack, so far as to combine the five bodies of infantry into three columns of at tack. This included the troops designated in the order as the reserve; and the enly actual reserve that remained was the cavalry. “The immediate command of the assault was entrusted to General Castrillon, a Spaniard by birth and a brilliant soldier. Santa Anna took his station, with a part of his staff and all the regimental bands, at a battery south of the Alamo and near tlheold bridge, from which the signal was to be given by a bugle note for the columns to move simultaneously, at double quick timne, against different points of the fortress. One, composed mainly of the battalion of Toluca, was to enter the north breach-the other two to move against the southern side: one to attack the gate of the large area-the other to storm the chapel. By the timing of the signal, it was calculated that the columns would reach the foot of the wall just as it became light enough to operate. “WhTlien the hour came, the batteries and the music were alike silent, and a single blast of the bugle was at first followed by no sound save the rushinig tramp of soldiers. The guns of the fortress soon opened upon them, and then the bands at the south battery struck up the assassin note of deguello-‘ no quarter.’ But a few and not very effective discharges from the works could be made before tle enemy were under them. A sergeant of the Zapadores told me that the column hlie bel(onged to encountered but one discharge of grape in moving up, and that passed mostly over the men’s heads; and it is thoughllt that the worn and weary garriison was not till then fully mustered. The Toluca column arrived first at the foot of the wall, but was not the first to enter the area. A large piece of can non at the northwest angle of the area probably commanded the breach. Either this, or the deadly fire of the riflemen at that point, where Travis commanded in person, brought the column to a disordered halt, and its leader, Colonel Duque, fell dangerously wounded. But, while this was occurring, one of the other columns entered the area by the gate, or by escalade near it. The defence of the outer walls had now to be al)andoned; and the garrison took refuge in the buildings. It was probably while the enemy were pouring in through the breach that Travis fell at his post; for his body was found beside the gun just referred to. All this passed within a few minutes after the bugle sounded. The early loss of the outer barrier, so thinly manned, was inevitable; and it was not until the garrison became more concentrated and covered in the inner works, that the main struggle commenced. They were more concentrated as to the space, not as to unity; for there was no communicating between the buildings, nor in all cases between rooms. There was now no retreating from point to point; and each group of defenders had to fight and die in the den where it was brought to bay. From the doors, windows, and loopholes of the rooms around the area, the crack of the rifle and hiss of the bullet came fierce and fast: and the enemy fell and recoiled in his first efforts to charge. The gun beside which Travis lay wvas now turned against the buildings as wpere also some others; and shot after shot in quick succession was sent crashling throulgh the doors and barricades of the several rooms. Each ball was followed by a storm of musketry and a charge; and thus room after room was carried at the point of the bayonet, when all within them died fighting to the last. The struggle was made up of a number of separate and desperate cronml)ats, often hand to hand, between squads of the garrison and bodies of the enemy. The bloodiest spot about the fortress was the long barrack and the ground is front of it, where the enemy fell in heaps.

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TEXAS. I’ In the meantime, the turning of Travis’ gun had been imitated by the garri son. A small piece on the roof of the chapel, or one of the other buildings, was turned against the area while the rooms were being stormed. It did more execu tion than any other cannoni of the fortress; but atter a few effective discharges, all who manned it fell under the enemy’s fire. Crockett had taken refuge in a room of the low barrack near the gate. He either garrisoned it alone, or was left alone by the fall of his companions, when he sallied to meet his fate in the face of the foe, and was shot down. Bowie had been severely hurt by a fall from a platform, and, when the attack came on, was confined to his bed in an upper room of the barrack. He was there killed on his couch, but not without resist ance; for hlie is said to have shot down with his pistols one or more of the enemy as they entered the chamber. ” The church was the last point taken. The column which moved against it, consisting of the battalion of Jimenes and other troops, was at first repulsed, and took refuge among some old houses outside of the barrier, near its southwest angle, till it was rallied and led on by General Amador. It was soon joined by the rest of the force, and the churcli was carried by a coup de main. Its inmates, like the rest, fought till the last, and continued to fire from the upper platforms after the enemy occupied the floor of the building. A Mexican officer told of seeing a man shot in the crown of the head in this melee.

During the closing struggle, Lieutenant Dickinson, with his child in his arms, or tied to his back, as some accounts say, leaped from an upper window, and both were killed in the act. Of those he left behind him, the bayonet soon gleaned what the bullet missed; and in the upper part of the church the last defender must have fallen. The morning breeze which received his parting breath probably still fanned his flag above that fabric, ere it was pulled down by the victor. It is a fact not often remembered, that Travis and his men died under the Mexican Federal flag (of 1824, instead of the’ Lone Star,’ although the independence of Texas, unknown to them, had been declared four days before. They died for a Republic whose existence they never knew. ” The Alamo had fallen. “The action, according to Santa Anna’s report, lasted 30 minutes. It was certainly short, and possibly no longer space passed between the moment when the enemy fronted the breach and that when resistance died out. Some of the incidents which have to be related separately, no doubt occurred simultaneously, and occupied very little time. “The account of the assault which Yoakum and others have adopted as authentic, is evidently one which popular tradition has based on conjecture. “A negro boy, belonging to Travis, the wife of Lieutenant Dickinson, Mrs. Alsbury, a native of San Antonio, and another Mexican woman, and two children, were the only inmates of the fortress whose lives were spared. The children were those of the two females whose names are given. Lieutenant Dickinson commanded a gun in the east upper window of the church. His family was probably in one of the two small upper rooms of the front. This will account for his being able to take one of his children to the rear platform while the building was being stormed. A small irrigating canal runs below the window referred to; and his aim, in the desperate attempt at flight, probably was to break his fall by leaping into the water; but the shower of bullets which greeted him rendered the precaution as needless as it was hopeless. “At the time the outer barriers were carried, a few men leaped from them and 767

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. attempted to escape, but were all cut down by the cavalry. Half an hour or more after the action was over, a few men were found concealed in one of the rooms under some mattresses-General Houston, in a letter of the 11th, says as many as seven; but I have generally heard them spoken of as only three or four. The officer to whom they were first reported entreated Santa Anna to spare their lives; but he was sternly rebuked and the men ordered to be shot, which was done. Owing to the hurried and confused manner in which the mandate was obeyed, a Mexican soldier was accidentally killed with them. “Castrillon was the soul of the assault. Santa Anna remained at the south battery with the music of the whole army and a part of his staff, till hlie supposed the place was nearly mastered, when he moved up with that escort toward the Alamo; but returned again on being greeted by a few rifle balls firom the upper windows of the church. He, however, entered the area toward the close of the scene, and directed some of the last details of the butchery.

“The five infantry corps that formed the attacking force, according to the data already referred to, amounted to about 2500 men. The number of Mexican wounded, according to various accounts, largely exceeded that of the killed; and the estimates made of both by intelligent men who were in the action, and whose candor I think could be relied on, rated their loss at from 150 to 200 killed, and from 300 to 400 wounded. The real loss of the assailants in killed and wounded probably did not differ miuch from 500 men. General Bradburn was of opinion that 300 men in the action were lost to the service, counting with the killed those who died of wounds or were permanently disabled. This agrees with the other most reliable estimates. Now, if 500 men or more were bullet-stricken in half an hour, by 180 or less, it was a rapidity of bloodshed almost unexampled, and needs no exaggeration. “Of the foregoing details, which do not refer to documentary authority, I obtained many from General Bradburn, who arrived at San Antonio a few datys afler the action, and gathered them from officers who were in it. A few I had through a friend from General Amador.

Others again I received from three intelligent sergeants, who were men of fair education, and I think truthful. One of them, Sergeant Becero, of the battalion of Matamoras, who was captured at San Jacinto, was for several years my servant in Texas. From men of their class I could generally get mnore candid statements, as to loss and other matters, than from commissioned officers. I have also gathered some minor particulars fiom local tradition preserved among the residents of this town. When most of the details thus learned were acquired, I had not seen the locality; and hence I had to locate some of the occurences by inference; which I have done carefully and I think correctly. “The stranger will naturally inquire,‘Where lie the heroes of the Alamo?’ and Texas can only reply by a silent blush. A few hours after the action, the bodies of the slaughtered garrison were gathered up by the victors, laid’in three piles, mingled with fuel, and burned. On the 25th of February, near a year after, their bones and ashes were collected, placed in a coffin, and interred with due solemnity, and with military honors, by Colonel Seguin and his command.

The place of burial was in what was then a peach orchard outside the town, a few hundred yards firom the Alamo. It is now a large enclosed lot in the midst of the Alamo sulirb.” 768

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THE WESTERN STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. Area,………….23,000 Square Miles.

Population in 1860………376,688 Population in 1870,………442,014 THE

State of West Virginia (excluding the narrow strip in the northwest, called the “Pan-handle”) lies between 37~ 6’ and 39~ 44’ N. latitude, and between 770 40’ and 820 35’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania and Maryland, on the southeast by Virginia, on the southwest by Virginia and Kentucky, and on the northwest by Ohio. It is very irregular in shape. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface is generally hilly. The northeast part of the State is crossed by the Alleghany Mountains, west of which are the Greenbrier, Cheat Mountains, and other eminences, supposed to be a prolongation of the Cumberland Mountains. The valley between these ranges and the Alleghanies is elevated to a level of from 1200 to 2000
feet above the level of the sea. The scenery of the State is grand and beautiful. The celebrated pass at Harper’s Ferry lies in this State, and is but the beginning of a series of mountain views, unsurpassed in grandeur by any in the world “The scenery at Harper’s Ferry is, perhaps, the most singularly picturesque in America. To attain the view here given, it was necessary to climb the Blue Ridge by a narrow winding path immediately above the bank of the Potomac. The view from this lofty summit amply repays the fatigue incurred by its ascent. The junction of the two rivers is immediately beneath the spectator’s feet; and his delighted 769

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HARPER’S FERRY. eye, resting first upon the beautiful and thriving village of Harper’s Ferry, wanders over the wide and woody plains, extending to the Alleghany Mountains. President Jefferson, who has given the name to a beautiful rock immediately above the village, has left a powerfuil description of the scenery of Harper’s Ferry. He says:‘Tihe passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge, is, perhaps, one of the most stupendous scenes in nature. You stand on a very high point of land; on your right comes up the Shenandoah, having ranged along the foot of a mountain a hundred miles to seek a vent. On your left approaches the Potomac, in quest of a passage also; in the moment of their junction, they rush together against the mountain, rend it asunder, and pass off to the sea. The first glance of this scene hurries our senses into the opinion that this earth has been created in time; that the mountains were formed first; that the rivers began to flow afterwards; that in this place particularly, they have been dammed up by the Blue Ridge of mountains, and have formed an ocean which filled the whole valley; that, continuing to rise, they have at length broken over at this spot, and have torn the mountain down from its summit to its base. The piles of rock on 770

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WEST VIRGINIA. each hand, particularly on the Shenandoah-tne evident marks of their disrupture and avulsion from their beds by the most powerful agents of nature, corroborate the impression. But the distant finish ing which nature has given to the picture, is of a very different character; it is a true contrast to the foreground; it is as placid and delightful as that is wild and tremendous; for the mountain being cloven asunder, she presents to your eye, through the clefts a small catch of smooth blue horizon, at an infinite distance in the plain country, inviting you, as it were, from the riot and tumult warring around, to pass through the breach and participate of the calmn below. Here the eye ultimately composes itself; and that way, too, the road happens actually to lead. You cross the Potomac above the junction, pass along its side thlrough the base of the mountain for three miles, its terrible precipices hanging in fragments over you, and within about twenty miles reach Fredericktown, and the fine country round that. This scene is worth a voyage across the Atlantic; yet lhere, as in the neighborhood of the Natural Bridge, are people who have passed their lives within half a dozen miles, and have never been to survey these monuments of a war between rivers and mountains, which must have shaken the earth itself to its centre.’ There are many points of view from which the scenery appears romantic and beautiful. Among these, that seen from Jefferson’s Rock, which is on a hill overhanging the town, is very fine. The top of this rock is fiat, and nearly twelve feet square; its base, which does not exceed five feet ill width, rests upon the top of a larger rock; and its height is about five feet. The whole mass is so nicely balanced, that the application of a small force will cause it to vibrate considerably. On this rock once reposed another rock, on which Mr.

Jefferson, during a visit to this place, inscribed his name. In the extraordinary political excitement of 1798-9, between the federal and the democratic parties, a Captain Henry, who was stationed here with some United States troops, at the head of a band of his men hurled off the apex of this rock. At Harper’s Ferry, on the Maryland side, there is said to be a wonderful likeness of Washington in the stupendous rocks which overhang the Potomac. The nose, lips, and chin are admirably formed, and bear the semblance of studied art. The forehead is obscure; yet there is sufficient to give the mind a just idea of the noble form and dignified carriage, with the mildness of feature, which the original possessed so preeminently as to inspire all men with a profound reverence towards this august personage.”. ..t 771

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Ohio River, already described, washes the entire northwestern shore of the State. The cities of Wheeling and Parkersburg lie on its banks. Its scenery is beautiful, but tame. It receives the waters of the principal rivers of the State. These are the Little and Great Kanawha, the Guyandotte, and Big Sandy, which last separates the State from Kentucky. The Monongahela, one of the branches of the Ohio, rises in the centre of this State, and flows north into Pennlsylvania. The Potomac also rises in the northeastern part and separates West Virginia from. Maryland. The Great Kanawha is the principal river, lying for the greater part within the State. It rises in Ashe county, North Carolina, and flows northwest through Virginia and West Virginia into the Ohio, at Point Pleasant. Before entering West Virginia.

it is known as New River. It breaks through the Alleghany and Blue Ridge ranges, and in Fayette county, in this State, is joined by its principal tributary, the Gauley. Two miles below tile mouth of the Gauley, the Kanawha, now 500 yards wide, falls over a ledge of rocks 25 feet high.

These falls are very picturesque, and are at the head of the navigation of the stream. The scenery, especially along the New River, is very beautiful. The Kanawha is 400 miles long, and navigable for 100 miles. The Monongahela is navigable at high water from Pittsburg, Pa., to Fairmont in this State. CLIMATE. The climate in West Virginia is invigorating and delightful. The summers are cool and pleasant, yet hot enough for the crops, and the winters though severe are steady and not unpleasant. In healthfulness, the State will compare favorably with any part of the Union. MINERALS. A recent report of the Bureau of Agriculture thus describes the minerals of the State: “The minerals of West Virginia are too well known for particular comment. Nearly all the counties in the State contain coal, iron, and other minerals; coal, in veins suitable for working, is found in greatest abundance along the banks of the Upper Ohio, in the hills along the course of the Monongahela and its branches, in the central counties of the State, in the Piedmont region east of the summit, in the Kanawha valley, and in all the counties south of that river. The coal 772

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~‘iways……ove the river. oti ,erely toi-h consu -for “IhiPflent.

level’ a’ncl tje ly -for hlle o, e nt. Offtfr….:IT 1-leys, anjore co ~.a.t . uys, an im.- ‘-pton. Ao~~_ lur the COIIIIIIClIOC: 11 O IWl l’lllO:~U~ll tl) 11Ltg, 1111 -~ ]]’ l~~ ]] fi~~~}nth~~~fissstSoffniv J>~flff fi~gmf 6Kfi~~gv cdescr~k~{ti~xs~r of stick City~,axx~k, .~x~
in….ly ~t Ace-…… but deoveoopment of t)he iron of the State can scOre/ly be sids to b,)e coimiiienced. Other llminerals are reported in every section of the State. Some of the best timber of the country is to be found here, MG /-?7 M mdYey6” f dzzy of~ omit {,#2) 7z‘8M, AZ/i; cherry, etc. A consilderable trade in timber is already Il progress in the rifler countlies, ga(] %oAZbui/(h&;g zs enijafrei,l’] to,oe eson .2’e so.‘Yz& sgr yeeralr// srodbzez?r-e, / well all[ artn products.” SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is excellent as a general rule. The river bottomns and the mountain valleys are the best lands, but the hillsides ate fertile, also, and admirably suited for grazing. In 1869, there were about 3,000,000 acres of improved land in the State, and about 7,000,000 acres of unimproved land. The cash value of farins was about $120,000,000. Farming implements and machinery amounted to aboult $2,500,000 in value. The value of domestic animals \vas $17,088,568.

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OUR COUNTRY -AND ITS RESOURCES. The principal products are: Bushels of wheat,… rye,…. oats,…. ” buckwheat,. Indian corn,. ” barley,… “

Irish potatoes, Pounds of tobacco,… Tons of hay,…… MANUFACTURES AND

COMMERCE. Manufactures are growing in importance in the State. Wheeling, the principal city, is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron and glass. In 1870 there were 2444 manufacturing establishments in the State, employing 11,672 hands, and a capital of $11,084,520; using raw materials to the value of $14,503,701; and yielding an annual product of $24,102,201. The iron manufactures were valued at $9,833,892. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 485 mniles of completed railroads in West Virginia, constructed at a cost of about $33,000,000. The great Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which connects Wheeling with Baltimore, and its l)ranch, the Northwestern Virginia Railroad, pass through the northern aInd northwestern counties of the State. The Hempfield Railroad will (conlect TWheeling with Washington, Pennsylvania, and is to be extenided to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad at Greensburg in that State. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway is completed from Covilng toil to the Ohio River, and connects its eastern terminus with the Central Railroad of Virginia. ED)UCATION. Bethany College, in Brooke county, is the principal institution of the State. It is under the care of the Campbelite Church.

The State Superintendent of Free Schools has the general supervision of the system of public instruction in the State. He makes an annual report of the condition of the schools to the Legislature. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, elected for two years. He is required by law to visit the schools and examine the teachers.at least once in six months. He reports annually to the State Superin 774 .. 2,500,000 ..

300,000 ..2,500,000 .. 90,000 ..8,250,000 .. 56,000 ..1,125,000

..2,000,000 .. 225,000 ……. I ‘i

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WEST VIRGINIA. tendent. The immnediate control of the schools is vested in a Board of Education in each township. Each board consists of three Com inissioners, elected for three years, and the clerk of the township. They report to the County Superintendent. Three normal schools have been establishled-one at Guyandotte, Cabell county; one at WTest Liberty, Ohio county; and one at Fairmont, MAarion county. The ,chool at West Liberty has been opened, and has an attendance of 90 )pupils. An Agricultural College, established by the State at Morgantown, in Monongalia county, was opened in June, 1867. It is provided with excellent buildings and a ftrmi of 25 acres. In 1870, there were 2113 school-houLses in the State. The annual attendance wvas 87,330. Thie number of children of school age was 162,430. The permanent school fund, of which only the interest can be used, amounts to $254,860. The total sum received for school purposes, during the year, amounted to $562,761. The value of school property in 48
counties was $1,057,473. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Moundsville, and is in course of construction, but sufficiently advanced to accommodate the convicts, who in November, 1870, numbered 114.

The Hospitalfor the Iiisane is at Weston, in Lewis county. It is not yet finished(l, but is sufficiently advanced to accommodate its patients, vwho in 1870 numbered 207. The buildings, whlen completed, will be ample and very handsome. They were begun by the old State of Virginia before the war. The Deaf, Dunib, and Blind Asylum of West Viryinic, is situated at Riomney, and was opened in 1870. It is too small to accommodate the patients. FINANCES. The State has no debt of its own, and it is not yet decided whether it will assume any share of the debt of the old State of Virginia. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending Septenmber 30, 1874, were $695,951; and the expenditures $657,183. On the 1st of October, 1874, there was a cash balance in the Treasury of $38,768, exclusive of balance of school fund, etc. There were, in -1868, in this State, 5 State banks, with a capital of $570,200, and 15 National banks, with a capital of $2,216,400. 48 77,5

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was ratified by the people in May, 1862. Eivery white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Paupers, lunatics, and convicts, are not allowed to vote. The Government is vested in a Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 22 members, elected for two years) and a House of Delegates (of 51 members, elected for one year), all elected by the people. The State officers are chosen for two years. The Legislature meets every year on the third Tuesday in January, and sits for 45) days only, unless twothirds of both houses agree to prolong the session. The Courts of the State are, the Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, and County Courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals consists of 3
judges, elected by the people for 12 years, one judge retiring every 4
years. The seat of Government is located at Charleston, in Kanawha county.

The State is divided into 53 counties. HISTORY. This State formed a part of Virginia until the outbreak of the late war. Being unwilling to be forced out of the Union by the action of the eastern counties, the people of the western district met at Wheeling in convention, on the I lth of June, 1861, and organized a State Government. Delegates from 40 counties were present. On the 26th of November, 1861, another Convention met at Wheeling and adopted a State Constitution for the new State of West Virginia. This was ratified by the people on the 3d of May, 1862, but Congress insisted on the adoption of certain amendments to the Constitution. These changes were made by the Convention, the amendments sustained by a vote of the people, and the new State was admitted into the Union on the 20th of June, 1863. During the war the State was repeatedly invaded by the Confederates, and those regions bordering on the old State of Virginia put to considerable loss. The Kanawha Valley was the scene of several severe battles, but towards the close of the war the State was almost exempt from hostilities. 776

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WEST VIRGINIA. The people were much divided in sentiment, the Union element preponderating, however. A large number of men enlisted in the Confederate army, and the State furnished 31,884 troops to the United States army. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Wheeling, Parkersburg, Martinsburg, Charleston, Lewisburg, Clarksburg, Fairmont, Grafton, and Wellsburg. CHARLESTON, The capital of the State, is situated in Kanawha county, on the north bank of the Kanawha River, 60
miles from its mouth, and at its con fluience with the Elk River, and about 150 miles S.S.W. of Wheeling. The river here is about 300 yards wide, and is navigable for small steamers during the entire year. These furnish the only means of communication with Wheeling and Parkersburg, the principal cities of the State. Charleston will soon be connected with Eastern Virginia by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, now in course of conistruction. Charleston is a pretty country town, containing the county buildings, a newspaper office, 3 or 4 churches, and several schools. Its only importance is due to its being the capital of the State. Being difficult of access, it is believed that the seat of Government will soon be removed to some more convenient town. In 1870 the population was 3162.

Just above Charleston are the fatmous Kanawha Salt Works, which extend on both sides of the river for about 15 miles. Previous to the civil war they gave employment to about 3000 persons, and produced large quantities of salt annually. During the civil war they were greatly injured. Thile entire Kanawha region is rich in coal, and(] abounds in fine waterpower.

Its proximity to the iron regions of the two Virginias gives it peculiar advantages for manufacturing, which will no doubt be improved in the course of a few years. WHEELING, The commercial and political metropolis of West Virginia, and the first capital of the State, is situated in Ohio county, on the east bank of the Ohio River, and on both sides of Wheeling Creek, at the mouth of the latter stream, 92 miles below Pittsbu)trg, 365
miles above Cir 777

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. (iillnati, and 420 Imiles west of WVashington lay the Baltimore and Ohio Rtailway. Latitude 40~ 7’ N.; longitude 80~ 42’ W. The city is built along a narrow alluvial tract extending from the river to a range of hills less than a mile from the water, and running parallel with it. It is about 2 miles in length, with an average breadth of half a mile. It is regularly laid out, with moderately wide streets crossing each other at right angles, and though it contains a number of handsome buildings, public and private, is but indifferently built as a whole. The streets are tolerably well paved, and some of them are well shaded with handsome trees. The houses are mostly of brick, and nearly the whole of those recently erected are of this material. The principal public buildings are, the United States Custom House (in which is located the Post Office), a handsome granite edifice, and the Court House. The city contains 24 churches, some of which would do credit to any city; an efficient hospital; 7 public schools, and several excellent private schools, its female seminaries being among the best in the country; a free library of 35,000 volumes; 2 hotels, and 4 newspaper offices. Its principal points are connected by a street railway, which is also extended across the Ohio to the town of Bridgeport, in the WHEELING.

778

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WEST VIRGINIA. State of Ohio; it is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water from the Olhio River, and is provided with a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 19,282. Wheeling lies in the mid(st of one of the loveliest portions of the Ohio Valley, and is destined to become a place of very great import ance. It is connected with Baltimiore an(l the East by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. A railway on the opposite side of the river con nects it with Pittsbiirg and Cleveland, and another on the same side with Columbus, Cincinnati and all parts of the West. The Ohio is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and affords water communication with all parts of the Mississippi Valley. The city is engaged in a heavy river trade. a number of steamboats being )wned in Wlheelinl. The prosperity of the city is due almost entirely to its manufactures. The mills byn which it is surrounded are filled( with coal, which lies but a few feet below the surface. The large mills mine their own coal at a moderate cost, many of the ” (oal banks,” as they are called, lying within the city limits. Dr. Reeves, of Wheeling, writing in 1870, thus speaks of the manufactures of the city: In the manufacture of iron and nails, within the limits of the city, 2295 persons are employed; of these the principal operatives are boilers and their helpers, 620; blacklsmithls, 80; nailers, 127; nailfeeders, 385. Boilers work at the furnaces by turns of ten hours, both day and night, and prepare the metal for the rolls, where it is made into bars and nail sheeting. This class of laborers is generally composed( of Germanas and Irislh-the most of them foreign born, and, as a rule, are a hardy set of men. ‘ The nail mills of Wheeling-the Riverside Iron Works, Belmont, La Belle, and Wheeling Iron and Nail WVorks, including the two mills at Benwood and Bellaire, which are four miles d(listant froml Wheeling, cut 17,350 kegs of nails per week, or about 9’)2,200 kegs annually, at an average value of $4,059,900.

Besides these, and other rolling mills for the manufacture of railroad bar rod, hammer iron, shleet iron, bridge iron, bolts, etc., there are twvo spike mills which turn out annually, for railroad and boat building purposes, froim 50,000 to 60,000 kegs. Thle toughness of Wheeling nails, and therefore their superiority to nails made at other mills, is generally conceded. The WAhitaker Mills, situated on the bank of WTheeling Creek, engage principally in the manufacture of railroad iron, spiiek& 7 7.9

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sheet iron, etc., and are capable of rolling and finishing 60 tons of railroad bars per day. Fifty miles of the rails of the great Pacific road were made at these mills. The Norway Manufacturing Company’s mills, situated in South Wheeling, are supplied with machinery of the most improved invention, and are capable of doing all kinds of wrought iron bridge work. A part of the grand railway superstructure soon to span the Missouri at St. Charles, near St. Louis, is now going through these mills, which not only proves their capacity, but as well their competitive ability. The hinge and tack factories are extensive establishments, and because of the superior manufacture of their stocks, they are rapidly extending their trade in all directions. The founderies and machine shops give employment to 475 persons, who are remarkable for their general good health, notwithstanding their frequent excesses in eating and drinking; There are eight founderies in the city.

Three or four of these establishments are principally engaged in duplicating the patterns of machinery employed in the different iron and nail mills, and they are also as well prepared to make original patterns and single castings of any shape and for any purpose, weighing from one pound to fifteen tons. Recently a new item of business-the making of iron fronts of the most beautiful and substantial patterns, for business houseshas come into existence. “The stove market is entirely supplied from home founderies, which turn out annually thousands of different patterns, both for cooking and heating purposes. In this particular line of trade, business is constantly on the increase, for two reasons, mainly: the truly excellent patterns made, and the exceedingly low price at which they are sold. Besides, it has been ascertained that Wheeling stoves withstand greater and longer heat without burning than many patterns of Eastern and Northern manufacture. “There are eight machine shops in the city. Of these the Baltimore and Ohio are the most extensive, and command the labor of from 60 to 120 men, both day and night. In each of the other shops, however, equally skilled machinists are busily employed the year round making steam-engines, boilers, shafting, mill work, steamboat irons, etc., etc. In a word, anything in the way of Machinery can be made at the Wheeling shops as well and at as low price as it can be furnished ftom the competing shops of Pittsburg and Cincinnati. “THE MANUFACTURE OF GLASS.-In this department there are six extensive establishments-one of which is said to be the largest 7 8 r

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WEST VIRGINIA. of the kind in the United States-which employ 860 persons of both sexes, men and women, bloys and girls. Many articles of Wheeling glass manufacture find ready sale in the markets of other cities-from Maine to California; and it is, indeed, remarkable that New England sand can be shlipped to Wheeling, where it is made into the finest flint glass wares, and then these sent to Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York and Boston, for sale at even smaller prices than their own manufacturers can pro(lduce like articles. Some idea may be -hadl of the extent of the business done, when it is mentioned that to one house alone, the annual cost of packages, boxes, barrels, etc., for shipment of wares, is $15,000; and that during the past three months, over 16,000 second-hand barrels h’tve been used at a cost of $5000. The superior quality of Wheeling window glass is generally acknowledged. Several of the finer grades, usually cut into large panes, closely reselmble the best specimens of imported plate glass. “Besides the mIanufacture of iron, nails and glass, there are several estal)lishments which are of very great importance, both on account of the amount of capital invested, and the number of skilled laborers they employ. First in importance among these, perhaps, are the two extensive ship-yards-one in North Wheeling, the other in South Wheeling. Many firstclass boats are built at these yards, and furiiished wvithl the most improved machinery from Wheeling shops. There are also several extensive wagon and carriage manufactories in the city. In these establishments a very large capital is invested. rTheir trade is principally with the South, and the supply of their nmanufactures scarcely equals the demand. The woollen factory is a busy institution, and supplies the home and other markets with many excellent fabrics.” There are about 34 establishments engaged ill the manufacture of the articles referred to.

Besides these, flour, white lead, and silk are also produced here. The Ohio is crossed at Wheeling by a beautiful wire suspension I)riodge, which is one of the largest in the world, with a span of 1010 feet. The height of the towers is 153 feet above low-water mark, and 60 feet above the abutments. The bridge is supported by four wire cables, each 1380 feet in length, and 8 inches in diameter. The cost of the bridge was $210,000 in gold. It extends from Wheeling proper to Zanes’ Island, now the 7th ward of the city of Wheeling. Oti the western side of the island, a covered wooden bridge connects it with the towni of Bridgeport in Ohio. 781

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OUR C(OUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Wheeling was originally settled in 1769 by Colonel Ebenezer Zane, his brothers Silas and Jonathan, and a number of others. They chose the site of the present city for their new home, and the next spring brought out their families. The name of the city is derived from an Indian word-Weeling-signifying the place of a head. Some years befo)re the settlement a party of whites descending the Ohio, stopped at thie mouth of the creek. They were murdered by the Indians, who cut off the head of one of the victims, and( placed it on a pole with the face to the river, and called the spot TJeetiin~. Soon after the settlement a fort was built near the mouth of the creek. In September, 1777, this Fort (Henry) was besieged by a force of about 500 Indian warriors, led by the notorious renegade Simon Girty. The garrison, only 42
strong, repulsed the attack, until the arrival of a reinforcement of abtout 50 men, when the savages raised the siege and retreated. After thle close of the Revolution the city grew slowly. The introdu(tion of steam navigation on the Ohio, gave it an impetus, and it soon entered upon its nianufacturing career, which can be limited only by the amount of capital available to its citizens. After the secession of Virginia, and the separation froni the old State, it was made the capital of West Virginia, and continued to be the seat of Government until the removal of the capital to Charleston, in 1870. PARKERSBURG, The second city of the State, is situated in Wood countty, on the east bank of the Ohio River, at the moutll of the Little Knnavwha, 100 miles below Wheeling, and about 400
miles by railway west of Washington. It is well laid out, and is neatly built. It contains a Court House, about 5 churches, several goo( schools, 3 newspaper offices, and several steam mills. It is the western terminus of tlhe Northwestern Virginiia railway, a branch of the Baltimiore and Ohio railway. The Ohio River is here crossed by a fine railway bridge, by means of which close connections are made with the railways leading to Cincinnati, etc. The city is also actively engaged in the river trade. The valley of the Little Kanawha abounds in oil wells, many of which are very profitable. Jtust below Parkersburg is the long celebrated Blannerhasset’s Island. Good turnpike roads extend from Parkersburg to Winchester and Staunton, in Eastern Virginia. In 1870, the pojpulation of Parkersburg was 5546. 782

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WEST VIRGINIA. MISCELLANY. 1l311)ER LIF}E. Dodridge, in his “Notes on Western Virginia,” gives the following account of the life led by the settlers of that region: The settlements on this side of the mountains commenced along the Mononga hela. and between that river and the Laurel ridge, in the year 1772. In the succeeding year they reached the Ohio River. The greater number of the first settlers came from the upper parts of the then colonies of Maryland and Virginia. Brad(lock’s trail, as it was called, was the route by which the greater number of them crossed the mountains. A less number of them came by the way of Bedford and Fort Ligonier. They effected their removals on horses furnished with pack-saddles. Tlhis was the more easily done, as but few of these early adventurers into the wilderness were encumbered with much baggage. Land was the object which invited the greater number of these people to cross the mountain, for, as the saying then was, “It was to be had here for taking up;” that is, building a cabin and raising a crop of grain, however small, of any kind, entitled the occupant to 400 acres of land, and a pre-emption right to 1000 acres more adjoining, to be secured by a land-office warrant. This right was to take effect if there happened to be so much vacant land, or any part thereof, ad joining the tract secured by the settlement riglit. At an early perio(l the (Government of Virginia appointed three commissioners to give certificates of settlement rights.

These certificates, together with the sulrveyor’s plat, were sent to the land-office of the State, where they lay six months, to await any caveat which might be offered. If none was offered, the patent then issued. There was, at an early period of our settlements, an inferior kind of land title, denominated a “tomahawk right,” which was made by deadening a few trees near the head of a sprilng, and marking the bark of some one or more of them with the initials of the name of the person who made the improvement. I remember having seen a number of those “tomahawk rights”

when a boy. For a long time many of them bore the names of those who made them. I have no knowledge of thie efficacy of the tomahawk improvement, or whether it conferred any right whatever, unless followed b)y an actual settlement. These rights, however, were often boulght and sold. Those who wished to make settlements on their favorite tracts of land. boughlt up the tomahawk improvements, rather than enter into quarrels witlh those who had made them. Other improvers of the land, with a view to actual settlenment, andl who happened to be stout veteran fellows, took a very different course from that of purchasing the’ tomahawk righlts.” WVhen annoyed by the claimants under those rights, they deliberately cut a few good hickories, and,gave them what was called in those days a “laced jacket,” that is, a sound whipping. Some of the early settlers took the precaution to come over the mountains in the spring, leaving their families behind to raise a crop of corn, and then return 1nd bring them out in the fall. This I should think was the better way. Others, especially those whose families were small, brought them with them in the spring. My father took the latter course. His family was but small, and he 783

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iQ, 4 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. brought them all with him. The Indian meal which he brought over the mountain was expended six weeks too soon, so that for that length of time we had to live without bread. The lean venison and the breast of wild turkeys we were taulght to call bread. The flesh of the bear was denominated mneat. This artifice did not succeed very well. After living in this way for some time, we became sickly, the stomach seemed to be always empty and tormented with a sense of hlunger. I remember how narrowly the children watched the growth of the potato tops, pumpkin and squash vines, hoping from day to day to get something to answer in the place of bread. How delicious was the taste of the young potatoes swhen we got tlhemi! What a jubilee, when we were permitted to pull the young corn for roasting ears. Still more so, when it had acquired sufficient hardness to be made into jonny-cakes by the aid of a tin grater. We then became healthy, vigorous, and contented with our situation, poor as it was. My father, with a small number of his neighbors, made their settlements in the spring of 1773. Thloughll they were in a poor and destitute situation, they neverthleless lived in peace; but their tranquillity was not of long continuance. Those most atrocious murders of the peaceable, inoffensive Indians, at Captina and Yellow Creek, brought on the war of Lord Dunmore, in the spring of the year 1774.

Our little settlement then broke up. The women and children were removed to torris’s Fort, in Sandy Creek glade, some distance to the east of Uniontown. The fort consisted of anl assemblage of small hovels, situated on the margin of a large and noxious marshl, the effluvia of which gave the most of the women and children the fever and ague. The men were compelled by necessity to return home, and risk the tomahawk and scalping-knife of the Indians, in raising corn to keep their famiilies from starvation the succeeding winter. Those sufferings, dangers, and losses, were the tribute we had to pay to that thirst for blood which actuated those veteran murderers who brought the war ulpon us. The memory of the sufferers in this war, as well as that of their descendants, still looks back upon them with regret and abhorrence, and the page of history will consign their names to posterity with the full weight of infamy they deserve. .Iy father, like many others, believed that, having secured his legal allotment, the rest of the country belonged of right to those who chose to settle in it. There was a piece of vacant land adjoining his tract, amounting to about 200 acres. To this tract of land he had the pre-emption right, and accordingly secured it by warrant; but his conscience would not permit him to retain it in his family; lihe therefore gave it to an apprentice lad whlom he had raised in his house. This lad sold it to an uncle of mine for a cow and a calf, and a wool hlat. Owing to the equal distribution of real property directed by our land laws, and the sterling integrity of our forefathers in their observance of them, we have no districts of “sold land,” as it is called, that is, large tracts of land in the hands of indlividuals, or companies, who neither sell nor improve them, as is the case in Lower Canada and the northwestern part of Pennsylvania. These unsettled. tracts make huge blanks in the population of the country where they exist. The division-lines between those whose lancds adjoined were generally made in an amicable manner, before any survey of them was made, by the parties concerned. In doing this, they were guided mainly by the tops of ridges and watercourses, but particularly the fornmer. Hence the greater number of farms in the western parts o6f Pennsylvania and Virginia bear a striking resemblance to an amphitheatre. The buildings occupy a low situation, and the tops of the

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WEST VIRGINIA. surrounding hills are the boundaries of the tract to which the family mansion l)elongs. Our forefathers were fond of farms of this description, because, as they said, they were attended with this conveniiience, “that everything comlies to the house (lown lhill.” Most of the early settlers considered their land as of little value, fiom an apprehension that after a few years’ cultivation it would lose its fertility, at least for a long time. I have often heard them say that such a field would bear so many crops, and another so many more or less than that. The ground of this belief concerning the short-lived fertility of the land in this country, was the poverty of a great proportion of the land in the lower parts of Maryland and Virginia, which, after producing a few crops, became unfit for use, and was thrown out .nto commons. Aly reader wvill naturally ask where were their mills for grinding grain?

Where their tanneries for making leather? Where their smiith-shops tor making and repairing their farming utensils? Who were their carpenters, tailors, cabinet workmen, shoemakers, and weavers? The answer is, those manufacturers did not exist, nor had they any tradesmen who were professedly such. Every family was under the necessity of doing everything for themselves as well as they could. The hommonly-block and hand-mills were in use in most of our houses. The first was made of a large block of wood about 3 feet long, with an excavation burned in one end, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, so that the action of the pestle on the bottom threw the corn up to the sides towards the top of it, from whence it continually fell down into the centre. In consequence of this movement, the whole mass of the grain was pretty equally subjected to the strokes of the pestle. In the fall of the year, while the Indian corn was soft, the block and pestle did very well for making meal for jonny-cake and mush, but were rather slow when the corn became hard. The sweep was sometimes used to lessen the toil of pounding grain into meal. This was a pole of some springy elastic wood, 30 feet long or more; the butt end was placed under the side of a house, or a large stump. This pole was supported l)y two forks, placed about one-third of its length from the butt end, so as to elevate the small end about 15 feet from the ground; to this was attached, by a large miortise, a piece of a sapling, about 5 or 6 inches in diameter, and 8 or 10 feet long. The lower end of this was shaped so as to answer for a pestle. A pin of wood was put through it at a proper height, so that two persons could work at the sweep at once. This simple machine very much lessened the labor, and expedited the work. I remember that, awhen a boy, I put up an excellent sweep at my fathler’s. It was made of a sugar-tree sapling. It was kept going almost constantly, from morning till nighlt, by our neighbors for several weeks. In the Greenbrier country, where they had a number of saltpetre caves, the first settlers made plenty of excellent gunpowder by means of those sweeps and mortars. A machine still more simple than the mortar and pestle was used for making meal, while the corn was too soft to be beaten. It was called a grater.

This was a half-circular piece of tin, perforated with a punch from the concave side, and nailed by its edges to a block of wood. The ears of corn were rubbed on the rough edges of the holes, while the’meal fell through them on the board or block to which the grater was nailed, which, being in a slanting direction, discharged the meal into a cloth or bowl placed for its reception. This, to be sure, was a slow way of making meal, but necessity has no law. 785

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The hand-mill was better than the mortar and grater. It was made of two circular stones, the lowest of which was called the bedstone, the upper one the runner. These were placed in a hoop, with a spout for discharging the meal. A staff was let into a hole in the upper surface of the runner, near the outer edge, and its upper end through a hole in a board fastened to a joist above, so that two persons could be employed in turning the mill at the same time. The grain was put into the opening in the runner by hand. These mills are still in use inll Palestine, the ancient country of the Jews. To a mill of this sort our Saviour alluded, when, with reference to the destruction of Jerusalem, he said: “Two women shall be grinding at a mill, the one shall be taken and the other left.” This mill is much preferable to that used at present in Upper Egypt for making the dhoura bread. It is a smooth stone, placed on an inclined plane, upon whic the grain is spread, which is made into meal by rubbing another stone up and down upon it. Our first water-mills were of that description denominated tu)b-mills. It consists of a perpendicular shaft, to the lower end of which a horizontal wheel of about 4 or 5 teet in diameter is attached; the upper end passes through the bedstone, and carries the runner after the manner of a trundlehlead. These mills were built with very little expense, and many of them answered the purpose very well. Instead of bolting cloths, sifters were in general use. They were made of deerskins, in a state of parchment, stretched over a l1oop, and perforated with a hot wire. Our clothing was all of domestic manutfacture.

We had no other resource for clothlling, and this indeed was a poor one.

The crops of flax often ftiled, and the sheep were destroyed by the wolves. Linsey, which is made of flax and woolthe former the chain, the latter the filling-was the warmest and most substantial cloth we could make. Almost every house contained a loom, and almost every woman was a weaver. Every family tanned their own leather. The tan-vat was a large trough sunk to the upper edge in the ground. A quantity of bark was easily obtained every spring in clearing and fencing land. This, after drying, was brought in, and in wet days was shaved and pounded on a block of wood, with an axe or mallet. Ashes were used in place of lime, for taking off the hlair. Bears’ oil, hogs’ lard, and tallow, answered the place of fish oil. The leather, to be sure, was coarse; but it was substantially good.

The operation of currying was performed by a drawing-knife, with its edge turned, after the manner of a currying-knife. The blacking for the leather was made of soot and hogs’ lard. Almost every family contained its own tailors and shoemakers. Those who could not make shoes, could make shoepacks. These, like moccasins, were made of a single piece of leather, with the exception of a tongue-piece on the top of the foot. This was about 2 inches broad, and circular at the lower end. To this the main piece of leathler was sewed with a gatlhering stitch. The seam behind was like that of a moccasin. To the shoepack a sole was sometimes added. The women did the tailor work. They could all cut out and make Ihunting-shirts, leggins, and drawers. The state of society which existed in our country at an early period of its set. tlement, was well calculated to call into action every native mechanical genius. This happened in this country. There was in almnost every neighborhood some one, whose natural ingenuity enabled him to do many things for himself and his neighbors, far above what could have been reasonably expected. With the few 786

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WEST VIRGINIA. tools which they brought with them into the country, they certainly performed wonders. Their plows, harrows with wooden teeth, and sleds, were in many instances well made. Their cooper-ware, which comprehended everything for holding milk and water, was generally pretty well executed. The cedar-ware, by having alternately a white and red stave, was then thought beautiful; many of their punclheon floors were very neat, their joints close, and the top even and smoothl. Their looims, altlhongli heavy, did very well. Those lwho could not exercise these mechanic arts, were under the necessity of giving labor or barter to their nei,ghbors in exchange for the use of them, so far as their necessities required. For a long time after the first settlement of this country, the inhabitants in general married young. There was no10 distinction of rank, and very little of fortunte. On these accounts the first impressioln of love resulted in marriage; and a tfamily establishment cost but a little labor, and nothing else. A description of a weddiung, firoom the beginning to the end, will serve to show the mnanners of our fref-‘tlhers, and mark the grade of civilization which has succeeded to their rude state of society in the course of a few years. At an early period, the practice of celebrating the marriage at the house of the bride lbegan, and, it should seem, with great propriety. She also had the choice of tihe priest to perform the cereImony. A wedding engaged the attention of a whole neighborhood; and the frolic was antici)pated 1)by old and young with eager expectation. This is not to be wondered at, when it is told that a wedding was almost the only gathering which was not accompanied with the labor of reaping, log-rolling, building a cabin, or planniing some scout or campaign. In the morning of the wedding-day, the groom and his attendants assembled at the house of his father, for the purpose of reaching the mansion (of his bride by noon, which was the usual time for celebrating the nuptials, which for certain must take place before dinner.

Let the reader imagine an assemblage of people, without a store, tailor, or mantuamaker, within 100 miles; and an assemblage of horses, without a blacksmiithl or saddler within an equal distance. The gentlemen dressed in shoepacks, moccasins, leather breeches, leggins, linsey hunting-shirts, and all homemade. The ladies dressed in linsey petticoats, and linsey or linen bed-gowns, coarse slhoes, stockings, handkerchiefs, and buckskin gloves, if any. If there were any buckles, rings, buttons, or ruffles, they were the relics of old times; family pieces, from parents or grand-parents. The horses were caparisoned with old saddles, old bridles or halters, and pack-saddles, with a bag or blanket thrown over them; a rope or string as often constituted the girth as a piece of leather. The marli, in double file, was often interrupted by the narrowness and obstructions of our horse-paths, as they were called, for we had 1no roads; and these difficulties were often increased, sometimes by the good, and sometimes by the ill-will of neighbors, by falling trees, and tying grape-vines across the way. Sometimes an ambuscade was formed by the wayside, and an unexpected discharge of several guns took place, so as to cover the wedding-party with smoke. Let the reader imagine the scene which followed this discharge; the sudden spring of the horses, the shrieks of the girls, and the chivalric bustle of their partners to save them from falling. Sometimes, in spite of all that could be done to prevent it, some Were thrown to the ground. If a wrist, elbow, or ankle happened to be sprained, it was tied with a handkerchief, and little more was thought or said about it. 787

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Another ceremony commonly took place before the party reached the house of the bride, after the practice of making whiskey began, which was at an early period; when the party were about a mile from the place of their destination, two young men would single out to run for the bottle; the worse the path, the more logs, brush, and deep hollows, the better, as these obstacles afforded an op portunity for the greater display of intrepidity and horsemanship. The English fox-chlase, in point of danger to the riders and their horses, is nothing to this race for the bottle. The start was announced by an Indian yell; logs, brush, muddy hollows, hill and glen, were speedily passed by the rival ponlies.

The bottle was always filled for the occasion, so that there was no use for judges; for the first who reached the door was presented with the prize, with which hlie returned in triumph to the company. On approaching them, lie announced his victory over his rival by a shrill whoop. At the head of the troop, lie gave the bottle first to the groom and his attendants, and then to each pair in succession to the rear of the line, giving each a dram; and then, putting the bottle in the bosom of his hunting-shirt, took his station in the company. The ceremony of the marriage preceded the dinner, which was a substantial backwoods feast, of beef, pork, fowls, and sonmetimes venison and bear-meat, roasted and boiled, with plenty of potatoes, cabbage, and other vegetables. During the dinner the greatest hilarity always prevailed, although the table might be a large slab of timber, hewed out withl a broadaxe, supported by four sticks set in auger-holes; and the furniture, some old pewter dishes and plates; the rest, wooden bowls and trenchers; a few pewter spoons, much battered about the edges, were to be seen at some tables. Thile rest were made of horns. If knives were scarce, the deficiency was made up by the scalping-knives, which were carried in sheaths suspended to the belt of the hunting-shirt. After dinner the dancing commenced, and generally lasted till the next morning. The figures of the dances were three and four-handed reels, or square setts and jigs. The commencement was always a square four, which was followed by what was called jigging it off;‘that is, two of the four would single out for a jig, and were followed by the remaining, couple. The jigs were often accompanied with what was called cutting out; that is, when either of the parties became tired of the dance, on intimation the place was supplied by some one of the company without any interruption of the dance. In this way a dance was often continued till the musician was heartily tired of his situation. Towards the latter part of the night, if any of the company, through weariness, attempted to conceal themselves, for the purpose of sleeping, they were hunted up, paraded on the(. floor, and the fiddler ordered to play, “Hang out till to-morrow morning.” About 9 or 10 o’clock, a deputation of the young ladies stole off the bride, and put her to bed. In doing this, it frequently happened that they had to ascend a ladder, instead of a pair of stairs, leading from the dining and ball-room to the loft, the floor of which was made of clapboards, lying loose, and without nails. As the foot of the ladder was commonly behind the door, which was purposely opened for the occasion. and its rounds at the inner ends were well hung with hlunting-shirts, petticoats, and other articles of clothling, the candles being on the opposite side of the house, the exit of the bride was noticed by but few. This done, a deputation of young men in like manner stole off the groom, and placed him snu,lyv by the side of his bride. The dance still continued; and if seats happened to be scarce, which was often the case, every young man, when not engaged in the dance, was obliged to offer his lap as a seat for one of the girls; ,788

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WEST VIRGINIA. and the offer was sure to be accepted. In the midst of this hilarity, the bride and groom were not forgotten. Pretty late in the night, some one would remind the company that the new couple must stand in need of some refreslnlentt; black Betty, which was the name of the bottle, was called for, and sent up the ladder; but sometimes black Betty did not go alone. I have many times seen as much bread, beef, pork, and cabbage sent along with her as would afford a good meal for half a dozen hungry men. The young couple were compelled to eat and drink, more or less, of whatever was offered them. It often happened that some neighbors or relations, not being asked to the wedding, took offence; and the mode of revenge adopted by them on such occasions was that of cutting off the manes, foretops, and tails of the horses of the wedding company. On returning to the infare, the order of procession, and the race for black Betty, was the same as before. The feasting and dancing often lasted for several days, at the end of which the whole company were so exhausted with loss of sleep, that several days’ rest were requisite to fit them to return to their ordinary labors. Should I be asked why I have presented this unpleasant portrait of the rude manners of our forefathers, I in my turn would ask my reader, why are you pleased with the histories of the blood and carnage of battles? Why are you delighted with the fictions of poetry, the novel, and romance? I have related truth, and only truth, strange as it may seem. I have depicted a state of society and manners which are fast vanishing from the memory of man, with a view to give the youth of our country a knowledge of the advantages of civilization, and to give contentment to the aged, by preventing them from saying, “that formner times were better than the present.” 789

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T E T N E S S E E. Area,………… 45,600) Square Miles. Populationii ill l(i,)……. 1,1()09,801 (Whites, 82(,7S8); Negro(es, 283,019.) Population ill 1870),…….. 1,253, 520 THE State of Tennessee is situated between 35~ and 36~ 36’ N. latitude, and between 81~ 40’ and 90~

15’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Virginia, on the east by North Carolina, on the south by North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and on the west by Arkansas and Missouri. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 430 miles, and its average breadth about 110 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The eastern part of the State is crossed by the various ranges of the great Alleghaniy chain, which are here known as the Stone, Iron, Bald, and Unaka Mountains. The Cuinmberland Mountains, which form the southeastern border of Kentucky, cross this State in a soutlhwestern direction, and pass illto Alabama. They lie about 40 or 50 miles west of the Alleghany range, the valley between them being watered by the Holston, Clinch, and the other head waters of the Tennessee River. The Cuniberland Mountains cover an area of about fifty miles wide, and are thickly wooded. Beyond this range a fine rolling country, known as Middle Tennessee, extends westward to the Tennessee River. Between that stream and the Mississippi the land is either greatly rolling or flat. The JIississippi River washes the entire western shore of the State. AMemphis, the principal city, is situated on this river, in the extreme southwestern corner of Tennessee. The Ten)nessee River is formued by 790

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ties of Campbell, Rhea, Marion, etc.; some gold is reported in Polk, salts, in Greene and Hawkins; lead, in Perry; fine marble and building-stones, in Hawkins, Campbell, Monroe, Meigs, Giles, and Williamson; thick stratum of shale, in Coffee, etc., etc. Tile timber resources are also extensive, emibracing, a great variety, and many of the finest quality of forest trees-hickory, the various oaks, poplar, walnut, asll, })eech, chestnut, locust, cedar, sugar, pinie, etc., which cover a large portion of the vast tracts classed’ wild or unimproved lands.’ The soil ranges from that of the deep rich b)ottoms, of exhaustless fertility, to light and hilly uplands, which require high culture to become productive. Ill a numbter of counties, the iron interest has been partially developed. In Greene, one furnace is in operation, and a northern company have purchased several thousand acres of ore-lanids, and will soon have extensive works completed. Near the town of Greeneville, there is a b)ed of sulphate of iron, fiom which copl)peras was made (luring the war, and where even the clay is impregnated with the mineral. Our Montgomery correspondent says:’ that within twentyfive miles of Clarklsville there are from ten to twenty furnaces lying idle for walt of capital; most of them were burned (luring the war, and( the proprietors being unable to rebuild and run them, would sell out very low.’ The zinc of Greene county is said to be very rich; during the war, Epsom salts were also mad(le to some extent in the mountains. In Hawkins, our correspondent states,’ there is an underground stream of salt water traversing the valley, which has been tapped at several points, at one of whiclh the manufacture of salt has been successfully prosecuted for a number of years, though not upon a large scale; but it is thoughit that, with capital and enterprise, it might be made to rival the salt-wells of southwestern Virginia in the production of this valuable product…. A most beautifill quality of marble is found at various points in this county; one quarry of whic(l was worked to a considerable extent before the war. Much capital might be profitably invested and( many laborers usefully employed in the manufacture and preparation for market of the two articles named-salt and marble-as well as iron, the ore of which is present in the mountains.’ Our Marion correspondent says, ‘the quantity of bituminous and semni-bituminous coil and iron ore in this county is inlinited, with but little development of the former and none of the latter, though the inducements are great, produce being abundant and transportation good and improving.”’” Agricultural Report. 792

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OUR COUNiTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ties of Campbell, Rhea, Marion, etc.; some gold is reported in Polk, salts, in Greene and Hawkins; lead, in Perry; fine marble and building-stones, in Hawkins, Campbell, Monroe, Meigs, Giles, and Williamson; thick stratum of shale, in Coffee, etc., etc. The tinmber resources are also extensive, embracing a great variety, and many of the finest quality of forest trees hickory, the various oaks, poplar, walnut, asll, l)eeeh, chestnut, locust, cedar, sugar, pine, etc., which cover a large portion of the vast tracts classed’ wild or unimproved lands.’ The soil ranges fromn that of the deep rich l)ottoms, of exhaustless fertility, to light and hilly uplands, which require high culture to become produtetive. In a number of counties, the iron interest has been partially developed. In Greene, one furnace is in operation, and a northern company have purchased several thousand acres of ore-lands, and will soon have extensive works completed. Near the town of Greeneville, there is a l)ed of sulphlate of iron, fiom which copperas was made (luring the war, and where even the clay is impregnated with the mineral. Our Montgomery correspondent says:’ thlat within twentyfive miles of Clarksville there are from ten to twenty furnaces lying idle for walnt of capital; most of them were burned during the war, and the proprietors being unable to rebuild and rutin them, would sell out very low.’ The zinc of Greene county is said to be very rich; during the war, Epsom salts were also made to some extent in the mountains. In Hawkins, our correspondent states,‘there is au underground stream of salt water traversing the valley, which has been tapped at several points, at one of whicll the manufacture of salt has been successfully prosecuted for a number of years, though not upon a large scale; but it is thought that with capital and enterprise, it might be made to rival the salt-wells of southwestern -Virginia in the production of this valuable product…. A most b)eautifil quality of marble is found at various points in this county; one quarry of which was worked to a considerable extent l)efore the war. Much capital might be profitably invested and( many laborers usefully employed in the manufacture and preparation for market of the two articles named-salt and marble-as well as iron, the ore of which is present in the mountains.’ Our Marion correspondent says, ‘the quantity of bituminous and semi-bituminous coial and iron ore in this county is unlimnited, with but little development of the former and none of the latter, though the inducements are great, produce being abundant and transportation good and improving.”’” Agricultural Report. 792

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TENNESSEE. CLIMATE. The climate is usually mild. Except in the eastern part the winters are short and pleasant, and snowv does not often fall.

The summers are cool and delightful, and the State is generally healthfill. In the mountains the winters, though short, are severe. SOIL

AND PRODUCTIONS. In the mountains of East Tennessee, the land is poor and difficult of cultivation. The valleys, however, are fertile, and amnply repay the labor expended upon them. The soil of Middle Tennessee is generally good, whilst that of Western Tennessee consists of a rich black mould. The staple products are Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton. Thle agriculture of Tennessee was almost destroyed by the war, the State being, like Virginia, a vast battlefiel(l, hut tile people are slowly recovering from their losses, and are bringing their crops up to something like the old average. In 1869, the State contained 6,795,337 acres of improved land. The principal returns for the same year were: Bushels of wheat,….

” rye,…. peas and beans,. oats,…. Indian corn,.. ” Irish potatoes,.

Tons of hay,…… Pounds of butter….. Number of horses,…. asses and mules, ” milch cows,1 sheep,… swine,…. yourng cattle,. Value of domestic animals, In 1870, the cotton crop amo,lnted( to about 215,000
bales, and the tobacco crop is estimated at about 35,000,000 pounds.

COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State has. scarcely any foreign trade. Its cotton is exported from New Orleans, and the most of its other products are disposed 793 6,750,000 226,000 547,803 3,500,000 47,500,000 1,000,000

158,000 1.0,017,787 300,975 131,780 260,190 960,312 2,800,312 709,360

$65,2111425 …….

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of in that city. Memphis has an important trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and with Arkansas. Previous to the war manufactures were an important interest in Tennessee, and were becoming more extensive every year. The water power of the State is magnificent, and offers many inducements to capitalists. In 1870 there were 5317 establishments in Tennessee devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $15,595,295, and 19,412 hands, consuming raw material worth $19,657,027, and yielding an annual product of $34,362,636. The principal products were stated as follows for that year: Value of cotton goods,………… $941,542 flour and meal………10,767,388 pig iron………… 1,147,707 bar and rolled iron……… 369,222 ” copper………….510,677
coal,…………330,498 sawed and planed lumber,….. 3,819,237
leather,……….. 1,851,638 INTERNAL IMPROVE,MENTS. There were, in 1872, in the State of Tennessee, 1520 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. Nashville, Meiuphlis, and Chattanooga, are the principal railroa(l centres of the State, and are connected with each other a(nd with all parts of the country. Western and Middle Tennessee are covered with a network of roads extending into Kentucky on the North, and Mississippi and Alabama on the south, and the great route from Virginia to the Mississippi crosses the eastern part of the State in a southwest direction, from Bristol to Chlattanooga. These railroads were almost entirely destroyed during the war. EDUCATION. In 1870, there were in Tennessee 61 colleges, witll 5785 students; 801 academies and other schools, with 33,176 pupils; and 1932 public schools, with 82,970 pupils.

Schools were organized in this State as early as 1780, in East Tennessee, and by the year 1795 there were 3 c(olleges ill thie State. The iiewv Constitution makes a liberal provision for the support of free schools. A permanent school fund is established, and taxes are levied for the maintenance of the schools. Thile educational system is placed in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, and is similar to that of West Virginia. 794

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TENNESSEE. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. T’he State Peniteittiary is located at Nashville. It is provided witl fine comllmo(lious butildintrs, and( is conducted on the silent syste)m. The Tcitlne8see lospital for the I-tsane and the Tennessee’gid School are lo(cated at Nashville. They were damaged greatly, and mnet wital many losses during the war, but have been reopened with sucecess sine the return of peace. Measures are or foot for tlhe erection of a hospital for the colored insane. Tane Tenitessee Deaf a),d Dttmb School is at Knoxville. It was cstablislhed in 1845. It was broken up during the war, and the buildiig occupied by the two armies, in turn, as a hospital, and greatly damaged(l. It was reopened in 1866, and is now prosperous. FINANCES. In 1870 the State debt amounted to $29,718,961, of whichl $24,900,417 consisted of l)onds loaned( to railroads. Tile expenditures of ihe trelsuLry for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1867, were $2,259,522, and the receipts $2,336,445. In 1868 there were 12

National banks, with a capital of $2,025,300, doing )business in the State. GOVERNMENT. By the Constitution of this State every male citizen 21
years old, ,*esiding in the State 1 year and in the county 6 months, who has paid t.he poll tax specified by the Constitution, is entitled to vote at the 4electionis. The governmenit of the State is vested in a Governor, Secretary of ,.State, Treasurer, Comptroller, AttorneyGeneral, and a General As,enblyN, consisting of a Senate and House of Delegates. The Governor and members of the Legislature are elected by the people for two years. Tlle State officers, with the exception of the AttorneyGeneral, are elected for four years by the Legislature. The AttorneyGeneral is appointed by the judges of the Supreme Court. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Courts of Chancery, Circuit Courts, County Courts, atnd Justices’ Courts. The Stipreme Court consists of 5 judges, no two of which must reside in the same part of the State. The seat of Government is at Nashville. For purposes of government the State is divided into 84
counties. 795

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HISTORY. Tennessee originally formed a part of the province of North Caroliiia. It was, at the time of its settlement, a vast wilderness, whilch was claimed as a hunting ground by the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Shawriees, and the Six Nations. Thie Cherokees dwelt in the extreme southeast part, but no other tribe made the Territory a place of habitation. In 1756 Andrew Lewis was sent into this region for the purpose of .ecttling it, by the Earl of Loudon, then the Governor of Virginia, arid commander of the Royal forces in America. Hle built a post, which he called Fort Loudon, on’the WVautati,ga or Little Tennessee, about 30 miles soutlhwest of Knoxville. This settlement is now a thlirivinig village. The fort was given a strong garrison of British troops, and, influeniced by the sense of the protection whiichi this force ilmp)arted, the region round al)ouit was soon partially settled by emigrants, and in the sprilng of 1758 the garrison of the fort was increased to 200 Imen. In 1758, Colonel Bird built a post in what is now Sullivan county. Tlhis was for some tinime believed to be in Virginia, and was called l,ong Island Fort. In 1768, many families came out to the new region, and settled along the Holston and Wautauga rivers. In 1769, or 1770, a party of 10 hunters descended the Cuimberland River to the Ohio, in boats which they had built, stopping for a while at the site of the present city of Nashville.

They descended the Ohio to the Mississippi, and passed down that river to Natchez, which was then a Spanish settlement. They were kindly treated by the Spaniards, and some of them remained there, but others returned to the settlements along the Wautatiga. In 17(60, Fort Loudon was besieged by the Cherokees, and closely invested for a month. The garrison, 200 in number, consumed their horses and dogs, and finally, being on the point of starvation, surrendered upon condition that they should be allowed to retuirn to Virginia. They were suffered to depart and to march 15 miles from the fort without being molested, but vwhien they had accomplished that distance, were treacherously attacked and nearly all massacred on the spot. This outrage was avenged the next year by Colonel Grant, who, with a force of 2600 regular and provincial troops and friendly Indians, invaded the Cherokee country and laid waste their fields and villages. These severe measures compelled the savages to sue for peace. T96

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TENNESSEE. By the outbreak of the Revolution the Tennessee country was quite thickly settled, and the population was increasing at an encouraging rate. In 1776, the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a formidable war upon the settlers, but were defeated by the forces of Virginia and North Carolina. The Tennessee settlements, at this timle knoIwn as the “District of Wasliington,” were representedl in the Convention which framed the Constitution of North Carolina, ailnd, in 1780, the Tennessee militia, under Colonel Levier, bore a conspicuous part in the bloody battle of King’s Mountain. After the war lands in this region were offered the North Carolina troops in paiyment of the bounties due them. Miany of themin accepted the offer and settled on the lands. Others sold their warrants to actual settlers. Nashville had been settled by a party of two or three huinldred, under Colonel Robertson, as early as 1780, and the rich lands of Davidson county, lying around it, now attracted the greater part of the holders of the military warrants. In 1785, the inhabitants of the present counties of Sullival, Washington, and Greene, attempted to set up an independent State Government, as they declared, and with truth, that the capital of Northl Carolina was too far away to benefit them. They called their new State Franklin. This course produced considerable conflusion, whiellch was not quieted until 1790, when Northl Carolina ceded the territory to the United States. Congress established a Territorial Government, and the region was called “The Territory of the United States southwest of the Ohio River.” In 1794, the Territory of Tennessee was organized, and the Legislature met at Knoxville. The niext year it was found that it containe(l a population of 77,262, of which 10,613 were niegro slaves. Efforts were now made to secure its erection into a State, and on the 1st of June, 1796, Tennessee vwas admitted into the Union. The State took an active part in the second war with England, and contributed to thle cause Andrew Jaclson, who won the victory of Newv Orleans, and many of the hardy backw\oodsmenl who fought under himn that day. After the return of peace, Tennessee entered upon a career of prosperity, which was checked by the Rebellion. Being a slaveholding State, it was expected that the people would take sides with tihe extreme proslavery party. When the Gulf States seceded from the Union in the winter of 1860-61, Tennessee was urged to join them. The Legislature submitted to the people the call for a Convention, for 797

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NASHII VILLE. the purpose of seceding, and this call was defeated by a poplular rTajority of 64,114. After the fall of Fort Sumter, however, the (g’overnor convened the Legislature in extra-session, and on the 9thi (e,f May, 1861, that body adopted an Ordinance of Secession, and sent representatives and senators to the Confederate Congress. Western a)nd Middle Tennessee were very clearly in sympathy with this action ,,f the Leg,islature, but East Tennessee was loyal to the Union. The State was at once occupied by the Confederates, and in the spring of 1862, the western and northern portions fell into the hands (if the Union forces. Volunteers enlisted on each side, and the State ])ecame the western battlefield of both armies. The severe battles of S?ort Donnelson, Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing,, Murfreesboro, Clhattanooga, Knoxville, and Nashville, were foughit within the limits of the State. After the close of the war, a Provisional Governor was appointc(led, and the State was restored to its former position in the Union on the 24th of July, 1866. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Mermphlis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Murfreesboro. 798

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TENNESSEE. NASHVILLIE, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in Davidson county, on the left bank of the’Cumiberlaind River, at the head of steamboat navigation, about 200 miles from the mouth of that stream, 2:)0 miles east-northeast of AMemphis, and 684 nmiles southwest of Alashington. Latitude 36~ 9’ N; longitude 86~ 49’ W. The city is delightfully situated in a beautiful, healthy, and fertile country, and has long been one of the most important places in the southwest. It is built on an elevated( bluff of limnestone, and com,lan(ls fine views of the river and vicinity. It is regularly laid off, and contains many handsome edifices. Many of the residences are palatial in their character.

The public buildlings are lhand(somie. The Capitol is one of the finest edifices on the continent. It stands on an eminence 197 feet above the river, and is built of fine fossilated limestone, much like marble, which was quarried on the spot. Many of the blocks weigh 10 tons each. Its dimensions are 270 by 140 feet. “Its architecture is Grecian, consisting of a Doric baselment, and supporting on its four fronts, Ionic porticoes, modelled after those of the Erechltheum at Athens.” In the centre of the building is a tower 80 feet high. The halls of the Legislature are among the handsomest in the country, being surpassed only by those of the two Houses of Congress. The cost of the capitol was $1,000,000 in gol(t. The Lunatic A,sylm, and the State Penitentiary are imposing )buildings. The latter contains 200 cells. The City Ttitll is also a handsome buildin(g.

The schools of the city are noted for their excellence. It has several pulblic schools in operation, and one for colored children. The Uiiveirsity of Nashville, founded in 1806, is an institution of high character. Its Medical Department is regarded as an excellent school. The female schools are considered the best in the State. The State Library contains over 12,000 volumes. The Cumberland River is crossed here by a fine bridge The river is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and Nashville is the seat of a heavy river trade. It has railway communication with all parts of the State and country. It contains about 14 churches, and about 8 newspaper and 4 magazine offices. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water from the Cumberland River, and possesses a steam fire-eng,ine department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 25,865. 799

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MEMPHIS. Nashville has long been noted for its enterprising spirit, literary taste, and polished society. It is in everything but geographical p)osition a Southern rather than a Western city. It was founded in 1779, by a party of emigrants from North Carolina, and established as a town by the Assembly of that State, in 1784. It was named in honor of (Colonel Francis Nashl, whllo fell at the head of his regiment at Germanatown. It suffered very greatly during the civil war. It was occupied by the United States army in February, 1862, and held until the close of the war. On tile 16thl of December, 1864, General Thomas, in command of the United States forces, inflicted a bloody defeat upon the Confederate army, under General Hood, in tihe vicilnity. M EM PHIS, Thle largest city ill the State, is situated in Shelby county, on the cast )anik of the Mississippi River, just below the mouth of Wolf River, 420
miles below St. Louis, 956 miles above New Orleans, and 230 mriles westsouthwest of Nashville. It stands on the 4thl Chickasaw Bluff, and possesses the only convenient location for a commercial city between the mouth of the Ohio and ATicksburg, MIississippi, a distance of 650 miles.

Possessing this, it has become the most populous and important place on the river, between St. Louis and New Orleans. 800

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TENNESSEE. The bluff, on which the city is built, is elevated 60 feet above the river, and is about 3 miles in length. At its base a bed of sandstone projects into the river, and forms the levee or landing. The city lies entirely on the bluff above, and presents a fine appearance when viewed from the river. All esplanade, several hundred feet in width, occupies the front of the plateau, and this is lined with handsome buildings, which face the river. Thle general appearance of the city is attractive, and many of the business edifices and private residences would (do credit to any city ill the land. Meml)his is lighted w-ithl gas, and a street railway connects its various points. It contains about 24 good public schools, several private schools, a Mercantile Library, 20
churches, and 10 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council.

In 1870, the population was 40,226. Men-mphlis is the most impnlortant city on the lower Mississippi, besides New Orleans. It has grown with surprising rapidity, notwvithstanding the civil war, which injured it severely. It is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and controls a large share of the enormous trade of the Mississippi.

MISCELLANY. THE BOYHOOD OF ANDREW JACKSON. His parents were Scotchl-Irishl emigrants from Carrickfergus, of the humblest condition in life, and to add to the struggles of the family with adversity, his fathler died just after the birth of his son. His mother was obliged to find a ]home, as lhousekeeper and poor relation, in the family of a brother-in-law, and here young Andrew passed thie first ten or twelve years of his life. Ile soon acquired the reputation of being the most nmischievous boy in the neiglhborhood, always fuhll of pranks and getting into trouble. His school-days were not of the most promising character; nor, judging from MIr. Parton’s lively description, was his youthful brain in danger of being turned by any superfluity of booklearning. In due time the boy was sent to an “old-field school,” an instituttion not much unlike the road-side schools in Ireland of whlichl we read. Thle Northlern reader is, perhaps, not aware that an ” old-field” is not a field at all, but a pine forest. When crop after crop of cotton, without rotation, has exhausted the soil, the fences are taken away, the land lies waste, the young pines at once spring up, and soon cover the whole field with a thick grovwthl of wood. InII one of these old fields, the rudest possible shanty of a log house is erected(l, w-ithl a fireplace that extends from side to side, and occupies a third of the interior. In winter, the interstices of the log walls are filled up withi clay; which the restless fingers of the boys make haste to remove in time to admit the first warm airs of spring. An itinerant schoolmaster presents himself in a neighborhood; the responsible farmers pledge him a certain number of pupils, and an old-field school is established fob t’ae season. Such schools, called by the same name, exist to this day 801

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in tie Carolinas, differing little from those which Andrew Jackson attended in his childhood. Reading, wiiting, and arithmetic were all the branches taught in the early day. Amiong a crowd of urechlins seated on the slab benches of a school like this, fancy a tall, slender boy, with brigh,lt blue eyes, a freckled face, an abundance of long,, sandy hlair, and clad in coarse, copperas-colored cloth, with bare feet dangling and kicking, and you have in your mind’s eye a picture of Andy as lie appeared in his old-field school days in the Waxhllaw settlement. Ilis mnother seems to have had more ambitious views for hler son, and hoped that by being enabled to ol)tain for him a lil)eral education, she would have the pleasure to see him “wag, his pow in a pulpit” as a clergyman of the Presbyte ]ian Church. Hle was not destined, however, to “beat the drum ecclesiastic,” thot,ugh if his good mothler’s wishes could have been realized, hle would doubtless have proved a valiant soldier of the ” church militant,” and dealt thick and heavy blows on the sinner and heretic with as muchl unction as lie subsequently discolm fited the invaders of his country at New Orleans. Hle was a figliter fiom his earliest boyhood. Not a drop of tame blood ran in his veins. Andy was a wild, frolicsome, wilful, mischievous, daring,,, reckless boy; gene rous to a friend, but never content to submit to a strong,er einemy. Ile was pas sionately fond of those sports whlicli are mimic battles-above all, wrestling. Being a slender boy, more active than stronlg, hlie was often thrown. “I could throw him three times out of fo)ur,” an old schoolmate used to say, ” but lhe would never stay tlroied.

Hle was dead game, even thlen, and never wozuld give up.” Ile was exceedingly fond of running foot races, of leaping the bar, and jumnping, and in such sports lie was excelled by no one of his years. To younger boys, who never questioned his mastery, lie was a generous protector; tlhere was nothling he would not do to defend them. Hlis equals and superiors found him self-willed, somewhat overbearing, easily offended, very irascible, and, upon the vhlole, ” difficult to get along witli.”

()ne of them said, many years after, in the lbeat of controversy, that of all the boys lie had ever known, Andrew Jackson was the only bully who was not also a coward. But the boy, it appears, had a special cause of irritation in a disgracefnl disease, name unknown, which induces a habit of-not to put too fine a point on it” slobbering.” Woe to any boy who presumed to jest at thlis mnisfortune! Andy was upon him incontinently, and there was eitlher a fight or a drubbing. There is a story, too, of some boys secretly loading a gun to the muzzle, an(-l giving it to yotung Jackson to fire off, that they might have the pleasure of seeing it kick”

him over. They had that pleasure. Springing up from the ground, the boy, in a frenzy of passion, exclaimed: “By, if one of you laughls, I’ll kill him!” He soon had an opportunity for pursuing higher game. He was 9 years old when the Declaration of Independence was signed. By the timne the war approaclied the obscure settlement in the region of the Catawba, wlhere lie was born, lie was a little more than 13. A change now came over his rustic life. The schoolhouse was closed, the peaceful labors of the people interrupted. His elder brother Ilugh had already mounted his horse and ridden southward to meet the bloody strife. It was on the 29th of MIay, 1780, that Tarleton, with 300 horsemen, surprised a detachment of militia in the Waxhlaw settlement, and killed 113 of them, and wounded 150. The wounded, abandoned to the care of the settlers, were quartered in the houses of the vicinity, the old log Waxhiaw meeting-hlouso 802

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TENNESSEE. itself being converted into a hospital for the most desperate cases. Mrs. Jack S,tonll was one of the kind women who ministe’edl to the wounded soldiers in the church, and under that roof her boys first saw what war was. The men were dreadfully niangled. Sonic had received as many as thirteen wounds, alnd none less than three. For many days Andrew and his brother assisted their mother in waiting upon the sick men; Andrew, more in rage than pity, thlough pitiful l)y nature, burning to avenge their wounds and his brothler’s death. Tarleton’s massacre at the Waxhaw settleme’nt kindled the flames of war in’all that region of the Carolinas.

Andrew, with his brother Robert, was present at Sumiter’s attackl on the Britisll post at Ilanging Rockl, where lie might have received his first lesson in the art of war. Soon after lie passed his 14tlh birthday, there ensued a fierce, intestine warfare in the vicinity of his hlomc-a war of Wlig andl Tory, neighbor against neighbor, brother against brother, and even father against son. Among other instances of the madness that prevailed, a case is related of a Whig, who, having found a firiend murdered and mutilatedl, devoted himself to the slaying, of Tories. Ile hunted and lay in wait for them, and before the war ended had killed 20, and then, rccover’ing from that insanity, lived the rest of his days a conscience-stricken wretch. Andrew and his brother soon began to take a personal share in the eventful conflict. Without enlisting in any regular corps, they plunged into the fighlt onl their own hlook, joining small parties that went out onl single enterprises of retaliation, mounted on their own horses, and carrying their own weapons. Mr. Parton gives a description of one of his adventures in this line, which illustrates both the time and the boy: “In that fierce, Scotch-Indiain warfare, the absence of a father froml home was often a better protection to his family than his presence, because his presence invited an attack. The main object of both parties was to kill the fighlting men, and to avenge the slaying of partisans. The house of the quiet hlero tlicks, for example, was safe until it was noised about among the Tories that Rlicks was at lhome. And thus it came to pass, that when a Whig soldier of note desired to spend( a night with his family, his neighbors were accustomed to turn out and serve as a guard to his house while hlie slept. Behold Robert and Andrew Jackson, withl 6 others, thus employed one night in the spring of 1781, at the domicil of a neighbor, Captain Sands. The guard on this occasion was more a friendly tribute to an active partisan than a service considered necessary to his safety. In short, the night was not far advanced before the who le party were snugly houtsed and stretched upon the floor, all sound asleep except one, a British deserter, who was restless, and dozed at intervals. “Danger was near. A band of Tories, bent onl taking the life of Captain Sands, approached the house in two divisions, one party moving toward the front door, the other toward the back. The wakeful soldier, hearing a suspicious noise, rose, went out of doors to learn its cause, and saw the foe stealthily nearing the house. He ran in in terror, and seizing Andrew Jackson, who lay next the door, by the hlair, exclaimed:’

The Tories are upon us! “Andrew sprang up and ran out. Seeing a body of men in the distance, he placed the end of his gun in the low forkl of a tree near the door and hailed them. No reply. Hle hailed them a second time. No reply. They quickened their pace, and had comie within a few rod(s of the door. By this time, too, the guard in the house had been roused, and were gathered in a group behind the boy. Andrew dischlarged his musket, upon which the Tories fired a volley, which killed the hapless deserter who had given the alarm. The other party of Tories, 803

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. who were approachlling the house from the other side, hlearing this discharg,e, and the rush of bullets above their heads, supposed that the firing proceeded fironm a party that had issued from the house. Thley now fired a volley, which sent a shlower of balls -whistling about the heads of their firiends on the other side. Both parties hesitated, and then halted. Andrew having thus, by his single discharge, puzz’led and stopped the enemy, retired to the house, where hlie and his comrades kept upl a brisk fire firom the windows. One of the guard fell mortally wounded by his side, and another received a wound less severe. Ill the midst of this singular contest, a bugle was heard, some distance off, sounding the cavalry charge, whereupon the Toties, concluding that they had come upon an ambushl of Whigs, and were about to be assailecld b)y horse and foot. fled to where they had left their horses, mounted, dashed pell-mell into the woods, and were seen no more.

It appeared afterward that the bugle charge was sounded by a neighborl, who, judging lrom the noise of musketry that Captain Sands was attacked, and hlaving not a man with him in his house, gave the blast upon the trumpet, thlinking, that even a trick so stale, aided by the darkness of the night, nmight have some effect in alarming the assailants.” After peace was restored to his neighborhlood, young Jackson embraced every opportunity to engage in a ” free fi,ght,” beside sharing largely in thle funll and firolic, which were almost as congenial to his disposition as the drubbing of an adversary. Several Charlestoni families of wealth and distinction wele waiting in the settlement for the evacuation of their city. With the young men whose acquaintance lie tlhus made, Andrew led a life in the summer and autumn of 1782 that was more merry than wise. He now began to betray that taste for horseflesh which became such a decided passion in after life. He ran races and rode races, gambled a little, drank a little, indulged in a cock-fight occasionally, and presented a glorious specimen of the Young America at that day. I-e seems to have had but a fainlt love for his Carolina relations, and was probably regarded as the scapegrace of the family. It is credibly related that his first attempt at earning a living for himself was in the capacity of a country schoolmaster; b)ut, after trying his hand in this uncongenial employmenit for a short time, lie resolved to study law. Gathering together his scanty earnings, lie mounts his horse, sets his face to the northward in quest of a master with whom to pursue his law studies, and finally enters an office in Salisbury, N. C., at the age of 18. Of his residence in that pleasant old town, Mri. Parton has succeeded in bagging some characteristic if not altogethler edifying reminiscences: “Salisbury teems with traditions respecting the residence there ot Andrew Jackson as a student of law.

Their general tenor may be expressed in the language of the first old resident of the town, to whom I applied for infbrmation: ‘Andrew Jackson was the most roaring, rollicking, ganme-cocking, hlorse-racing, card-playing, mischievous tellow that ever lived in Salisbury.’ Add to this such expressions as these:’ He did not trouble thle law books much,”

Tle was more in the stable than in the office,” He was the head of all the rowdies hereabouts.’ That is the substance of what the Salisbury of 1859 has to say of the Andrew Jackson of 1785. 804

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K E N T U C KY. Area,…………. 37,680 Square Miles. Population in 1860…….. 1,155,6(84 (Whites, 919,517; Negroes, 236,167.) Population in 1870,…… 1,321,911 TIIE State of k entucky is situated between 36~ 30’

and 39~ I0’ N. latitude, and betwveen 81~ 50’ and 89~ 26’ \W. longitude.

It is bounde(l oln the nortlh by Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, on the east by West Virginia and Virginia, on tlhe south by Tennessee, and on the west by Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. It is very irregular in shape, the northern line following the windings of the Ohio River. Its extreme length, fiom east to west, is about 300 miles, and its greatest width (followinig a line drawn south froni Cincinnati, Ohio) about 180 miles. At its southwest end it is not over 50 miles wide. TOPOGRAPIIY. The southeast part of the State is crossed by the Cumberland Molluntains, which separate it from Virg,inia. Some outlying, ridges of this range, none of them more than 2000 feet high, extend into the soutlieast counties. The centre of the State is a fine rolling country, but west of the 85th meridian of loingitude the surfeace is principally level, except along the Ohio River, which is bordered by a range of hills. These hills approach the stream as near as half a mile in some places, and in others recede froiomn it to a distance of 10 or 20 miles. The Ohio River washes the entire northern and northwestern shlore of the State, and receives the waters of the Bigr Sandy (which separates Kentucky from WAVest Virginia), Liicking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, Clrnberland and Tennessee rivers. It borders the State for 600 ,~~~ ~805

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. miles, and is navigable for large steamers the whole distance. The feittucky River rises in the southeast part of the State, the Licking in the northeast, the Salt and( the Green rivers in the centre. All flow in a generally northwest course. They are all navigable for over 50 miles, except the Licking. MINERALS. ” Kentucky is rich in mineral resources, and her beds of coal and mountains of iron are almost inexhaustible. Coal is found in abun(lance at Greentup, Rockeastle, Laurel, Pulaski, Whitley, Clinton, Edmionson, Hardin, Ohio, Butler, Christian, \Webster, and other coulnties. In most of these counties this coal is of excellent quality, but 1used(l only for home constumpl)tion, there being no means of transportatioii. In Laurel county, the coal beds are from 3 to 5 feet in thickness. Iron is founld in greater or less quantity in Greenup, Trimble, RItoclkcastle, Pulaski, Whitley, Russell, Clinton, Edmnonson, Ohio, Butl(er, etc., b)ut, like the coal deposits, has been but feebly developed. In Greenup, the furnaces are closed up, ore wvithiii reach of present facilities being pretty well exhausted. Iron ore is found all through Russell county.‘About 35 years since a very superior iron,was msnufactured here, froni whichl some of the blacksmiths made good edrged( tools without steel. The iron was hard and tough. There has been no development since, and it is doubted whetlher the ore is in sufficient quantity to pay for working.’ This ore also abounds in Clinton county, anI(l David Dale Owen, in his Geolog(ical Survey of Kentucky, in speaking of this and counties east of it, says: ‘There is every reason for believing that their resources in coal and iron-staple commodities of those nations of greatest prosperitywill, when fillly developed, conmpare favorably with those of any civilized country on the face of the earth.’

In Butler county there is much iron ore, but it is said to be of the honeycomb variety, whilch is considered comparatively valueless. A large amount of capital could be profitably invested in utilizing the iron interest of this State. “Lead is f(cund in Trimble, Owen, Bourbon, Scott, Franklin, Anderson, Livingston, and counties contiguous. In Anderson there is a mine said to yield 80 per cent. of lead, but the chemist making the test reported that it would not pay to work it. In Livingston, lead has been found upon the surface, but has not been worked to any extent. Salt wells exist in several counties, but are not worked. Il 806

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KENTUCKY. INSIDE MAMMOTH CAVE. Clinton, says our correspondent, la fine stream of salt water leas been struck on Willis Creek, in the northwest, and a company are now at work producing salt, and the prospect is considered good. There is a fine opening for men experienced in salt making, there being an abtundcance of water, and timber and labor is cheap. Salt for the Nashlville market and for the Cumberland River country comes from Ohio and Western Virginia. The cost of shipping salt down the Ohio and up the Cumblerland is certainly much greater than down the Cumberland to Nashville.’ Salt water also abounds ill Metcalfe, Allnderson, Whitley, Russell, etc. There has recently been discovered a gold mine in Anderson county, and its value is being now tested by a company. Saltpetrc is found in Rockcastle, and limestone and freestone abound in Lewis, Trimnl)le, Clarke, and other counties. Out Lewis county correspondent claims for his county’ the finest ledge of freestone from Pittsburg to Cincinnati, from which nearly all the fine bu)llildings in the latter city are now being built, and the rockl of which the Cincinnati and Covington bridge was built was taken from orf) 807

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tile quarries of this county; not extensively worked, there being but ole quarry in operation, employing 200
men.’” * CLIMATE. The climate is mild and healthful. The winters are short and pleasant, and the summers are cool and deighltful. The State is.almost exempt from the sudden changes which afflict the Atlantic Sta;tes. SOIL

AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of IKentucky is extremely fertile. Scarcely any of the land is unfit for cultivation. The soil is generally a black mould, often twvo and three feet deep. Extensive and almost imnpenetrable canebrakes occur inii various parts of the State, and fine natural pastures occupy a region lying in the south central part, along the sources of the Green River, and known as the ” Barrens.” The State is almost exclusively agricultural in its pursuits. The great staples are corn, tobacco, flax, hemp, and wheat. There are 20,563,652
acres of improved and unimproved land in the State, valued at $217,672,826. The tobacco crop, in 1870, amounted to 90,000 hhds. In 1869, the principal returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat,…. Indiani corn,.. oats,….. Irish potatoes,. ” rye…… ” barley,… Tons of hay,…….. Numnber of horses,….. asses and mules, milch cows,…

sheep,….. swine,…. young cattle,.. Value of domestic animals,. Pounds of wool (estimated), flax “. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Kentucky has no foreign commerce, but carries on an active trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Stock raising * Agricultural Report, March, 1868. 808 . 5,500,000 . 51,500,000 . 5,800,000 . 2,100,000 775,000 304,000

155,000 650,811 140,910 2SO,191 . 1,001,861 . 2,690,S70 610,845 .

$69,86S,237 . 2,500,000 800,000

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KENTUCKY. forms an important interest in this State, and large droves of cattle, horses, and mules are annually sent to the Eastern States for sale. In 1870 there were in this State 5390 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $29,277,809, and produced goods worth $54,625,809. The principal products were as follows: Value of woollen goods,…… ” agriculraltu implements,.. pig iron,……… ” rolled iron,……. ” steam engines and machinery, coal,……… sawed and planed lumber,.. flour………. “
spirituous and malt liquors,. leather,……… INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 1123 miles of completed railroads in Kentucky, constructed at a cost of over $35,000,009. The principal cities and towns in the northern, central, and western portions of the State are connected wvithi each other an( withl all l)arts of the Union 1by railroad, butt still many of the finest sections of the State are without suchl means of commntnication with the cities on the Ohio. Several imp)ortant roads have been projected, and if constructed will remedy this defect. A canal extends around the falls of the Ohio, at Louisville. It is one mile and a half long, and was constructed by the General Government at a cost of $750,000. EDUCATION. In 1870, Kentucky contained 55 colleges, with nearly 8000 studentss; 857 academies and( otler schools, with about 28,000
pupils; and 4237 pul)lic schools, withl 218,240 pupils. The public school system is in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boards of County Commissioners and local trustees in the districts, and measures are being carried out vwhiclh will revoluionIize the o01(1 system and render it more efficient. The State has a permanent school fiund. The most important institution in the State is the Kentucky Univ1ersity. This now includes the State University established in 1858, 809 … $897,057 …

1.384,917 … 2,182,482 … 2,464,923 … 1,472,199 … 446.795 …

4,245,749 ~.. 7,886,734 … 5,222,089 … 1,693,574

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810 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Transylvania University, and the Agricultural College. It is located at LIexiington, and includes “Ashland,” the home of Henry Clay. In 1870, there were 5546 libraries in the State, with 1,909,230 volumes; and the number of newspapers and periodicals was 89, of which 72 were political, 7 religious, and 1
literary. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. TYhe State Penitentiary is located at Frankfort. In January, 1871, it contained 680 convicts. Considerable additions have been recently added to the buildings. There are two Lutnatic Asylums, the “Eastern,” at Lexington, and the “Western,” at Hopkinsville. The formner contained 258 inmates, in October, 1867, and the latter 283, in September, 1868. The Kentucky Institution for Deaf Mutes is located at Danville, and contains about 96 pupils; and the Institution for the Education and Training of Feeble-minded Children is at Danville, and contains’about 52 pupils. The State has no juvenile reformatory establishments in operation, but the new House of Reform was completed and ready for use in the sumnmer of 1871. RELIGIOUS DEMOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 2696 churches in this State, and the value of church property was $9,824,465. FINANCES. On the 10th of October, 1870, the total debt of the State was $1,424,934. The total expenditures of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending in October, 1870, amounted to $1,082,639, and the receipts to $996,750. In Octobel, 1868, there were 15 National banks, with a capital of $2,885,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided two years in the State, one year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which he presents his ballot, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a

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KENTUCKY. General Assembly, composed of a Senate (of 38 members, elected for four years, one half retiring biennially) and a House of Delegates (of 100 members, elected for two years). The Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Auditor, and AttorneyGeneral, and Members of the Legislature are elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and confirmed by the Senate. All the State officers serve four years. The courts of the State are a Supreme Court of Appeals (consisting of four judges), Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justices’ Courts. All the judges are Justices of the Peace, and all are elected by the pieople. Ill the Supreme Court, the judge having the shortest term to serve is the Chief Justice. The seat of Government is at Frankfort. For purposes of government the State is divided into 109 counties. HISTORY. Kentucky was originally included within the limits of Virginia. The name is an Indian word, signifying “the dark and bloody ground.” In 1766, Colonel James Smith made a journey of exploration into this region, starting from the Holston River. He was accompanied by three white men and a negro slave. He found the territory unoccupied by any Indian tribes for purposes of residence, but evidently used as a hunting-ground by several of them. It gave evidence of great fertility, and its rich beauty impressed the explorers profoundly. In 1767, John Findley and several companions set out from North Carolina on a trading expedition to this region, and in 1769, Daniel Boone entered it with a party of five, in which went John Find]ey, for the purpose of exploring it. The party builtia cabin on Red River, from which they made repeated excursions. During one of these excursions, Boone and a man named( Stuart were captured by the Indians. They made their escape, and returned to their camp. They found it deserted and destroyed, but never learned the fate of those whom they had left there.

Soon after this, Boone returned to his home in North Carolina. In 1770, a party of Tennesseans, from the Clinch River, under Colonel James Knox, went into Kentucky. They remained there some time, and thoroughly explored the southern and middle parts. Boone’s party was in Kentucky at this time, but never encountered Colonel Knox or any of his men. They confined their explorations to the middle and northern sections. 811

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The reports of Boone and Knox caused the settlers of Virginia and North Carolina to feel a lively interest in the new country, in which the lands given to thile Virginia troops, for services ill the Frenchl war, were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off these lands, and in 1773, a party, under Captain Bullit, reached the falls of the Ohio, and built a tbortified camp there, for the purpose of surveying the region. In 1774, Jamres Harrod built a station, which soon grew into considlerable importance, and thus founded the town of Itarrodsburg, the oldest settlement in Kentucky. The next year, 1775, Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the present town of Booniiesborougb. The savages made repeated attacks lupon his party, hoping to drive them away, but without success. The fort was finished by the middle of April, 1775, and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters. HIe continued to reside in the fort with them. In the same year Simon Kenton built a cabin on the site of the present town of Washington, in Mason county. In the spring of 1777, the General Assembly of Virginia constituted the Kentucky region a county, and established a Court of Quarter Sessions at Harrodsburg. During the Revolution the settlements suffered much froni tilhe British and Indians. In 1780, several of the forts were taken l)y them, cannon being enmployed for their reduction. A large number of settlers came out in 1780 and 1781, notwitllstanding the danger from the Indians. On the 19th of Autgust, 1782, a bloody battle was fought between the whites and the savages, near Blue Lick Springs, in which the former were defeated. For some years after this, numerous expeditions were sent from Kentucky into the Indian country (the present State of Ohio) and manaly severe conflicts were fought in that region.

After the close of the Revolution, the Government of Virginia aid( the Federal Congress afforde(d so little protection to the settlers that they became restless and discontented. The trouble was increased by the fear that the Federal Government meant to surrender thile right to navigate the Mississippi, which the settlers saw would be essential to the future prosperity of their country. It was some time before these discontents were quieted. In 1774 and in 1775, conventions were held at Danville, which recommended peaceable and quiet separation from Virginia, and the establishment of a separate Government for 8.12

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KENTUCKY. Kentucky. Several other conventions were held, during, whlich a desire for a separate nationality was distinctly expressed. Sp)ain en(leavored( to draw the Kentuckians off firom the Union by offers of special privileges on the MAississippi, but better counsels prevailed, an(d the Kentuckians adopted ail address to Cong,ress. The result wsA that the Territory of Kentucky was ceded by Virgin)ia to tlle General (Goovnernent. It was fully organized b)y Congress in 179(), and in 1792
was a(dmitted into the Union as a State. Its p)opulation inow numbered 75,000. Thle inefficient protection a,gainst tlle Indians afforded by the Federal Government, tlhe taxes, and tlle MAississil)pi question continued to agitate the State for some years, iand until the purchase of Louisiana put an end to the M\Iississil)pi dispute, and the peace of 1815 broke the power of the savages. )During the seconld war with EJ ngland, Kentuckly contributed many troop)s to thle western army under General Harriso’l.

Many of her best citizens were killed at the massacre at the RPiver RIaisin, and in the attempt to relieve Fort MIeigs. Her citizens resp)onde(l prolptly to the call for troops for the defence of 17ewv Orleans, and the Kentucky riflemen made a proud name on the plains of Chlalmnette. Indee(l, they volunteered so flst that the State authorities had to intervene, and compel them to remain at home. The Kentucky troops nobly sustained their old reputation in the war with Alexico. The State grew rapidly in population and wealth-, and was prosp)eriIg, beyond the most sanguine expectations of its original foundlIers. AVMhen the IRebellion broke out, the people wvere divided in sentiment, and a strong effort was made to witlhdraw the State firom the UnioIn, nn( unite it with the Confederacy. Failing to acconl)lisl-l this, the friends’of the Soutih crossed the Tennessee line, and enitered the Confederate army. The State authorities, however, remained loval to thle Unioll, and the regula.r administration of the Government, thouglL mu(h interrupted, was contitnued. The State was invaded by the Confederate forces in the stummer of 1861, and vwas hel(l b)y tihem until the next splring, lwhen they were forced b)ack into Tennessee. In the summer of 1862, it was againl invaded by the Confederates. Several severe battles were fought on its soil, and it was frequently entered and harassed by raidin,g p)arties.

CITIES ANID TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Newport, Maiysville, Hienderson, Paducah, Columnbus, Hicknan, Danville, and Paris. 811,

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OUIR C’iOtNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FRANKFORT’, The capital of the State, is situated in Franklin county, on the north east bank of the Kentucky River, 60 miles fiom its mouth, 53 miles cast of Louisville, and(l 5.50 muiles west of Washington. Latitude 380 14’ N., longitude 840 40’ W. The site of the town is a deep valley, surrounded l)y abrupt hills. Towards the northeast it rises to a considerable height, and from thlis portion of the town views may be had of some most exquisite scenery. The city is regularly laid out, and is generally well built. Many of the houses are constructed of a fine limestone or marble whiclh abounds in the vicinity.

The general appearance of the city is handsome and picturesque. Tile State Capitol is a fine buildil)g of white nmarble. It stands onl an eminence near the centre of the town. Frankfort contains the (]ovcirior’s House, the State Penitentiary, the State Arsenal, a Court iHouse, six churches, several good schools, the State Institution for Feeble Miinde(l Children, and the Kentucky Military Institute. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with spring-water brought into the town iiin iron pipes. Two newspapers are published here. In 1870, the population was 5396. The Kentucky River is 100 yards wide at Frankfort, and is spanned l)y a chain bridge which connects tlhe city with the suburb of Southl Frankfort.

Steamers ascend to the city, which is the centre of an active trade. The river here flows through a deep channel of limestone rock, and is noted for its beautiful scenery. Railroads connect Frankfort with Louisville, Cincinnati, Nashville, and the other cities of the Union. Frankfort was established by Act of the LIegislature of Virginia, in 1786. It was made the capital of Kentucky in 1792. During the civil war, it was captured by the Confederate cavalry, on the 6th of September, 1862. LOUISVILLE, The largest city in the State, is situated in Jefferson county, onil the south or left bank of the Ohio River, at the head of the falls, 51 mTiles west of Frankfort, 625 miles by the course of the river belownv Pittsburg, 394
miles above the mouth of the Ohio, and 590 miles west-by-s)tith from Washington. The city is built on a spacious sloping plain, 70 feet above low 814

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KENTUCKY. FRANKFORT. water mark, and is laid out with regularity, the streets, which are from 60 to 120 feet in width, intersecting at right-angles in a direction with and from the river. Ten streets run parallel with the river, and thirty streets intersect them. Along the river shore are extensive wharves. The streets are generally well paved, and are in many instances shaded with trees. The general appearance of the city is bright and attractive, and here are to be seen some of the handsomest buildings in the West. The surrounding country is very beatitiful. The principal public buildings are the City Hall, the Court Ifouse, the Custom House, and the M3ason)ic Hall, all of which are handsome structures. The schools of Louisville have always been regarded as among the best in the country. Its public schools are perhaps the oldest in the West. There are a number of public schools for both sexes, and several flourishing private seminaries. The higher schools are the University of Louisville, and the Medical Institute. There is a Law School connected with the University. The 3[ercantile Library is a flourishing institution with a good collection of books; and the Hfistorical Society possesses many interesting documents relating to the early history of the State. The Benevolent Institutions are well managed. They are the State A.sjlum for the Blind, whose handsome buildings were erected partly by the contributions of the citizens; the State Marin?e Asylum, two 815

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. LOUTISVILLE. Orphan Asylums, and several societies for the relief of the poor and( suffering. The city contains about 40 churches, and about 12 newspaper and 4 magaziine offices; and is lighted withl gas, and supplied with water from the Ohio River. It possesses an efficient police force, and1 a steam fire engrine service. It is governed by a Mayor and Coutncii. In 1870, the population was 100,753.

Louisville is connected with all parts of the couintry by railvway. The Ohio is here crossed by a magnificent railway bridge, whlich gives tire city ulnbroken comimunication with the East and West. Tile navigation of the Ohio is interrupted at Louisville by the only falls which occur in the course of the stream. These falls are very picturesque in appearance. In high stages of the water, they entirely disappear, and steamboats pass over them; but when the water is loVw, the whole width of the river, which is scarcely less than a mile, has the appearance of a great many broken rivers of foam, making their way over the rocks. The river is divided by a fine island, which adds to the beauty of the scene. To overcome the obstruction caused 816

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KENTUCKY. by thle falls, a canal was cut around them, in 1833. It is 21
miles long, 50 feet \i(le, 10 feet (Icelp, withl a total lockage of 22
feet. It w’.as cut throtigli thle solid linestonie rock,‘and cost $750,000. The city carries onl a lheavy river trade, both above and below the falls. Its wharves are at all tim es throng,ed with steamers and other river craft, carryiing to aud(l fro a nmerchandise inferior only to that coming and going from Pittsburg and Cincinnati. The principal exports are tobacco, ba,gg,ing, rope, cordage, spirits, pork, flax, Dhemp, live stock, and iuaclinierv. The value of the coimmerce of the city is estimated at froni $80,000,000 to $100,000,000 per annumi. A large number of stearniers engaged iii the river trade are owned in the citv. Thle city is also largely engaged in manufacturing enterprises. It hlas a numbl)er of maclhine shops and founderies; several ]arge steam )bag,ing fliot()ries, rope walks, cotton and wo llen factories, flouring inills, tobacco factories, distilleries, breweries, and agricultural impleIIent factories.

MISCELLANY. ADVENTURES OF DANIEL BOONE. WRITTEN BY IIIMSELF. It iwas on the 1st of iMay, 1769, that I resig,ned my domestic happiness, and left my ftamily and peaceable habitation on the Yad’lin River, in North Carolina, to wander tlhrough the wildlerness of America, in quest of the country of Kentucky, in company withl John Finley, John Stuart, Joseph Ilolden, James Monay, and William Cool. On the 7thl of June, after travelling in a western direction, we found ourselves on Red River, where John Finley had formerlyv been tiradcling withl tlhe Indianls, and from the top of an eminence saw with pleasure the beautifiul level of Kentucky. For some time we had experienced the most uncomfortable weather. We nowv encamped, made a shlelter to defend us firom the inclement season, and began to hlunt, and reconnoitre the country. We found abundance of’ w-ild beasts in this vast forest. The buffaloes were more numerous than cattle in the settlements, browsing on the leaves of the cane, or cropping the herbage on these extensive plains. W’e saw hundreds in a (drove, and the numbers about the saltsprings were amiazing. In this forest, thle habitation of beasts of every American kind, we hunIted wvithl great success until December. On the 22d of December, John Stuart and I had a pleasing ramble; but fortune changed the day at the close of it. We passed through a great forest, in whlichl stood myriads of trees, some gay with blossoms, others rich withl fruits. Nature was here a series of wonders and a fund of delighlt. Here she dlisplayed her in,‘enuiity and industry in a variety of flowers and fruits, beautifully colored, elegantly shaped, and chlarmingly flavored; and we were favored w-ith numberless animals presenting themselves perpetually to our view. In the decline of tlhe day, near Kentucky River, as we ascended the brow of a small hill, a number of 817

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Indians rushed out of a canebrake and made us prisoners. The Indians plun dered us, and kept us in confinement seven days. During this time, we dis. covered no uneasiness or desire to escapes which made them less suspicious; but in the dead of night, as we lay by a large fire in a thick canebrake, when sleep had locked up their senses, my situation not disposing me to rest, I gently awoke my companion. We seized this favorable opportunity and departed, directing our course toward the old camp, but found it plundered, and our company de stroyed or dispersed.

About this time, my brother, with another adventurer, who came to explore the country shortly after us, were wandering through the forest, and accidentally came upon our camp. Notwithstanding our unfortunate circumstances, and our dangerous situation, surrounded with hostile savages, our meeting fortunately in the wilderness gave us the most sensible satisfaction. Soon after this my companion in captivity, John Stuart, was killed by the savages, and the man who came with my brother, while on a private excursion, was soon after attacked and killed by the wolves. We were now in a dangerous and helpless situation, exposed daily to perils and death, among savages and wild beasts, not a white man in the country but ourselves. Althoughl many hundreds of miles from our families, in the howling wilderness, we did not continue in a state of indolence, but hunted every day, and prepared a little cottage to defend us from the winter. On the 1st of May, 1770, my brother returned home for a new recruit of horses and ammunition, leaving me alone, without bread, salt, or sugar, or even a horse or a dog. I passed a few days uncomfortably. The idea of a beloved wife and family, and their anxiety on my account, would have disposed me to melancholy if I had further indulged the thought. One day I undertook a tour through the country, when the diversities and beauties of nature I met with in this charming season expelled every gloomy thought. Just at the close of the day, the gentle gales ceased; a profound calm ensued; not a breath shook the tremulous leaf. I had gained the summit of a commanding ridge, and, looking around with astonishing delight, beheld the ample plains and beauteous tracts below. On one hand, I surveyed the famous Ohio rolling in silent dignity, and marking the western boundary of Kentucky with inconceivable grandeur. At a vast distance, I beheld the mountains lift their venerable brows and penetrate the clouds. All things were still. I kindled a fire near a fountain of sweet water, and feasted on the loin of a buck which I had killed a few hours before. The shades of night soon overspread the hemisphlere, and the earth seemed to gasp after the hovering moisture. At a distance I frequently heard the hideous yells of savages. My excursion had fatigued my body and amused my mind. I laid me down to sleep, and awoke not until the Fun had chased away the night. I continued this tour, and in a few days explored a considerable part of the country, each day equally pleasing as the first; after which I returned to my old camp, which had not been disturbed in my absence. I could not confine my lodging to it, but often reposed in thick canebrakes to avoid the savages, who I believe frequently visited my camp, but, fortunately for me, in my absence. No populous city, with all its varieties of commerce and stately structures, could afford such pleasure to my mind as the beauties of nature I found in this country. Until the 27th of July, I spent my time in an uninterrupted scene of sylvan pleasures, when my brother, to my great felicity, met me according to appoint 818

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KENTUCKY. inmeit at our old camp. Soon after we left the place, and proceeded to the Cum. berland River, reconnoitering that part of the country, and giving names to the different rivers. In MAarch, 1771, I returned home to my family, being determined to bring them as soon as possible, at the risk of my life and fortune, to reside in Kentucky, which I esteemed a second Paradise. On my return, I found my family in happy circumstances. I sold my farm on the Yadkin and what goods we could not carry with us, and, on the 25thll of September, 1773, we took leave of our friends and proceeded on our journey to Kentucky, in company with five more families, and 40 men that joined us in Powell’s Valley, which is 150
miles from the new settled parts of Kentucky. But this promising beginning was soon overcast with a cloud of adversity. On the 10thl of October, the rear of our company was attacked by a party of Indians, who killed 6, and wounded one man. Of these, my oldest son was one that fell in the action.

Though we repulsed the enenly, yet this unhappy affair scattered our cattle and brought us into extreme difficulty. We returned 40 miles, to the settlement on Clench River. We had passed over two mountains, Powell and Walden’s, and were approaclhing Cumberland Mountain, when this adverse fortune overtook us. These mountains are in the wilderness, in passing from the old settlement in Virginia to Kentucky; they range in a southwest and northeast direction; are of great length and breadth, and not far distant from each other. Over them nature has formed passes less difficult than might be ex)ected from the view of such huge piles. The aspect of these cliffs is so wild and horrid that it is impossible to behold them without horror. Until the 6th of June, 1774, I remained with my family on the Clenth, when myself and another person were solicited by Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, to conduct a number of surveyors to the falls of Ohio. This was a tour of 800 miles, and took 62 days. On my return, Governor Dunmore gave me the command of three garrisons during the campaign against the Shawnees. In March, 1775, at the solicitation of a number of gentlemen of North Carolina, I attended their treaty at Wataga with the Cherokee Indians, to purchase the lands on the south side of the Kentucky River. After this, I undertook to mark out a road in the best passage from the settlements through the wilderness to Kentucky. Having collected a number of enterprising men, well armed, I soon began this work. We proceeded until we came within 15 miles of where Boonsborough now stands, where the Indians attacked us, and killed 2, and wounded 2 more of our party. This was on the 22d of March, 1775. Two days after, we were again attacked by them, when we had 2 more killed, and 3 wounded. After this, we proceeded on to Kentuckv River without opposition. On the 1st of April, we began to erect the fort of Boonsborough, at a salt lick 60 yards from the river, on the south side. On the 4th, the Indians killed one of our men. On the 14thll of June, having completed the fort, I returned to my family on the Clench, and whom I soon afterward removed to the fort. My wife and daughter were supposed to be the first white women that ever stood on the banks of Kentucky River. On the 24thl of December, the Indians killed one of our men, and wounded another; and on the 15th of July, 1776, they took my daughter prisoner. I immediately pursued them with 8 men, and on the 16th overtook and engaged them. I killed 2 of them and recovered my daughter. 819

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820 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Thle Indians, hlaving divided themselves into several parties, attacked in one day all our iinftant settlements and forts, doing a great deal of damage. The husbaclndmen were ambushed and unexpectedly attacked while toiling in the field. Tlhey continued this kind of warfare until the ltli of April, 1777, when nearly 100 of tlhem attacked the village of Boonlsborougli, and killed a number of its inhabitants. On the 16th, Colonel Log,an’s fort was attacked by 200

Indianls. There were only 13 Ien in the fort, of’ wlhom the enemy killed 2, and wounded one. On the 20thl of August, Colonel Bowiman arrived withl 100 men firom Virginia, with whlichl additional force we had almost daily skirmishes with the Indians, who began now to learn the superiority of thle ” long knife,” as they termed tllhe Virginians; being ont-generalled in almost every action. Our affairs began now to wear a better aspect the Indians no longer dainlg to face us in open field, but soughlt private opportunities to destroy us. On the 7thl of February, 177S, while on a lhunting exclrsion alone, I met a party of 102 Indiains and 2 Frenchmen, marcling to attack Boonsborougli. They pursued an!] took me prisoner, and conveyed me to Old Chlilicothle, the principal Indian town on L,ittle Miami, where we arrived on the 18thl of February, after an uncomfortable journey. ()n the 10thl of Marcll, I was conducted to Detroit, and while there was treated with great humanity by Governor Hamilton, the British commander at that )port, and Intendant for Indian Affairs. The Indians 1had such an affection for me, that they refused ~100 sterling, offered them by the Governor, if’ thley would consent to leave me with him, that lhe mighIt be enabled to liberate mc on my parole. Several English gentlemen, then nt Deti(5it, sensible of my adverse fortune, and touched with sympathly, generously offered to supply my wants, whlichl I declined with many thanks, adding that I never expected it would be in my power to recompense such unmerited generosity. On the 10thl of April, the Indians returned with me to Old Cliilicothe, whlere we ariivecd on the 2)tll. This was a long and filtiguing marchl, althlough through ,an excee(ling fertile country, remarkable for springs and streams of water. At Clhilicotlie I spent my time as comfortably as I could expect; was adopted, according to thleir custom, into a family whlere I became a son, and had a great share in the affection of my new parents, brothers, sisters, and friends. I was excee(lingly faiiiliar and friendly with thlem, always appearing as cheerful an(l contented as possible, and they put great confidence in me.

I often went a lhunting with them, and fiequently gained the applause for my activity at our shlootimg matches. I was careful not to exceed many of them in slhooting, for no people are more envious tllan they in this sport. I could observe in tlhieir countenances and gestures the greatest expressions of joy when they exceeded me, and when the reverse happened, of envy. The Shawnee king took great notice of me, and treated me with profound respect, and entire friendship, often intrusting me to ihunt at my liberty. I irequently returned with the spoils of tlhe woods, and as often presented some of what I hadl taken to him, expressive of duty to my sovereign. -Iy food and lodging were in common with tlhem; nlot so good, indeed, as I could desire, but necessity made eveiythiing acceptable. I now began to meditate an escape, and( carefully avoided giving suspicion.

I continued at Clilicotlie until the 1st day of June, when I was taken to the salt springs on Sciotlia, and there employed ten days in the manufacturing of salt. During this time, I hunted with my Indian niasters, and found the land, for a great extent about this river, to exceed the soil of Kentucky.’

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KiENTUCKY. On my return to Clilicothle, 150 of the choicest Indian warriors were ready to marchl against Booinsborougil,I. They were painted and armed in a frightful man ner. This alarmed me, and I determined to escape. On the 26thl of June, before sunrise, I went off secretly, and reached Boons borough onl the 30thl, a journey of 160 mliles, during which I had only one meal. 1 found our fortress in a bad state, but we immediately repaired our flanks, gates, plosterns, and formed double bastions, whlichl we completed in ten days. One of my fellow-prisoners escaped after me, and brought advice, that on account of my flight, the Indians had put off their expedition for three weekls. About the 1st of August, I set out with 19 men to surprise Point Creek-town, on Sciothla, within 4 miles of which we fell in with 40 Indians going, against 13oonsborolghl. We attacked themn, and-they soon gave way, without any loss on our part. The enemy had one killed and two wounded. We took three horses and all their baggage. The Indians hlaving( evacuated their town, and gone altogether against Boonsborough, wve returned, passed them on thle 6thll, and on thle 7thl ar rived safe at Boons)oru-ongli. On the 9thl, the Indian army, consisting of 444 men, under the command of Captain Duquiesne, and 11 other Frenchmen, and their chiefs, arrived iand summuooned the fort to surrend(ler. I requested two days’ consideration, whlichl was grauted. During this wve brougolt in through the posterns all the horses and otlher cattle we could collect. On the 9thl, in the evening, I informed their commander that we were determinedc to defend the fort vlwhile a man was living. They then proposed a treaty they vouldl withdraw. Thle treaty was held withini 60 yards of the fort, as we suspected the savages. The articles were agreed to and signed, when tlhe Indians told us, as it was thleir custoIm for two Indclians to shlake hands withl every white manl in the treaty, as an evidence of fiiendship.

We agreed to this also. They immediately grappled us to taks us prisoners, but we cleared ourselves of them, thioug’,h surrounded by hundreds, and gained the fort safe, except one man, lwho was wounded by a heavy fire from the enemy. The savagoes now began to u(ldermiine the fort, beginning at the watermark of IKentucky River, which is 60 yards from thle foirt; tlhis we discovered by the water being made muddy b)y the clay. We countermined( tlhem by cutting a trench across their subteriraneous passage,c. The enemy, dliscovering’ this by the clay we threw out of the fort, desisted. On the 20thl of Auglust, they raised the siege, dluring which we had 2 mert killed, and 4 wounded. We lost a number oft’ cattle.

The loss of the enemy was 37 killed, and a much larger nul)mber wounded.

We picked up 12o pounds of thieir bullets, beside what stuck in the logs of the fort. In July, 1779, dcuring mny absence, Colonel Bowjman, withl 160 men, went ag,ainst the Shlawnees of Old Chilicotbe. He arrived mnidiscovere(I. A battle en sued, which lasted until 10 in the morninig, when Colonel Bowman retreated 80 miles The Indianlls collected all tlleir stren,gthl and pursuted him, wheni anotlher engagemeni t einsued fo)r two hours, not to Colonel Bowman’s advantage. Colonel Tlarrod proposed to mount a number of horses, and break thle eniemy’s line, who at thlis time fouglit withl remarkable futry. This desperate mlleasure had a happy effect, and the savages fled on all sides. In these two engagements we had 9 men killed and one wounded. Enemy’s loss uncertain. Only two scalps were taken. 821

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. June 23d, 1780, 500 Indians and Canadians, under Colonel Bird, attacked Riddle and Martain’s station, and the forks of Licking River, with 6 pieces of ar tillery. Thley took all the inhabitants captive, and killedl one man and two wo men, loading the others with the heavy baggage, and such as failed in the journey vwere tomahaltwked. The hostile disposition of the savages caused General Clarke, the commandant at the falls of Ohio, to march with his regiment and the armed force of the country against Peccaway, the principal town of the Shawnees, on a branch of the Great Miani, which lie attacked with great success, took 70 scalps, and re dolced the town to ashles, with the loss of 17 men. About this time, I returned to Kentucky withl) my family; for, duriing my cap tivity, my wife, thinking me killed by the Indians, had transported mlly family and goods, on horses, through the wilderness, amidst great dangers, to her fathler’s house in North Carolina. On the 6thl of October, 1780, soon after my settling again at Boonsborougli, I went with my brother to the Blue Licks, and on our return lie was shot by a p)arty of Indians, lwho followed me by the scent of a dlog, which I shot, and es caped. The severity of the wintelr caused great distress in Kentucky, the enelmy, d(luring the sulmnmer, havingi destroyed most of the corn. Tile inhabitants lived chiefly on buffalo’s flesh. In the spring of 1782, the Indians harassed us. In May, they ravished, killed, and scalped a woman and her two daughlters, near Ashliton’s station, and took a negro prisoner. Captain Ashton pursued them with 2o5 men, and in an engageimeit, which lasted two hours, his party were oblig,ed to retreat, having 8
killed, and 4 mortally wounded. Their brave commander fell in the action.

On August 18th, two boys were carried off from Major Hoy’s station.

Captain holder pursued the enemy with 17 men, who were also defeated, with the loss of 7 killed, and 2 wounded. Our affairs became more and more alarming. The savages infested the country, and destroyed the whiites as oplportunity presented. In a field near Lexington, an Indian shot a man, and, running to scalp him, was himself shot from the fort, and fell dead upon the ground. All the Indian nations were now united against us. On August 15th, 500 Indians and Canadians came against Briat’s station, 5
miles fronm Lexington. They assaulted the fort, and killed all the cattle round it; but being repulsed, they retired the third day, hlaving about 80
killed; their wounded uncertain. The garrison had 4 killed, and 9 wounded.

On August 10th, Colonels Todd and Trigg, Major Ilarland and myself; speedily collected 176 men, well armed, and pursued the savages. They had niarched beyond the Blue Licks, to a remarkable bend of the main fork of the Licking River, about 43 miles from Lexington, where we overtook them on the 19th. The savages, observing us, gave way, and we, ignorant of their numbers, passed the river. When they saw our proceedings, having greatly the advantage in situation, they formed their line of battle from one end of the Licking to the other, about a mile from the Blue Licks. The engagement was close and warm for about 15 minutes, when we, being overpowered by numbers, were obliged to retreat, with a loss of 67 men, 7
of whom were taken prisoners. The brave and much-lamented Colonels Todd and Trigg. Major Harland, and my second son, were among thie dead. We were afterward infoirmed that the Indians, on nunibering their dead, finding that they had 4 more killed than we, 4 of our people they had taken, were given up to their young warriors. to be put to death after their barbarous manner. 822

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KENTUCKY. On our retreat, we were met by Colonel Logan, whlo was hastening to join us with a number of well-armed men. This powerful assistance we wanted on the day of the battle. The enemiy said, one more fire from us would have made them g,ive way. I cannot reflect upon this dreadful scene without great sorrow. A zeal for the defence of thleir country led tlhese heroes to the scene o’f action, though with few Oflen, to attackl a i)ouert’ul army of’ experienced warriors. When we gave way, they pursued s withl the utmost eagerness, and in evely quarter spread destruc tionI. The river wvas dificult to cdoss, and mnany were killed in the fight, some just entering the river, some in the water, others after crossing, in ascending the cliffs. Solme escaped on horsebackl. a few on foot; and being dispersed every w-liere, in a few hours brought tlhe melancholy news of this unfortunate battle lo [Lexing’ton. A[any widows were now madle.

Thle reader may guess what sorrow filled the hearts nf thle inhabitants, exceeding anythling t hat I am able to describe. l3eing reinforced.l, we returned to bury thle dead, andl fi)und their bodies strewed (,verywhlere.

cut and mangled in a dreadful manner. This mournful scene ex filhited a lh(rrror almost unparalleled; some torn and eaten by wild beasts; tllose in thle river by fishles; all in such a putrid condition that one could not be dis t,inguishled firom another. When General Clalrke, at the falls of the Ollio, heard of our disaster, he ordered an expedition to pursue the savages. We overtook them within 2 miles of their town, and we should hlave obtained a great victory had not some of them met us when about 200
poles from thleir camp. The savages fled in the utmost disorder, and evacuated all their towns. We burned to ashes Old Chilicothle, Peccaway, New Chlilicotlie, and Willstown; entirely destroyed their corn and other fruits. and spread desolation thlroughll their country. We took 7
prisonelrs and 15 scalps, -and lost only 4 men, 2 ot’ whom were accidentally killed by ourselves. This (almpaign damped the enemy, yet thley made secret incursions. In October, a party attacked Crab Orchard, an(d one of them, being a good way before the others, boldly entered a house in which were only a woman and her children, and a negro man. The savage used no violence, but attempted to carry off the negro, who happily proved too strong fo)r him, and threw him on the g,round, and in the struggle the woman cut (off his head with an axe, while her little daughter shut the door. The savages instantly came up, and applied their tomahlawks to the door, when the motilher putting an old rusty gun-barrel through tle crevice, thlle savages immediately went off. From that time till the happy return of peace between the United States and (reat Britain, the Indians did us no mischief. Soon after this, the Indians desired peace. Two darling sons and a brother I have lost by savage hands, which have also taklen from me 40 valuable horses, and abundance of’

cattle. Many dark and sleepless nights have I spent, separated firom the cheerful society of men, scorched ilv the summer’s sun, and pinched by the winter’s cold, an instrument ordained to settle the wilderness. DANIEL

BOONE. aP’(yette county, Kentuckhy. 11 823

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O I 0. Area,………. 3””’ 9,9,4 Squ(Iare iMiles. Population inll 1860……. 2,339,511 Population in 1870,…. 2,665,260 THE State of Ohio is situated between 38~ 32’ and 42~ N. latitude, and between 80~ 35’ and 84~ 40’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the east by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on the south by West Virginia and Kentucky, and on the west by Indiana. Its extreme length from1 north to south is about 200 miles, andi its width about 195 nmiles.

TOPOGRAPHY. The centre of the State is occut)ied by a level country elevated about 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and the north central part of the State is crossed by a ridge of hills which separate the waters which flow into Lake Erie from tlhose which flow into the Ohio River. A second slope interrupts the Ohio slope in the south central part of the State, and from this ridge the lower part of the State is a fine rugged country, which rises into a range of bold hills along the Ohio River.

There are some prairie lands in the centre and northwest, and in the latter portion is a large tract of great fertility, called the Black Swamp, a considerable part of whi(h is heavily timbered. Mutch of the country in the neighborhood of Lake Erie is marshy. Lake E-ie, already described, forms the greater part of the northern l)oundary, and receives the waters of the MIaumee, Sandusky, Hluron, and Cuyvahoga. With the exception of the Maumee, which has its source in Indiana, all these streams rise in and flow through this State. The principal towns on the lake are Cleveland and Sandusky. San 824

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OHIO. dusky Bay extends inland for about 20 miles. There are several good harbors on the lake. The Mannlee is the only navigable river emptying into the lake. Steamers ascend it for 18 miles. The Ohio River forms the greater part of the eastern, and the whole of the southern boundary, first touching the State about 50 miles below its head, and flows by it for a distance of about 470 miles. It is navigable the whole distance for large steamers for onehalf of the year. Its principal tributaries, beginning on the east, are the [Iuskingum, Scioto, Little 7iamci, and Jfiami rivers.

They vary in length from 110 to 200 miles. The Muskingum is navigable, by means of dams and locks, to Zanesville, a distance of 70 miles. At high water, boats ascend to Coshocton, 30 miles above Zanesville. The others are not navigable at all. They flow through a beautiful and highly productive country, and furnish an abundance of excellent waterpower.

There are several islands belonging to this State in the southwest end of Lake Erie. The principal of these is Kelley’s Island, which produces a fine quality of wine. MINERALS. Coal and iron are the principal minerals of the State. Salt springs are numerous, and marble and lime are found in large quantities. The first two are very abundallt, and are of an excellent quality. In 1860, $2,327,621 worth of pig-iron were produced in Ohio, and $1,539,713 worth of coal. This made Ohio the second iron and coal producing State in the Union. CLIMATE. In the southern part of the State, the climate is mild. Snow does not lie long upon the ground. The climate of the northern part is rigorous, and is quite as severe as that of the Atlantic States of the same latitude. Severe droughts sometimnes occur in Ohio, and cause considerable damage to the crops, but they are not of frequent occulrence. SOIL AtND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is fertile, there being very little land in the State that cannot be brought under profitable cultivation. Indeed, it is to the extremely favorable character of her soil that Ohio owes her present 825

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. proud position in the Union, having grown and prospered more rapidly than any other State. Sixty years ago, a vast forest covered almost the entire country between the Virginia line and Lake Erie. Now the same area is occupied by one of the most important States of the Union, possessing a population of nearly 3,000,000 souls, and ranking amongst the first members of the Confederacy in her wealth and resources. Wine raising is nlO\w a very important interest along the Ohio River. In 1870, there were about 15,000,000 acres of improved lands in the State. In the same year, the agricultural statistics, as reported by the Secretary of State, were as follows: Bushels of wheat,…. ” Indian corn,…. oats…….. ” barley,.. rye,….. buckwheat,…. ” Irish potatoes.,. ” sweet potatoes,… ” flax seed,….. ” apples…… “
peaches,….. Tons of hay…….. ” clover hay,……. Pounds of tobacco……. flax……… ” butter……. ” cheese,……. ” maple silgarl….. i’ Stb\,……. ” grapes,….. Gallons of wine……..

sorghum molasses, Number of horses……., ” mules,……. ” sheep,…..

swine,…… ” cattle…… COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State possesses little foreign commerce, but its river and lake trade is immense, and is estimated at over $150,000,000 annually. The river trade is the more important part of this. The number of steamers entering and clearing from Cincinnati is about 4000 each way annually. 826 26,499,729

62,443,346 -.4,417,799 1,689,416 8,52,722 223,766 10,274,605 119,746

611,046 15,518,685 1,444,523 1,7S4,947 3601268 15,943,116 18,723,377

38,783,607 20,520,168 3,302,714 3,794,899 155,535 1,777,100 704,664 22,057

5,052,028 1,720,113 1,521,421 … … … …

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OHIO. The manufactures of this State, though still in their infancy, are growing in importance. In 1870, Ohio contained 22,773 establishmnents devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital’of $141,923,964, and 137,202 hands, consuming raw material worth $157,131,697, and yielding an annual product of $269,713,610, making this the fourth State in the Union in respect to the value of goods produced.

The principal products were valued as follows: Cotton goods,…. Woollen goods,…. Leathier,……. Rolled iron,….. Steam engines and machine Agricultural implements, Sawed and planed lumber, Flour……..

Salt,………. ILiquors,……. Boots and shoes,…. Furniture…….

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Il 1872, Ohio contained 3740 miles of completed railroads, cons structed at a cost of $135,332,000, ranking second in the list of States with respect to the tota! length of its roads, and fourth with respect to their cost. The State is a perfect network of railways, no town or village being more than a few miles from a railroad depot. Direct lines lead from all the points of importance to the principal cities of the Union. The energy and foresight displayed by the State in the construction of these roads have greatly added to its wealth and prosperity. Ohio was the first Western State to engage in the construction of canals. In 1860, there were 956 miles of canal navigation in the State.

In spite of the abundance of railroad transportation, the canals of Ohio still continue to occupy an important position in the commerce of the State. EDUCATION. Ohio is one of the most prominent States in the Union in respect to its educational svstem. Schools were established in this State soon after its first settlement, and in 1804, the University of Ohio was founded at Athens. In 1867, there were 26 colleges, with 4783 827 $781,835

3,187,815 7,333,062 13,033,169 11,324,489 11,907,366 12,622,525 31,692,210

[773,492 13,085,697 6,559,946 6,792,585 …… I. ……..

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. students; 43 female seminaries, with 4217
students; 65 academies and normal schools, with 6167 pupils; and 647
private schools, withl 26,450 pupils. In 1870, there were 11,401 public schools, with 719,902 pupils. The State has a permanent school fund, amounting to $3,334,500. The interest of this is applied to the schools, and the remainder of the sum needed for them each year made up by taxes, fines, licences, etc. In 1870, the amount expended on the schools was $4,960,771. The general supervision of the free school system of the State is vested in a Commissioner of Schools, who is elected by the people for three years. The cities, towns, and( incorporated villages are controlled each by a local Board of Education chosen by the people thereof. A State Board of Examiniers alone has power to grant certificates of competency to teachers. These certificates, unless revoked by the Board, are good for the lifetime of the holder. In 1870, the State contained 17,790 libraries, with 3,687,383 volumes. Of these 4374 were private libraries. In the same year there were 271 political, 38 religious, and 86 miscellaneous newspapers and periodicals published in Ohio, making a total of 395. Of these 26 were daily, 3 semiweekly, 8 triweekly, 299 weekly, 47 montllly, and 3 annual. They had an annual aggregate circulation of 98,548,814
copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions are under the supervision of a Board of State Charities. The Penitentiary is located at Columbus. It is one of the best institutions of its kind in the Union, and is provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There is a school attached to the prison, in which the convicts are taught the rudiments of a plain education. The proceeds of the labor of the prisoners more than supports the itistitution, rendering it inexpensive to the State. In 1866, there were 860 convicts confined here. The Ohio Reform School is located in Fairfield county, six miles south of Lancaster. It is provided with ample buildings, and a farm of 1170 acres. It is considered one of the most perfect establishments in the Union. In 1870, it contained 335 boys.

The Institution for the Education of the Blind, and the Inistitution f9r the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, are located at Columbus. 828

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OHIO. In November, 1870, the former contained 119 pupils, and the latfer 312 pupils. There are three Lunatic Asylums ill the State; the Central Ohio Asylum, at Columbus; the Northern Ohio Asylumrn, at Newburgh; and the Southern Ohio Asylum, at Daytol. The first was destroyed bv fire onl the 17th of November, 1868, and six of the patients perished ill the flames.

Tile remaining institutions, in 1870, contained 878 patients. In the same year there were in the county intfirmaries an(l jails 1176 insane persons.

The Asyluin foi Idiots contains 170 patients. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. IIn 1870, there ncwere 6284 churches in Ohio, and the value of churchl property was $25,554,725. FINANCES. InNovemiber, 1874, the State debt amounted to $7,988,205. During the year 1874, the receipts of the Treasury were $5,894,745, and the expenditures $5,211,934. Ini the same year there were 139 National banks, with a capital of $22,573,881, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every white male citizen of the United States, 21
years old, who has resided in the State one year, is entitled to vote.

Persons in the miilitary or naval service of the United States, idiots, and insane persons are excluded from the ballot. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governtor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Comptroller, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, all chosen by the people. The Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Treasurer, Secretary of State, and AttorneyGeneral, and members of the Legislature are elected for two years. The Comptroller and Auditor are elected for four years. There is also a Board (of Public \Works, consisting of 3 members, elected for 3
years, one mnember retiring each year. The courts of the State are the Supreme Court, consisting of five judges, elected by the people, the judge with the shortest term being the Chief Jiistie, the Courts of Common Pleas, District Courts, and Probate Courts in each county. 829

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The seat of Government is established at Columbus. The State is divided into 88 counties. tIISTO.RY. The territory nowv embraced in the State of Ohio wvas first settled by the English, who, in 1749, built a trading-post upon the Great Mliami River. Previous to this, the French had explored the terri tory, and had established a trading-pI)ost on the lower Ohio, at a point within the present limits of the State of Illinois. They were jealous of the establishment of the English post on the Miamni, and incited the Indians to join in an attack upon it. They destroyed it ill 1752, after a severe fight, and carried the traders into captivity in Canada. For some years the territory was in dispute, between the French and English. The Ohio Company claimed the right, utinder the charter, which they held from the English king, to establish trading-posts along the Ohio, and the French were very active in their efforts to put a stop to the advances of their English rivals. It was this quarrel which first brought Washington forward as a military leader. The territory was inhabited by Indian tribes, who were friendly to the French, and hostile to the English. They made frequent incursions across the Ohio against the settlements of the whites in Virginia, and were in their turn frequently attacked in their own lhomes by the English.

During the Revolution, they were the allies of the British, and waged a bitter warfatre upon the western settlements of the Americanis. This gave rise to several memorable campaigns by the American forces west of the Ohio, in which the savages were severely punished. After the close of the Revolutionary War, several of the States became involved in disputes as to the right of soil in this territory, which were only settled by the cession of all the State claims to the United States. Virginia, in ceding her claims, reserved nearly four millions of acres, near the falls of the Ohio, as bounty lands for her State troops, and Connecticut reserved a similar tract, near Lake Erie, which was sold to actual settlers. The sales of these lands laid the foundation of the school fund of Connecticut. In 1788, the town of Marietta was founded by the New England Ohio Company, who purchased the lands on which they located their emigrants, from the United States Board( of Treasury. In 1791, the town of Gallipolis was settled by 168 French emigrants. Other set 830

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OHIO. tiers now came out, and the territory commenced to assume the chla racter of a permanent settlement. The Indians had by this time become very troublesome. General Harmar was sent against them with a considerable force, in 1790, but, although he inflicted considerable damage upon them, did not succeed in intimidating them. In 1791, General St. Clair, the Gov ernor of the Territory, marched against the Indian towns on the Maumee, with a force of 3000 men. He was surprised by the savages on his niarch, and his whole army routed, after a desperate struggle, with a loss of more than 600 men. In 1794, General Anthony Wayne, of Revolutionary fame, was sent into the Indian country with a force of 3500 minei. On the 20th of August, he inflicted a crushing defeat upon them at the falls of the Maumee. After this he ravaged their country, and pressed them so hard that they were glad to sue for peace, and for some years the territory was free from hostilities. By this time Cincinnati had been settled, and the country along the southwestern shore of Lake Erie was beginning to attract emigrants. The Miami country was thickly populated, and the shores of the Ohio were beginning to be dotted with farms. In 1799, the first Territorial Legislature assembled. Laws were passed confirming all that had been done by the Governor, and providing for the future security of the Territory. Williamn Henry Harrison, then Secretary of the Territory, was chosen a delegate to Congress. Measures were begun and vigorously prosecuted, during the next two years, for the purpose of securing the admission of the Territory into the Union. These efforts were crowned with success. Early in 1802, a Convention met at Chillicothe, and adopted a State Constitution, which was accepted by Congress, and on the 30th of April, 1802, Ohio was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. In 1810, war broke out with the Indians, who, under the leadership of the fanmous chief Tecumseh, began a series of bloody outrages upon the whites.

General Harrison, then Governor of the Territory of Indiana, marched against them and defeated them in the battle of Tippecanoe, in 1811.

During the second war with England, the western frontiers suffered greatly from the British and Indians. Ohio bore her full share in the struggle, and her sons were amongst the first to volunteer for service against the common foe. In 1816, the seat of Government was transferred from Chillicothe to Columbus, and, in 1817, the first steps were taken by the State for the construction of the canals which have added so much to her wealth. 831

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. STATE CAPITOL, AT COLUMBUS. After the treaty of 1815, the State grew with unparalleled rapidity. We have already shown the condition of,Ohio at present, and can add nothing to the simple statement that this great and flourishilng commonwealth but little more than half a century ago was “a howling wilderness.” During the Rebellion this state contributed 317,133 men to the service of the United States.

CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of Ohio are, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dayton, Toledo City, Zanesville, Sandusky, Chillicothe, Hamilton, Springfield, Portsmouth, Steubenville, Brooklyn, Newark, Xenia, Piqua, Mansfield, Circleville, Marietta, Lancaster City, Mount Vernoln, and Canton. COLUMBUS, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Franklin county, on the east bank of the Scioto River, 90 miles from its mouth, 120 miles northeast of Cincinlie ati, and 35) miles northwest of Washington. Latitude 39~ 57’ N.; longitude 83~ 3’ W. 832

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OIt01110. The land on which the city is built rises gradually from the river, and the streets are laid out at right-anigles. Broad street extends from the river along the National Road to the east of the city, and is 120
feet wide; and High street, 100 feet wide, crosses Broad at right-angles.

This is the principal business street. At the intersection of the two thoroughfares is a handsome public square of 10 acres. The streets are shaded with trees, and are well paved. Street railways connect the various points of the corporate limits. The city is well built, and many of the buildings are handsome and spacious. The State Ca(pitol stands in the centre of the public square. It is a splendid edifice, 304 feet long by 184 feet wide. It is built of a fine white limestone resembling marbl)e.

The interior decorations are very fine. The State Penitentiary is located immediately uponl the bank of the river, and is built of Ohio marble. It is one of the most imiposing structures in the State. The State Institution for the Blind, the Ohio Lunatie Asyluin, and the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, are handsome buildings. The city contains a number of public and private schools. The Starling Jledical College is a flourishing institution. The Lutherani Church has a theological seminary here. There are about 26 churches and several newspaper offices in Columbus. The city is lighted with gas and is supplied with pure water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is one of the principal railway centres of the State, and is the seat of a large and active trade with the surrounding country. In 1870, the population was 31,274. In 1812, Columbus was selected as the site of the State capital. At this time it was a wilderness, but it grew rapidly from the first, but was still a small inland village when the State Government was removed to it in 1816. In 1820, it had 1400 inhabitants. The completion of the National Road to the city brought it into more direct communication with the rest of the country and greatly accelerated its growth. CINCINNATI, The metropolis of the State, is situated in Hamilton county, on the right or northern bank of the Ohio, opposite the mouth of the Licking River. It is 120 iiiles southwest of Columbus, 476 miles by water fiom Pittsburg, 529 miles from the mouth of the Ohio, 1520 miles from New Orleans, 280 miles southeast of Chicago, and 610 miles west of Washington. It is the eighth city in respect of population in the United States, And the third city in the West. 833 ;o

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The city is beautifully located. It is in the centre of a lovely vallev, surrounded by hills. It occupies the whole of the first and second planes above the Ohio River, and extends over the greater part of the third, or still higher elevations of Mount Adams, Mount Auburn, Mount Washington, etc. The first of these planes or tables, called “the bottom,” is at an elevation of 50 feet above low-water mark; the second, called “the hill,” about 60 feet higher, and is densely built upon, being the thickest settled portion of the city. Above this are the hills of Mount Auburn, etc., 200 feet higher. Viewed fronm one of these last hills, the city appears to occupy the centre of an immiense basin, the view being in every direction terminated by swelling lhills. The grade of these planes or terraces has for years been changing to conform to the general improvement of the city, and now affords the regular and facile ascent required by heavy draughts, as well as to permit the safe drainage of water from the upper terraces of the city. The city is regularly laid out, the streets crossing each other at right-angles. They are generally about 66 feet in width; are well graded an(I paved, and are in many cases lined with beautiful shade trees. Those running east and west are denominated Water, Front, Columbia, Pearl, Third, Fourth, etc.; while those running north and south are named Broadway, Sycamore, Main, Walnut, Western Row, etc. Main street extends from the steamboat landing on the river northwardly to the northern bound of the second plane. The steamboat landing covers an open area of about 10 acres, with a frontage of 1000
feet. The shore is paved fromn low-water mark, and is provided with wharfboats or floating wharves, which rise and fall wAith the river; in thle height of which there is a great variation, the mean annual range from high to low water being about 50 feet. Pearl street, parallel with the river, is the great jobbing mart. Fourth street is the “Fifth Avenue”

of the town, a long, wide, elegant, fashionable promenade upon the crown of the First Terrace, followiiig the course of the river. Fifth street contains the markets, and displays a scene of busy life through an extent of three or four miles. Cincinnati is one of the best built cities in the country, and in its business portions especially will compare favorably with any American city. The improvement in this respect has been very marked d(luring the last ten years. Many handsome residences lie within the city limits, and in the suburbs. The suburb of Clifton is one of the A 834

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……….’\~‘it’i::~ _________

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____ __ 2~ (~- __ _ CINCINNATI,

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837 VIEW ON FOURTH STREET, CINCINNATI. ihandsomest villages in the Union.

As in all western cities, how,~ver, the buildings soon become tarnished and blackened by the coal smnoke, the coal burned here being very soft, and throwing off a dense, black smoke. The public buildings give evidence of the rapid growth in wealth and importance of the city. The material generally employed in the b)est buildings is a fine freestone or sandstone, though white limestone is used to some extent. The Court House is a handsome edifice of white limestone, resembling marble. It cost $500,000. The City Hall, the Custom House, the 3ielodeon Hall, Mozart HIall, and the Masonic Hall, are the other prominent structures. The colleges, churches, and benevolent establishments of the city are among its principal ornaments. The schools are numerous, and are of a high character. There are a number of flourishing private schools and seminaries, and about 22 public schools, including two high schools in operation. The College of St. XavieG, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), the IFaiirtount Theological Seminary, the Wesleyan Female College, OHIO.

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and the 1Toodward and Eclectic fledical Colleyes are the principal institutions of tie higher class. The Benevolent Institutionls are, the Lun(tie Asylum, the Comne - ciul Hospital, the Cincinnati, St. Peter’s, St. Aloysius, and West Gei’viarn Protestant Orphan Asylums, the HWidow’s Home, the Asylum for Iidigent Females, the Hffouse of Refutge, the Hotel for Invalids, the Longview Asylum, and the Almshouse. They are among the best arranged and most efficient institutions in the country. There are 9 public libraries in Cincinnati, two of which are German. The Cincinnati Observatory is located on Mount Adams, and forms a conspicuous object in any view of the city. It was built by the voluntary contributions of the citizens, the grounds being the gift of the late Nicholas Longworth. Under the management of the late Professor Mitchell it was raised to a high degree of excellence and usefulness. The city contains 4 firstclass hotels, about 110 churches, 4
theatres, about 56 newspapers and periodicals, 8 of which are daily, and several large publishing houses. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water from the Ohio River. Street railways connect its various portions, and it possesses an efficient police force, a police and firealarm telegraph, and a steam fire department. This city built the first steam fire-engine ever used in America. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 216,239. The Ohio is crossed at Cincinnati by a magnificent suspension bridge, uniting Cincinnati with Covington, Kentucky, begun in 1856, and completed in 1867. The entire length of the bridge is 2252 feet; the distance between the towers 1057
feet; height of the towers 230 feet; elevation of the floor at the middle 100 feet above low-water mark. The entire cost of the bridge was over $1,500,000. It is traversed by a street railway, connecting Cincinnati and Covington. It is an imposing and massive structure, and a great ornament to the citv. There are 10 cemeteries in the vicinity, the principal of which is the Spring Grove Cemetery, a very beautiful “city of the dead.”

Besides its river connections, Cincinnati has direct communication by railway with all parts of the State and Union. The M3iami Canal connects it with Lake Erie, fiurnishing also excellent water-powver for manufacturing purposes. Nine lines of railway enter the city, and through trains run from Cincinnati to all important points east and west. 838

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OHIO. iII! iijIrjit:’ *ij lII II ______________ j ________ I I __________________________ F (11;Th)); Q>I F\ I I mwJfiI lIjII ll ill I!II _____________ IIIIIllllIllIi1I qIji ______ wjIjli’I/ I ___________ Ii TIlE

TYLER DAVIDSON FOUNTAIN. The river trade of Cincinnati is enormous, and is on the increase in spite of the activity of the various railway lines.

During the year ending August 31, 1864, 435 steamboats and barges were eingaged in this trade, or about 121 more than were emnployed in 1854. In the same year the arrivals of steamers numbered 2936, though the trade with the Lower Mississippi and New Orleans was destroyed by the war. Since the close of the war, and the opening of the Mississippi trade, the city has resumed its full share in this source of wealth. Cincinnati ranks next to Chicago as a pork market of the RIepublic. An Et<,-Ilish writer, who visited Cincinnati a few years ago, humorously says of this b)ranch of its industry: “The great busilness of Cincinnati is hog killing now, as it used to be in the old days of which I have so often heard. It seems to be an established fact that in this portion of the world the porcine genus are all hogs. One never hears of a pig. With us a trade in hogs and pigs is subject to some little contumely. There is a feeling, which has perhaps never been expressed in words, but which certainly exists, that these animals are not so honorable in their bearings as sheep 839

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and oxen. It is a prejudice which by no means exists in Cincinnati. There hog killing and salting and packing is very honorable, and the great men in the trade are the merchant princes of the city. I went to see the performance, feeling it to be a duty to inspect everywhere that which I found to be of most importance; but I will not describe it. There were a crowd of men operating, and I was told that the point of honor was to’put throtugh’ a hog a minute. It must be unclerstood that the animal enters upon the ceremony alive, and coimes out in that cleanly, disemboweled guise in which it may sometimes be seen hanging up previous to the operation of the pork butcher’s knife. To one special man was appointed a performance which seemed to be s.)ec(illy disagreeable, so that he appeared despicable in my eyes; but when on inquiry I learned that he earned five dollars (or a pound Sterling) a day, my judgment as to his position was reversed. And, after all, what matters the ugly nature of such an occupation when a man is used to it?” Upwardcls of 40 houses are engaged in this trade. About 700,000 hogs are annually killed and packed here. The value of the annual p)rodluct of these houses in pork and lard is estimated at about $8,000,000. The city is largely engaged in manufactures. There are numerous iron and brass founderies, machine shops, flouring mills, mnanufacto ries of furniture, of lard and stearine oil, and of candles, distilleries, and wine factories.

Considerable quantities of clothing, tobacco, and wag,ons are also made here. Thile hills of the Ohio above and below the city are lined with extensive vineyards, which produce large quantities of wine, which finds a market in the city. The vineyard and wine cellars of the late Mr.

Longworth are well known throughout the country. In 1864, the total exports of the city amounted to $239,079(825; and the imports to $389,790,537. The principal articles of export were valued as follows: merchandise, $85,973,400; cotton, $34,973,840; tobacco, $22,286,485; whiskey, $10,520,500; horses, $8,523,847; sugar, $6,790,054; oil, $5,610,580; candles, $3,043,768; flour, $2,556,242; hemp, $2,363,760; and furniture, $2,154,075. The cities of Covington and Newport lie on the Kentucky shore, imInmediately opposite Cincinnati. Cincinnati was first settled on the 26th of December, 1788, by a party of men under Matthias Denman and Robert Paterson, sent out to improve a portion of the purchase made by the Hon. John Cleves 840

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OHIO. Symmes. This purchase embraced a tract of 311,682 acres, lying be tweeni the Great and Little Miami rivers, and extending along the Ohio River for a distance of 37 miles. This party landed opposite the mouth of the Licking River, and laid out a village called Losan tiville, a name shortly abandoned for that of Cincinnati. In Feb ruary, 1789, Judge Symmes himself arrived with another party, and, landing at North Bend, laid out what was designed to be a large city, to which they gave the name of Symmes. This site is now marked by the village of Cleves. In a short while a detachment of United States troops was sent to the Bend to protect the settlers there. Fort Washington had been built at Cincinnati by this time, however, and the troops were removed thither soon after their arrival at the Bend, and in a short while Symmes was compelled to yield its pretensions t, Cincinnati. In 1790, the expedition of General Harrison against the Indians rendezvoused at and began its march from Fort Washingtor,, which was also the starting point of the ill-fated expedition of Si. Clair, in 1791. In 1792, the first (Presbyterian) church was erected, on what is now the corner of Main and Fourth streets. In 1793, the first newspaper, “The Sentinel of the Northwest Territory,” was es, tablished. In January, 1794, a line of two keel boats, with bullet proof covers and portholes, and provided with cannon and small arm4, was established between Pittsburg and Cincinnati, each making a trip once in four weeks. During this time the town progressed very slowly. With the opening of the present century a change for the better set in, and its growth became marked and rapid. The introduction of steam navigation placed in its hands the enormous river trade, which it has since retained.

In 1819, it was incorporated as a city. Its progress since its settlement is shown by the following table: Population. …. 500 …… 750 ….

2,540 …. 9,602 ……….. 24,831 …… 46,338 …. 115,436 ….

171,000 …. 216,239 @……… ………. *……… 1……….., 16………I. 187……*..e…v..a…..…*…..21623 The city contains a large German population, the district mainly inhabited by them being known as ” Over the Rhine.” 52 841 Year. 1795,… 1800,… 1810,…

1820,… 1830,.. ~ 1840,… 1850,…. 1860,. 1870,…

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CLEVEILAND, The second city of the State, is situated in Cuyahoga county, on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the mouth of Cuyahoga River, 135 mniles east-northeast of Columbus, 255 miles northeast of Cincinnati, and 195 miles by water southwest of Buffalo. The city is beautifully located oln aii elevated gravelly plain over!ookin, the lakle, at an elevationl of fiom 60 to 100 feet above it. The CuyalIog,a River flows through the city, its tortuous course adding to thle picturesque character of the scenery and affor(ling an excellent harbor for several miles. From various points excellent views are obtained of the lake, which in sumnmer seems a shoreless sea studded with the white sails of vessels, and in the winlter resembles the Arctic Ocean, being a vast solitude of ice. Cleveland is justly considered one of the handsomest American cities. It is regularly laid off; the streets, with a few exceptions, intersecting each other at right-angles. They are generally from 80 to I120 feet wide, and are so thickly shaded with maple trees-with the exception of the heavy business streets-that Cleveland has been named “The Forest City.” In the centre of the city is a handsome public square of 10 acres, in which stands a marble statue of Commodore Perry, the hero of Lake Erie. The Nicholson or wooden pavement is used on all the principal streets. Superior street is the principal shopping thoroughfare, and contains the hotels. River and Merwin streets, on the exist bank of the river, are the heavy business streets; and Euclid and Prospect streets are the favorite localities fbr residence. They are beautiful avenues, and are lined with handsomr)e dwellings. The principal public buildings are, the United States Building, containing the Custom iHouse, Post O)ffice, and United States Court; the United Sta(tes MYarine Hosp)itll; the County Court House; the City Police Court ag)d Priwson, and the County Jail.

These are built of stone. The public schools of Cleveland have long been noted for their excellence. There are about 74 ini all, including 2 high schools. Bcesides these, there are a number of private schools and seminaries in the city. Tile principal es.tablishments of the higher class are, the Cleveland -l~edical Colleqe, Char’ity Iffospital:Iedical CoIleye, and the Homcopathic Jiedical College, all of which are flourishing institutions. ‘ihie Cleveland Library Association possesses a fine library, and holds ail annual course of lectures. 842

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OHIO ~~~~~~__.._ ==7-=-= …. SUPEROR STREET, CLEVELAND. SUPERIOR

STREET, CLEVELAND). Tilere are al)out 32 benevolent societies in tile city. The principal establishmnents are, the United States Jfiarine Hospital; the Cleveland Oiphluan Asly/,,i; 3 Roman Catholic orphlan asylums; the Jiorne of the P;‘iendles: (Ep)iscopal); the City ]fr y; the Hou.se of Refuye; the (Charity Ifo,pit(tl. Fourteen newsp-)al)ers, 5 of whiichl are d(aily, and 9 magazines, are publ)lished in C’leveland. The city eoI)t,ai.s abl)out 43 clilr(,lies, and(l 7 hotels. It is li,ghted witlh gas and is supplied wvitl \iate’. wvhich is tIbrced by steall) firon LIke Erie into an elevated reservoir, fi’om i-Ihiicl it is distributed thirotugh the city. It is provided with an efficient police force, a police and fire alari telegra)h, a steam fire-engine department, and a svstem of street railwayvs. It is governed by a Mayor and Coiincil. In 1870, the population w\as 92,829. The position of Cleveland(l on Lake Erie has placed it in possession ,fan important trade. It is next to Btiftlo the most important port ,)l, the lakle. The harbor is goodl, and has been gr(atly improved I)v the United States Government. During the season of navigationl (daily lines of passenger steam,ers ply between Cleveland and the Lale Superior ports, and( al)ollt 20 lines of steam propellers mail)t,aini a busy trade with tie )rineil)al towns on all the great lakes.

Tli(cre is direct, communication betweenl Cleveland and Liverpool, Einglan(l, by 64ii

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sailing vessels, vid the lakes, the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence. “I’te lake trade is very large and va1lu’tl)e, and is increasing. The ()loio Canal connects the lake with tlhe Ohio River at Portsmouth, and, l)y mneans of a branch at Beaver, seven lines of railway, one leading direct to the oil regions of Pennsylvania, connect the city with all parts of the Union. These have added greatly to its trade. The lake tradle alone is estimated at about $225,000,000 per aninum. Cleveland is largely engaged in shlip-building. Many vessels have been constructed here for ocean service as well as for the lake trade.

Trle manufactures of the city are growing rapidly. It is especially favored in this respect, owing to its proximity to the coal fields, its d(aily receipts from the mnines, an(d its great facilities for distributingt, its products over the country. MISCELLANY. SIMON KENTON.

Simon Kenton was a Virginian by birth, and emigrated to the wilds of the WAVest in the year 1771. lie was born (according to a manuscript which hlie dic tatted to a gentleman ot’ Kentucky, some years since,) in Fauquier county, on the l)tll of May, 17o, of p)oor parents. Ilis early lile was passed principally on a farmi. At the age of 16, having a quarrel with a rival in a love afftir, hlie left his antagonist upon the ground for dead, and made quick steps for the wilderness. In the course of a few days, wandering to and fro, hlie arrived at a small settle i4ient on Cheat Creek, one of the forks of the Monongahlela, where hlie called him sell’

Butler. Here, according( to Mr. McClung, hlie attached himself to a small conmpany headed by Jolin 3Iahlon and Jacob Greatlhouse, which was about start ing farther west, on.ain exploring expedition. Ile was soon induced, however, by a young adventurer of the name of Yager, who had been taken by the western Indians when a child, and spent many years among them, to detach himself firom thle company, and,o with him to a l,and which the Indians called Kan-ttuc-kee, sand which lie repres(enteld as being a perfect elysiuii. Accon)l)anied by another young man, named Strad(lr, they set off f(or the backwoods paralise in high,l spirits: Ienton not doubting that lie should find a country flowing with miilk and honey, where he would have little to do but to eat, drink, and be merry. Such, however.

was not his luck. They continued wandering through the wilderness for some weeks, without finding the “promised land.” and then retraced their steps, andt successively explored the land about Salt LTick, LTittle an(d Big, Sandy, and Guvanid(lotte. At length, being totally wearie(d olt, tlhey turned tlheir attention entirel3 to hunting and trapping, and thus spent neally two years. Being dliscovered by the Indians, -and losing one of his cowmpanions (Strader), Kenton was compelled to abandon his trapping-waters, and ihunting-grounds. After divers larddships. hle succeeded(l in re’ching the mouthl of the,Little Kanawha, with his remiaining companion, where lie found and attached himself to another exploring party. This, however, was attacked by the Indians, soonl alter commencing the descent of the Ohio, compelled to alIandon its canoes, and(
strike diagonally through the woods for Greenbriar county. Its members suffered much 844

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In accomplishing this journey, from fatigue, sickness, and famine; and on reach ing the settlements separated. Kenton’s rival of the love affair had long since recovered firom the castigation which lie had given him. But of this the young hlero had not heard. He there fore did not think proper to venture home; but, instead, built a canoe on the MIonongahlela, and once more sought the mouth of thle Great Kanawlha, where lie hunted till the spring of 1774. This year, lie descended the Ohio as far as the mouth of Big Bone Creek, and was engaged in various explorations till 177S, whenl he joined Daniel Boone in his expedition against the Indian towni on Pilint Creek. Immediately, on his return from this, lie was dispatched by CololiIel Bowman, with two companions, to make observations ul)on the Indian towns on Little Miamni, ag,ainst which the colonel meditated an expedition. He reached the towns in safety, and made the necessary surveys without being observed by the Indcliains; and the expedition miglht have terminated mluch to his credit, and been very useful to the settlers in Kentucky, had lhe not, before leaving the towns, stolen a number of the Indlians’ horses. The animals were mllissed early on the following morning, the trail of the marauders was discovered, and pursuit instantly commenced. Kenton and his companions soon l heard cries in their rear, knew that they had been discovered, and saw the necessity of riding for their lives. They therefore dashed through the woods at a furious rate, with the llue and cry after them, until their course was suddenly interrupted by an iii penetrable swamp. hiere they, from necessity, paused for a few momenits, and listened attentively. Hearing no sounds of pursuit, they resumed their course: and skirting the swamp for some distance, in the vain hope of crossing it, they dashed off in a straighlt line for the Ohio. They continued their furious speed for 48 lhours, halting but onice or twice for a few minutes to take some refreslinient, 2rnd reached the Ohio in safety. The river was highl and roughl, and they found( i), impossible to urge the jaded horses over. Various efforts were made, but all hniled. Kenton was never remarkable for prudence; and, on this occasion, hlis better reason seems to have deserted him entirely. By abandoning the animals, l}e might yet have escaped, thlloughl several hours had been lost in endeavoring tt) get them over. But this lie could not nmake up his mind to do. He therefore called a council, whlen it was determined, as they felt satisfied they must l)e some 12 hours in advance of their pursuers, that they should conceal their horses in a neigliboring ravine, and themselves take stations in an adjoining wood, in the hope tilat by sunset the high wind would abate, and the state of’ thle river be such as to Itermiit their crossing with the booty. At the hour waited for, however, the wind was highler, and the water routgher than ever. Still, as if completely infatuated, they remained in their dangerous position through the nilght. The next morning was mild; the Indians had not yet been heard in pursuit, and Kenton agtaii urged the horses over. But, recollecting the difficulties of the preceding day, the affriglited animals could not now be induced to enter the water at all. Each ot’ the three men tlherefo’e mounted a lhorse, abandoning tlhe rest (they had stoleii quite a drove), and started down the river, with the intention of keeping the Ohio and Indiana side till they should arrive opposite Louisville. But they wer( slow in making even this movement; and they had not ridden over 100 yards when they heard a loud hialloo, proceeding apparently from the spot which they had just left. Tlhey were soon surrounded by the pursuers. One of Kenton’s companions effected his escape, the other was killed. Kenton was made prisoner-” falling a victim,” says Mr. McClung, “to his excessive love of horseflesh.” 845

OHIO.

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OUR COUNT’RY AND ITS RESOURCES. After the Indians had scalped his dead companion, and kicked and cuffed Kenton to tlieir hlearts’ content, they compelled him to lie down upon his back, and stretch out his arms to thleir full length. They then passed a stout stick at right angles across his breast, to each extreiity of which his wrists were fastened by thongs of buffalo-hide. Stakes were next driven into the earth near llis feet, to which they were fastened in like mainner. A hlalter was then tied round his neck, and fastened to a sapling which grewv near. And finally, a strong rope wvas passed under his body, and wound several times round his arms at the elbows-tlthus lashingi tlhem to the stick which lay across his breast, and to which his wrists were fastenedl, in a mianner peculiarly painful. He could move neithler feet, arllis, nor head; and was kept in this position till the next mllorning. The Indians then, wishling to commence their return-journey, unpinioned Kenton, and laslhed himi by the feet to a wild, unbroken colt (one of the animals lie had stolen from tlhemI), with his hands tied behind him. In this maniner lie was driven into a captivity as cruel, singular, and remarkable in other respects, as any in the whole history of Indian wartare tpon tlhis continent. “A fatalist,” says the author of the “Sketches of Western Adveni,ure,”’ would recognize the hand of destiny in every stage of its progress. In the infattuationl with which Kenton refused to adopt proper measures for his safety, while such were practicable; in the persevering obstinacy with which 11( remained on the Ohio shlore until flight became useless; and afterward, in that remarkable succession of’ accidents, by which, without the least exertion on his part, lie was so often at one hour tantalized with a prospect of safety, and thli( next plunged into the deepest despair. Ile was eiglht timnes exposed to th,, gauntlet-tllthree times tied to the stake-and as often thought himself upon the eve of a terrible death. All tlhe sentences passed upon him, whether of mercy or condemnation, seem to have been pronounced in one council only to be reversed in another. Every friend that Providence raised ltip in liis tavor, was immediately followed by some einemy, who unexpectedly interposed, and turned his short glimpse of sunshine into deeper darkness than ever. For three weeks lie was constantly see-sawing between life and death; and during the whole time 1,e was perfectly passive. No wisdom, or foresight, or exertion, could have saved film. Fortune foughlt his battle from first to last, and seemed determined to perleit nothing else to interfere.” He was eventually liberated from the Indians, when about to be bound to the stake for the fourth time and burnt, by an Indian agent of the name of Drewyer, who was anxious to obtain intelligence for the Britislh commander at Detroit, of the strength and condition of the settlements in Kentucky. He got nothling im. portant out of Kenton; but in three weeks, Football of Fortune was sent to De troit, firom vwhlich place lie effected his escape in about eighlt months, and returned to Kentucky.

Fearless and active, he soon embarked in new enterprises; and was with George Rogers Clarke, in his celebrated expedition against Vincennes a. d Kaskaskia; with Edwards, in his abortive expedition to the Indian towns in 1785; and wiitli Wayne, in his decisive campaign of 1794. Simon Kentonl, throughout the struggles of the pioneers, had the reputation of being a valuable scout, a hardy woodsman, and a brave Indian fighlter; but, in reviewing his eventful career, hle appears to have greatly lacked discretion, and to have evinced frequently a want of energy. In his after life hle was much respected, and he continued to the last fond of regaling listeners with stories of the early times. ~ friend of ours, who some years ago made a visit to the 846

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OHIO. abode of the venerable patriarch, describes in the following terms his appearance at that time: “Kenton’s form, even under the weight of 79
years, is striking, and must have been a model of manly strength and agility. His eye is blue, mill, and yet penetrating in its glance. The forehead projects very much at the eyebrows-which are well defined-and then recedes, and is neither very high nor very broad. His hlair, which in active life was light, is now quite gray; his nose is straight; and his mouth, before lie lost his teeth, must have been expressive and handsome.

I observed that lie had yet one tooth-lwhichl, in connection with his character and manner of conversation, was continually reminding me of Leatlierstocking. The whole face is remarkably expressive, not of turbulence or excitement, but rather of rumination and self-possession.

Simplicity, lianlikness, honesty, and a strict regard to truth, appeared to be the prominent traits of his character.” In giving an answer to a question which my firiend asked him, I was particularly struck with hlis truthfulness and simplicity. Thie question was, whether the account of his life, given in the “Sketches of Western Adventure,” was true Or not. “

Well, I’ll tell you,” said lie; “not true. The book says that when Blackfish, the Injun warrior, asked me, when they had taken me prisoner, if Colonel Boone sent me to steal their horses, I said,’ No, sir.’” Here lhe looked indignant and rose from ihis chair. “I tell you I never said’sir’ to an Injun in mny life; I scarcely ever say it to a white man.”

Here Mrs. Kenton, who was engaged in sonice domestic occupation at the table, turned round and remarked, that when they were last in Kentucky, some one gave her the book to read to her husband; and that when she came to that part, hlie would not let her read any further. “And I tell you,”

continued hlie, “I was never tied to a stake in my life to be burned. They had me painted black when I saw Girty, but not tied to a stake.” We are inclined to think, notwithstanding this, that the statement in the “Sketches,” of his being three times tied to the stake, is correct; for the author of that interesting work lhad before him a manuscript account of the pioneer’s life, which had been dictated by Mr. Kenton to a gentleman of Kentucky, a number of years before, when he had no motive to exaggerate, and his memory was comparatively unimpaired. But he is now beyond the reach oi’f earthly toil, or trouble, or suffering. His old age was as exemplary as his youth and mailhood had been active and useful. And though his last years were clouded by poverty, and his eyes closed in a miserable cabin to the light of life, yet shall lie occupy a bright page in our border history, and his name soon open to the light of fame. 847

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INDIANA. Area,………… 33,809 Square Miles. Population in 1860……..

1,350,428 Population in 1870,……. 1,680,637 THE State of Indiana is situated between 37~ 50’ and 41~ 50’ N. latitude, and between (about) 84~

50’ and (about) 88~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, oni the east by Ohio and Kentucky, on the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Illinois. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 280 miles, and its extreme width, frolm east to west, about 144 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The Ohio River is bordered for the most part by a range of hills, and the country south of the White River is mostly rugged. A low ridge enters the State from Kentucky, and crosses the southern part in a northwestern direction. The White and Wabash rivers break tiroug,h this ridge in a series of rapids. The rapids of the Ohio River are produced by the same cause. North of the White River, the country is either gently rolling or level. Fine prairies occupy the western counties, and the eastern part of the State is heavily timbered.

Some swamp lands occupy several of the northwestern counties. Lake Jifichiyan, already described, washes the western portion of the northern part of the State. Michigan City is the principal town oil the lake. The Ohio River washes the entire southern shore of the State, and receives the waters of its principal stream, the Wabash. The Wabash 848

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INDIANA. rises in the western part of the State of Ohio, aid enters Indiana near the centre of the eastern boundary. It then flows northwest to Huntington, where it bends to the southwest, and flows in that direction across the State to the Illinois border, below Terre Haute. It then forms the boundary between Indiana and Illinois for about 100 miles, and empties into the Ohio River at the southwestern extremnity of the former State. It is 550 miles long, and is navigable for 300 miles for steamboats, at high water. The White River is the principal branch of the Wabash. It is formed by two branches, called the East Fork and the West Fork. The West Fork, which may be regarded as the main stream, rises in the eastern part of the State, and is 300 miles long. It flows through the central part of Indiani, a,nd is navigable, at high water, for 200 miles above the mouth of the WThite River. The East Fork is 250 miles long, and is navigable for flatboats. The two branches unite near Kinderhook, in Davies county. The main stream is about 40 or 50 miles long. The general course of the White River and its branches is southwest. The Wabash is obstructed at low water by a ledge of rocks just above the mouth of the White River. The Maumee and its branches drain the northeastern counties, and the Kankakee, one of the sources of the Illinois, flows through the northwest. The Upper St. Joseph’s of Michigan flows for 30 miles thlrough this State, in the extreme northenl part. The Tippecanoe and Mississinewva, flowing into the Wabash, the White Water and Blue River flowing into the Ohio, and the :]lat Rock flowing into the White River, are the other streams of np)ortance. MINERALS. The southwestern part of the State is rich in coal beds. It is qtisaated that they are capable of producing 50,000,000 bushels to the square mile. Iron, zinc, gypsum, marble, limestone, and sandstone, of an excellent building quality, and grindstones are found. CLIMATE. The climate is mild as a general rule, but liable to sudden and severe changes. The summers are warm, but the winters, though severe, are short, and except in the most northern counties deep snows are not usual. 849 i’

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is good, and has never been worked to its full capacity. The best and most fertile lands lie along the rivers. The State contains a great deal of excellent grazing land. According to the Report of the Agricultural Bureau for 1869, there were in Indiana 8,242,183 acres of improved land. In the same year, the other returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat,…. Indian corn,. ” rye…… ” oats…… ” barley… ” buckwheat,.. potatoes,…

Pounds of tobacco,…. ” i butter,…. Tons of hay,……. Number of horses,….. asses alld mules, sheep,…. ” milch cows,. swine…. ” young cattle,.. Value of domestic animals, COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State has no foreign commerce, but has an active lake and river trade.

Manufactures do not yet occupy the position to which the cheapness of fuel and abundance of waterpower in Indiana entitle them. The State is almost entirely agricultural at present, but there is good reason to believe that it will one day become a prominent manufacturing community. In 1870, the State contained 11,847 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They enmployed a capital of $52,052,425, consumed raw material worth $63,135,492, and returned an annual product of $108,617,278. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, Indiana containe(l 3529
mniles of completed railroads, constructed at a costofover$100,000,000.

Nearlyalltflegreatlines between the fa, West and the East cross this State, which is one of the fore 850 . 20,600,000 . 73,000,000 675,000 .

12,413,000 411,000 303,000 . 4,70-0,000 . 7,000,000 . 18,306,651 .

1,200,000 890,340 35.340 . 1,0111120 390,450 . 3,580,120 744,850 .

$50,855,539

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INDIANA. most in the country in the work of internal improvemrents. A perfect network of roads covers the State, and there is scarcely a county Nwhic(l is not crossed in some part by a railroad. Seven lines centre at the capital, and half a dozen cross the northern part of the State to Clicaigo. All the important points are thus connected with each other, and with all parts of the country. The roads of Indiana are amongst the best in the country. There are 453 miles of canal navigation in the State.

EDUCATION. Indiana is one of the first States in respect to the provision made for pul~lic education. In 1870, there were 26 colleges in the State, the principal of w’lich is the State University, at Bloomington, which is a part of tlhe public school system, atnd furnishes education free. A State Norimal school has l)een established at Terre Haute. The educational system is under the general control of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected by thie people for a term of two years. I-e reports the condition of the schools to the Legislature at the end of his term. A County Commissioner is in charge of the schools of each county, and in each city and township the schools are controlled by a Board of Trustees.

An Examiner is appoinited in eaclh counlty by the Corl)nmissioner. It is the duty of this official to visit the schools and exal,inie the teachers, under the direction of the Conmmissioner, and to hol(l a Teachers’

Institute in his county at least once a year. In 1870, the school fiund amounted to over $7,000,000. The number of pub)lllic schools in the State was 8871, and the number of pupils was 446,076. Thlere were also 202
private schools, with about 18,000 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. There are two State prisons in this State-the State Prison, North, at Michigan City, and the State Prison, South, at Jeffersonville. At the Jeffersonville prison, the labor of the convicts is let out to contractors, and the institution is self-sustaining. The State conducts the northern prison.

The Asylhrm for the Deaf and Dumb is at Indianapolis, and is a flourishing and excellent institution. The Institute for the Ecducation of the Blind, and the Hospitaltfor the Insane, are also at Indianapolis. They are well managed. In the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, shoe 8 I-D i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. making and cabinet-miaking are tatiglit the boys, while the girls are Instructed in needlework. Brush and broom making are carried on by the boys, and bead work of various kinds by the girls, at the Blind Asylum. In October, 1867, there were 169 deaf mutes in the first institution nanmed above; 96 blind persons in the second; and in 1868, 313 lunatics in the third. Tlte Soldiers’ and Seameit’s Home is located in Rush county. It was established in this county in 1866, and will acconmmodate 100 patients. A State Reform School is just being put ill operation in Hendricks county. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 3106 churches in Indiana, and the value of church property was $11,942,227 LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1870, there were 5301 libraries in the State, containing 1,125,533 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and magazines published in this State was as follows: daily, 20; semiweekly, 1; weekly, 233; monthly, 28. Total, 293. Of’these 240
were political, 9 religious, 16 literary, and 28 miscllaneous. They had an aggregate annual circulation of 26,964,894 copies. FINANCES. On the 31st of October,1874, the State debt amounted to $1,172,755. The receipts of the Treasury during the fiscal year ending October 31st, 1874, amounted to $2,410,917, and the expenditures for the same period to $1,544,216. In 1868, there were 68 National banks doing business in the State, with a capital of $12,867,000. GOVERNMENT. By the terms of the State Constitution, every male citizen of the Unite(d States, 21 years old, whlo has resided in the State six months, and every male of foreign birth, 21
years old, who has resided in the United States one year, and in the State six months, and has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, 852

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INDIANA. Secretary of State, Auditor of State, Treasurer of State, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 50 members) and a House of Representatives (of 98 members), all elected by the people.

The General election is held in October. The Governor and Lieuttenant-Governor are chosen for four years, and the other officers and the Legislature for two years. The Legislature meets biennially in January. The Courts of the State are the Stipreme Court, Circuit Courts, and a Court of Common Pleas. The judges are elected by the people; those of the Supreme Court for seven years, those of the Circuit Courts fbor six years, and those of the Court of Common Pleas for four years. The Supreme Court consists of four judges. The seat of Government is established at Indianapolis. Indiana is divided into 92 counties. HISTORY. Originally a part of New France, Indiana was first explored by th,4 French miissionaries and traders. As early as 1700, Vincennes was a missionary station, and in 1716 it became a trading,-post. It is be, lieved that the first actual white settlers were French soldiers, who, by frequent intermarriages with the Indians, lost their habits of civili, zation, and became a degenerate community, remaining a distinct class for fully one hundred years. The treaty of 1763, turned over to Great Britain all the French possessions east of the Mississippi. During the Revolution, the French settlers were bitterly hostile to the English, and in one instance gave such accurate information of the situation and condition of the British fort at Vincennes, that General Rogers Clark, of Virginia, was enabled to capture it. After the close of the Revolution, the territory east of the Mississippi became the property of the United States. Soon after the settlement of Ohio, several military expeditions were sent into the present State of Indiana, which was then known as the Indian country.

In 1790, General Hlarmar destroyed the Indian towns on the MIaumee, which are supposed to have occupied the site of the present town of Fort Wayne, but was himself very badly handled by the savages. In May, 1791, an expedition from Kentucky, under General Charles Scott, laid waste the towns on the Wabash and Eel rivers, without losing a man; and in the followini August, another 853

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Kentucky expedition crossed into Indiana, and completed the worlc which General Scott had begun. The Indians continued hostile after the treaty of 1795, owing to the efforts of Tecumseh, but a portion of them sold tlheir lands to thle United States for the l)enefit of the white settlers. In 1802 and 1803, and aIgain ill 1807, unsuccessful efforts were made to introduce slavery into the Indiana territory in spite of the prohibition of the ordinance bv whichl the territory had been ceded to the United States. The Indians hlaviing become troublesome again, the Governor, Gen eral William Henry Harrison, summolned the-people to takle ul) arms against theml. Thle savageis were led )by Tecumtnseh and his Urother Thle Propl)het, tw-o able and determined chieftains. General Iularrison marched into their country withl a considerable force. On the 7thl of Novemi)er, 1811, lie appeared wvith his army before Tip)ecannoe (tle P)‘opl)et’.s town) on the W\abashl, and demanded that the sava(ges. .:houl(l restore all the property they had taken from the whites. A confreniece was held between the Anierican commander and Tec(umseli, in whlichl it was agreed that hostilities should not begin until the next miorning,. Harrison, however, knew that the Indians wvout(l not scruple to disregard the trutce, and bivouackied his armv in ordler of battle. His suspicions were realized. Just before daylight Tecumseli iiiade a furious attack upon the American camp, but, thanks to tlhe wise precautions of Harrison, was repulsed, and his warriors routed withl terrible loss. Hiarrison followed up his victory by devastating the Indian country. Soon after this the trib)es sued for peace. During the war of 1812 the Ind(ians joined the Britisll in their eflorts againist the Americans, but were terribly punished for so doing.

Their warriors were slain and their country laid waste, and in the b)attle of the Thames their fatmous chieftain, Tecumseh, was killed. In the year 1800 the region now included in the States of Illinois and Ind(liana was organized as the Territory of Indiana. In 1.809 Illinois Territory was separated firom Indiana. On the 29th of June, 1816, a State Constitution was adol)t(,(l by the people, in Convention, and on the 11th of December, of tl-he same year, Indiana was admitted into the Ulnion as a sovereign State. The new State grew rapidly, and attracted settlers from all parts o-)f the country. Emigrants friom Europe also came over, and it entered upon that splendid career of wealth and prosperity which it is still pursuing. 854

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INDIANA. STATE HOUSE AT INI)IANAPOLIS. During the late war Indiana furnishe(l 195,147 troops to the seriee of the United States. CITIES AND

TOW\NS. Besides the capital, the principI)al cities and towns of the State are, New Albany, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Terre Haute, M4adison, Richmond, Laporte, Jeffersonville, Logansport, and Michi;ani City.

INDIANAPOLIIS ‘h’lie capital and largest city of the State, is situated in \Marion counlty, ,* the west fork of White River, just below the mouthl of Fall Creelk, I09 miles northwest of Cincinnati, 200 miles southeast of CIhicago, :.nd 573 miles west by north of Washington. Latitude, 39~ 46’

N.; longitude, 86~ 5’ W. It is located in an extensive plain, and lies in almost the exact centre of the State. The city is regularly laid out, anid is well built. It is making rapid progress every year in the character of its edifices, both public and private, and is now noted as one of the lhandsomnest and most attractive of the Western cap)itals. The streets are wide, and generally cross each other at riglht angles. Four of them, however, are diagonal, and converge to a circular area in the centie of the town. \Washington street is the principal thoroughfare, and is 120
feet widle. The streets are well paved, are eiaded with trees, and are traversed by lines of street railways. The 855

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. business portions boast many handsome and showy structures, and the private streets contain a large number of elegant residences. The public buildings are a credit to the city and State. The State House is a noble edifice, built in imitation of the Parthenon, and surmounted by a dome. Its dimensions are 180 by 80 feet.

The Court House and the Union Depot are the other prominent buildings.

ThIe schools of the city are excellent and prosperous. The public schools deserve special commendation, and the private academics and seminaries are well conducted. The Northwestern Christian Unwiversity, conducted by the Christian Church, the Baptist Female College, the Indiana Female College, and the Indiana -tedical College, are located here. The State and Mercantile Libraries are the principal collections of books. The Benevolent Institutions are, the State Lutnatic Asyltmn, the State Asylum?l for the Blind, and for the Deaf and’Dumb, and several local institutions for the relief of the poor and afflicted. The city contains about 34 churches, and several newspaper offices, is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water. It is provided with an efficient police fo)rce, and a steam fire department, and is governed by a MIayor and Council. InI. 1870 the population was 48,244. Eight railway lines centre at Indianapolis, and make it one of the most important railway points in America. Manufactures are carried on to a limited extent, iron, machinery, paper, flour, and window sashes being the principal products. Indianapolis is noted for its rapid growth. In 1820, when the site was selected for the capital of the State, it was covered with a dense forest. The first settlement was made in the spring of that year, and on the 1st of January, 1825, the State offices were removed from Corydon to this place. The State Capitol was finished in 1834. EVAINSVILLE, In Vanderburgh county, on the northern bank of the Ohio, is the second city of the State, with respect to population. It is 200 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, 200 miles below Louisville, Ky., and 144 miles southwest of Indianapolis. The city lies on a high bank of the river, the ground sloping gradually from the first street to the edge of the water. It is well built, and presents a handsome appearance from the river. The principal streets are wide and well paved. The public buildings are, the Court House, the Marine Hospital of the United Statel and the State Bank. The city is lighted with gas, and ,856

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INDIANA. EVANSVILLE. is supplied with water from the Ohio. It contains about 30 chuirches, . number of public and private schools, about 4
newspaper offices, and several hotels. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 21,830. Evansville is one of the most important places in the State. It is the terminus of the Wabash and Erie Canal, which is 462 miles long, and the principal market of the famous Green River Valley of Keiitucky. The annual exports of the city exceed $8,000,000 in value, of which pork, lard, and tobacco are the principal articles. The city is also extensively engaged in the manufacture of iron, brass, and flour. The coal for this purpose is nlined about a mill from the Court House. A large portion of the population is of Germani origin.

The town was laid out in 1836, at which time the site was covered with a dense forest. It received its name from Robert Morgan Evans, a native of Virginia, one of the original proprietors. FORT WAYNE, In Allen county, is situated at the confluence of the St. Joseph’s and r;t. Mary’s rivers, which here unite and form tile MAfaumee. It is 112 iilcs northeast of Indianapolis, and 96 west of Toledo, Ohio. The city is la(id out on the level prairie land, and is well built. It has grown rapidly in the past ten years, and its railway connections have made it a place of considerable importance. The Wabash and Erie Canal connects it with the Ohio and Lake Erie. 53 8X57

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OUR COUNTRY AND l’TS RESOURCES. NEW ALBANY. NEW ALBANY, In Floyd county, on the right bank of the Ohio River, is a very thriving city. It is 3
miles below the falls of the Ohio, and 5 miles below Louisville, 136 miles below Cincinnati, and 100 miles soutth-by-east fromn Indianapolis. It is a handsome city, built on level ground, at a .slilght elevation above the river, with broad well-p)aved streets, shaded with handsome trees. It contains some showy buildings and fine residences. The princip)al are the county buildings. MISCELLANY. THE MEETING OF GENERAL HARRISON AND

TEICUMSEIH. In the spring of 1810, General Harrison, being Governor of the Northwestern Territory, and residing at Vincennes-the seat of Government had learned from various quarters that Tecumseh had been visiting the different Indian tribes, scattered along the valleys of the Wabash and Illinois, with a view of forming an alliance and making common cause against the whites, and that there was great probability that his mission had been successful. Aware, as hle was, that if this was tle case, and that if the combination had been formed, such as was represented, the settlements in the southern portion of Indiana and Illinois were in great danger that Vincennes itself would be the first object of attack, and that, with a handful of troops in the territory, a successful resistance might not be made; and not probably fully aware of the extent of the organization attempt(e(i by Tecumseh, and desirous of avoiding, if he could, the necessity of a call to arms, he sent a message to him, then residing at the ” Prophet’s Town,” inviting, 858

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INDIANA. him to a council, to be held at as early a period as possible, for the purpose of talking over and amicably settling all difficulties which might exist between the whites and thb Shawnees. It was not until the month of August of the same year, that Tecumseh, accompanied by about 70 of his warriors, made his appear ance. They encamped on the banks of the Wabash, just above the town, and( Tecumseh gave notice to the Governor that, in pursuance of his invitation, he had come to hold a talk “with him and his braves.” The succeeding day was appointed for the meeting. The Governor made all suitable preparations for it. The officers of the territory and the leading citizens of the town were invited to be present, while a portion of a company of militia was detailed as a guard-fully armed and equipped for any emergency. Notice had been sent to Tecumseh, previous to the meeting, that it was expected that himself and a portion of his principal warriors would be present at the council. The council was held in the open lawn before the Governor’s house, in a grove of trees which then sur rounded it. But two of these, I regret to say, are now remaining. At the time appointed, Tecumseh and some 15 or 20 of his warriors made their appearanice. With a firm and elastic step, and with a proud and somewhat defiant look, he advanced to the place where the Governor and those who had been invited to at tend the conference were sitting. This place had been fenced in, with a view of preventing the crowd from encroaching upon the council during its deliberations. As hlie stepped forward, hle seemed to scan the preparations which had been made for his reception, particularly the military part of it, with an eye of suspicion-by no means, however, of fear. As he came in front of the dais, an elevated portion of the place, upon which the Governor and the officers of the territory were seated, thle Governor invited him, through his interpreter, to come forward and take a seat with him andti his counsellors, premising the invitation by saying “That it was the wish of their’ Great Father,’ the President of the United States, that hlie should do so.” The chief paused for a moment, as the words were ut tered and the sentence finished, and raising his tall form to its greatest height, surveyed the troops and the crowd around him. Then, with his keen eyes fixed upon the Governor for a single moment, and turning them to the sky above, with his sinewy arm pointing toward the heavens, and with a tone and manner indicative of supreme contempt for the paternity assigned him, said, in a voice whose clarion tone was heard throughout the whole assembly: “My Fathler?-The sun is nmy father-the earth is my mother-and on her bosom I will recline.” Having finished, he stretched himself with his warriors on the greensward. The effect, it is sairl, was electrical, and for some moments there was perfect silence. The Governor, through the interpreter, then informed him, “that he had un:’ derstood he had complaints to make, and redress to ask, for certain wrongs which hlie (Tecumseh) supposed had been done his tribe, as well as the others; that hlie felt disposed to listen to the one and make satisfaction for the other, if it was proper that he should do so. That in all his intercourse and negotiations with the Indians, hlie had endeavored to act justly and honorably with them, and believed hlie had done so, and had learned of no complaint of his conduct until he learned that Tecumseh was endeavoring to create dissatisfaction toward the Government, not only among the Shawnees, but among the other tribes dwelling on the Wabash and Illinois; and had, in so doing, produced a great deal of trouble between them and the whites, by averring that the tribes whose land the Governmeat had lately purchased, had no right to sell, nor their chiefs any authority to: .8-1i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. convey. That he, the Governor, had invited him to attend the council, with a view of learning t’roiii his own lips, whether there was any truth in the reports which hlie had heard, and to learn whether hlie, or his tribe, had any just cause of comiplaint ag,ainst the whites, and, if so, as a man and a warrior, openly to avow it. That as between himiselt’ and as great a warrior as Tecumseh there should be 14o concealment-all should be done by them under a clear sky, and in an open pathl, and witlh these feelings on his own part, he was glad to meet him in coulncil.” Tecumseh arose as soon as the Governor had finished. Those who knew him speak of him as one of the most splendid specimenis of his tribe-celebrated for their physical proportions and fine torms, even among the nations who sulrroullded them. Tall, athletic, and mianly, di,gnified, but gracefult, hlie seemed tihe bean ideal oft’ an Indian chieftain. In a voice first low, but, with all its ind(listinctuess, musical, he commenced his reply. As he warmed with his subject, hlis oleari tones might be heard, as if ” trnumpet-tongued,” to the utmost limits of the assembled crowd who surrounded him. The most perfect silence prevailed, except when the warriors who snrrounded him gave their guttural assent to some eloquent recital of the red nian’s wrong and the white man’s injustice. Well’instructed in the traditions of his tribe, fully acquainted with their history, the councils, treaties, and battles of the two races fo)r halt’f a century, he recapitulated the wrongs of the red man from the massacre of the Moravian Indians, during the Revolutionary war, down to the period he had met the Governor in council. ie told him “lie did not know how he could ever again be the firiend of the white man.” In reference to the public domain, hlie asserted ” that the Great Spirit had given all the country from the Miami to the MAississippi, from the lakes to the Ohio, as a common property to all the tribes that dwelt within those borders, and that the land could not, and should not be sold without the consent ot’ all. That all the tribes on the continent formed but one nation. That if the United States would not give up the lands they had bought of the Miamis, the l)elawares, the Potawatomies, and other tribes, that those united with him were determined to fall on those tribes and annihilate them. That they were determined to have no more chiefs, but in future to be governed by their warriors. That their tribes had been driven toward the setting sun, like a galloping horse (Ne-kat-a-cush-e Ka-top-o-lin-to). That for himself and his warriors, hlie had determined to resist all further aggressions of the whites, and that with his consent, or that of the Shawnees, they should never acquire another foot of land.” To those who have never heard of the Shawnee language, I may here remark it is the most musical and euphonious of all the Indian languages of the West. When spoken rapidly by a fluent speaker, it sounds more like the scanning of Greek and Latin verse, than anything I can compare it to. The effect of this address, of which I have simply given the outline, and which occupied an hour in the delivery, may be readily imagined. William Henry Harrison was as brave a man as ever lived. All who knew him will acknowledge his courage, moral and physical, but hlie was wholly unprepared for such a speech as this. There was a coolness, an independence, a defiance in the whole manner and matter of the chietain’s speech which astonished even him. He knew Tecumseh well. He had learned to appreciate his high qualities as a man and warrior. He knew his power, his skill, his influence, not only over his own tribe, but over those who dwelt on the waters of the Wabash and Illinois. He knew he was no braggart-that what he said he meant-what ho promised he intended to perform. He was fully aware that he was a foe not 860 i’

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INDIANA. to be treated light-an enemy to be conciliated, not scorned-one to be met with kinidness, not contempt. There was a stillness throughout the assembly when Tecumseh had done speaking which was painful. Not a whisper was to be heard-all eyes were turned from the speaker to the Governor. The unwarranted and unwarrantable pretensions of the chief, and the bold and defiant tone in which hlie had announced them, staggered even him. It was some moments belore he arose. Addressing Tecumseh, who had taken his seat with his warriors, lie said: “That the charges of bad faith made against the Government, and the assertion that injustice had been done the Indians in any treaty ever made, or any council ever held with them by the United States, had no foundation in fact. That in all their dealings with the red manl, they had ever been governed by the strictest rules of right and justice. That while other civilized nations had treated them with contumely and contempt, ours had always acted iii good faith with liem. That so far as lihe individually was concerned, he could say, in the pres(nlce of the’Great Spirit,’ who was watching over their deliberations, that his eyonduct, even with the most insignificant tribe, had been marked with kindness, aid all his acts governed by honor, integrity, and fair dealing. That he had Ulniformly been the friend of the red man, and that it was the first time in his life that his motives had been questioned or his actions impeached. It was the first time in his life that he had ever heard such unfounded claims put forth, as Te(,ilmseh had set up, by any chief, or any Indian, having the least regard for truth, or the slightest knowledge of the intercourse between the Indian and the white man, from the time this continent was first discovered.”

What the Governor had said thus far had been interpreted by Barron, the interpreter to the Sllawnees, and hlie was about interpreting it to the Miamis an(l Potawi-tomies, who formed part of the cavalcade, when Tecumseh, addressing the interpreter in Shawnee, said, ” He lies!” Barron, who had, as all subordinates (especially in the Indian department) have, a great reverence and respect for the ” powers that be,” commenced interpreting the language of Tecumseh to the Governor, but not exactly in the terms made use of, when Tecumseh, who understood but little English, perceived from his embarrassment and awkwardness, that he was not giving his words, interrupted him, and, again addressing him in Shawnee, said: No, no; tell hiia he lies.” The guttural assent of his party showed they coincided with their chlief’s opinion. General Gibson, Secretary of the Territory, who understood Shawnee, had not been an inattentive spectator of the scene, and understanding the import of the language made use of, and from the excited state of Tecumsehl and his party, was apprehensive of violence, made a signal to the troops in attendance to shoulder their arms and advance. They did so. The speech of Tecumseh was literally translated to the Governor. He directed Barron to say to him, ” lie would hold no further council with him,” and the meeting broke up. One can hardly imagine a more exciting scene-one which would be a finer subject for an “historical painting,’” to adorn the rotunda of the Capitol. On the succeeding day, Teeumseli requested another interview with the Governor, which was granted on condition that he should make an apology to the Governor for his language the dlay before. This he made through the interpreter. Measures for defence and protection were r,hoever, taken, lest there should be another outbreak. Two companies of militia were ordered from the country, and the one in town added to them, while the Governor and his friends went into council fully armed and prepared for any contingency. The conduct of Tecumseh upon I;

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. this occasion was entirely different from that of the day before. Firm and in. trepid, showing not the slightest fear or alarm, surrounded as he was with the military force quadrupling his own, he preserved the utmost composure and equanimity. No one could have discerned from his looks, althoulgh lie must have fully understood the object of calling in the troops, that he was in the slightest degree disconcerted. He was cautious in his bearing, dignified in his manner, and no one from observing him would for a moment have supposed hlie was the principal actor in the thrilling scene of the previous day. In the interval between the sessions of the first and second council, Tecumseh had told Barron, thile interpreter, “that lie had been informed by thle whiles, that the people of the Territory were almost equally divided, half in favor of Tecumsehl, and the other adhering to the Governor.” The same statement hlie made in council. He said ” that two Anericais had made hinm a visit, one in the course af the preceding winter, the other lately, and informed him that Governor Harrison had purchased land fiom the Indians without any authority from the Government, and that one half of the people were opposed to the purchase. He also told the Governor that lie, Harrison, had but two years more to remain in office, and that hlie, Tecumseh, could prevail upon the Indians who sold the lands not to receive their annuities for that time; that when the Governor was displaced, as lie would be, and a g(ood man appointed as his successor, he would restore to tihe Indians all the lands purchased from them.” After Tecumseh had concluded his speech, a Wyandotte, a Kickapoo, a Potawatomie, an Ottawa, and a Winnebago chief, severally spoke, and declared that their tribes had entered into the “Sliawnlee Confederacy,” and would support the principles laid down by Tecumselh, whom they had appoiniited their leader. At the conclusion of the council, the Governor informed Tecumseh that “he would immediately transmit his speech to the President, and as soon as his answer was received, would send it to him; but, as a person had been appointed to run the boundary line of the new purchase, lie wished to know whether there would be danger in his proceeding to run the line.” Tecumseh replied, “that lie and lhis allies were determined that the old boundary line should continue, and that if the whites crossed it, it would be at their peril.” The Governor replied, “thiat since Tecumseh had been thus candid in stating his determination, lie would be equally so with him. The President, he was convinced, would never allow that the lands on the Wabash were the property of any other tribes than those who had occupied them and lived on them since the white people camie to Anerica. And as the title to the lands lately purchased was derived from thlose tribes l)y fair purchase, hlie might rest assured that the right of the United States would be supported by the sword.” ‘ So be it,” was the stern and haughty reply of the Shawnee chieftain, as hlie and his braves took leave of the Governor and wended their way in Indian file to their camping ground. And thus ended the last conference on earth between the chivalrous and gallant Tecumseh, the Shawnee chief, and hlie who since the period alluded to has ruled the destinies of the nation as its Chief Magistrate. The bones of the first lie bleaching on the battle field of the Thames-those of’ the last are deposited in the mausoleum that covers them on the banks of the Ohio. 862 1-11

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I L.L I N 0 I S. Area,………….. 55,410 Square Miles. Population i 1860…….. 1,711,951 Population iii 1870,…….. 2,539,891 THE State of Illinois is situated between 37~ and 42~ 30’ N. latitude, and between 87~

30’ and 91~ 40’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Wisconsin, on the east by Lake Michigan and Indiana, on the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Missouri and Iowa. It is separated from Kentucky by the Ohio, and from Missouri and Io~va by the Mississippi. One half of the eastern part is divided fi’rom Indiana by the Wabash. TOPOGRAPHY. There is a hilly region in the southern part, and some rugged country in the northwest; but as a general rule, the surface of Illinois is level, consisting in many parts of gently undulating prairies, which are covered with a luxuriant grass and an abundance of beautiful wild flowers. They also abound in wild fowl. Says a recent writer: “The great landscape feature of Illinois is its prairies, which are seen in almost every section of the State. The want of variety, which is ordinarily essential to landscape attraction, is more thai compensated for in the prairie scenery, as in that of the boundless ocean, by the impressive qualities of immensity and power. Far as the most searching eye can reach, the great unvarying plain rolls on; its sublime grandeur softened but not weakened by the occasional groups of trees in its midst, or by the forests on its verge, or by the countless flowers everywhere upon its surface. The prairies abound in game. The prairie duck, sometimes but improperly called grouse, 863

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. arc most abundant in September and October, when large numbers are annually taken. Perhaps the most striking picture of the prairie (otintry is to be found oil Grand Prairie. Its gently undulating plains, profusely decked with flowers of every lue, and skirted oil all sides by wvoodland copse, roll on through many long miles from Jackson county, northeast to Iroquois county, with a width varying from one to a dozen or more miles. The uniform level of the prairie region is supposed to result from the deposit of waters by which the land was ages ago covered. The soil is entirely free from stones, and is extremely fertile. The most notable characteristic of the prairies, their destitution of vegetation, excepting in the multitude of rank grasses and flowers, will gradually disappear, since nothing prevents the growth of the trees but the continual fires which sweep over the p)lains. These prevented, a fine growth of timber soon springs up; and as the woodlands are thus assisted in encroaching upon and occupying the plains, settlements, and habitations will follow, until the prairie tracts are overrun with cities and towns. Of the thirtyfive and a half millions of acres embraced within the State, but thirteen millions, or little more than one-third, were improved in 1860, showing that despite her wonderful progress in population and p)roduction, she is yet only in her infancy.

Excepting the specialty of the prairie, the most interesting landscape scenery of this State is that of the bold, acclivitous river shores of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Illinois rivers.” * Lake 3iichiga)t forms the northern part of the eastern boundary. Chicago, the principal city, is situated near the southern end of the lake, and possesses a very large lake trade. The other towns on Lake Michigan are, Otsego, Waukegan, Rockland, and Evanston. The l[ississippi River formis the western boundary of this State, and receives the waters of the Rock, Illinois, and(

Kaskaskia rivers, besides those of several smaller streams. The important places on the Mississippi, beginning on the north, are Galena, Rock Island, Oquawka, Quincy, Alton, East St. Louis, and Thebes. The Ohio River forms the southern boundary, and empties into the Mississippi, at the extreme southern end of the State. The city of Cairo is situated at the confluence of these two rivers, and is an important place. The Illinois River is the largest in the State. It is formed by the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee, which unite at * Appleton’s Hand-Book of American Travel. 864

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ILLINOIS. Dresden, in Grundy county, southwest of Lake Michigan. It flows across the State in a southwestern direction, and empties into the Mississippi about 20 miles from Alton. It is about 320 miles long, and has been rendered navigable at all seasons, to Ottawa, 286 mniles from the Mississippi. Peoria, 200 mniles from its mouth, is the most important town on the river. The Fox and Sangamon rivers are its principal branches. The former rises in Wisconsin, and is 200 miles long. It is a fine mill-streani; the latter rises in the east-central part of the State, and flowvs west into the Illinois. It is 200 miles long, and is navigable at high water for small steamers. The Rock River rises in Fond du Lac county, in Wisconsin, about 10 miles south of Lake Winnebago, and flows southward into Illinois, near the centre of the northern part of the State. It then turns to the southwest and flows across the State into the Mississippi, at Rock Island City. It is 330 miles long, and though interrupted in several places by rapids, could be rendered navigable at a small expense; steamers have ascended it to Jefferson, Wisconsin, 225 miles. It flows through one of the most beautiful and fertile portions of Illinois. The Kaskaskia River rises in Champaign county, in the eastern part of the centre of the State, and flows southwest into the Mississippi a fewv miles below the town of Kaskaskia. It is 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for a considerable distance. The Vermilion, Embarras, and Little Wabash rivers, small streams, flow into the Wabash from this State. Several small lakes lie in the northern part of the State. MINERALS. There are extensive deposits of lead in the extreme northwestern part of this State, and extending into Wisconsin and Iowa. The principal mines lie in the vicinity of Galena. Copper exists in large quantities in the northern part of the State. Bitumninous coal abounds. Iron is also found in abundance in the north, and to a limnited extent in the south, and it is saidl that silver has been discovered in St. Clair county. There are a numbl)er of salt springs in the State, and a variety of medicinal springs. The other minerals are zinc, lime, marble, freestone, gypsum; and quartz crystals.

CLIMATE. The climate is not very severe, but is subject to sudden changes.

Deep snows are not of general occurrence, but occasionally take place, and at long intervals the rivers are frozen over. 865

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OUR COUNTCRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Illinois is one of the richest agricultural States in the Confederacy. “The soils are all highly fertile and productive. In the bottoms, or alluvial borders of the rivers, the soil is chiefly formed fromn the deposits of water during flood. In some cases the mould so formed is twentyfive feet and upward ill depth, and of inexhaustible fertility. A tract called the’American Bottom,’ extending along the Mississippi for ninety miles, and about five miles in average width, is of this formation. About the French towns it has been cultivated, and produced Indian corn every year, without manuring, for a century and a half. The prairie lands, although not so productive, are yet not infebrior for many agricultural purposes, and are preferred, where wood is to be had, onl account of their superior salubrity. The barrens, or oak openings, have frequently a thin soil.” The agricultural wealth of the State is thus summed up in the Report of the General Land Office for 1867: “In 1850, Illinois had 76,208 farms, valued at $96,133,290; in 1860, 144,338, valued at $408,944,033. The quantity of land in fharms increased about 77 per cent. during the decade, the improved land 165 per cent., the cash value of farms about 325, and the value of farmning implements and nmachinery nearly 200 per cent. “The value of live stock in 1850 was $24,299,258; in 1860, $72,501,225; and in 1865, according to the State returns, it had advanced to $123,770,554, showinig an ilncrease, during the ten years following 1850, of 200 per cent., or 20 per cent. per annum, and 70 per cent. for the five years followinvg 1860, or 14 per cent. per annualm. “New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio are the only States making larger quantities of butter; and, in the value of slaughtered aniimals, Illinois is exceeded only by New York. “Iu 1860, Illinois produced 23,837,023 bushels of wheat, and 115,174,777
bushels of Indian corn, being 14 bushels of wheat and 67 bushels of Indian corn. to every man, woman, and child. “The State surpassed all others in wheat and corn products, there having been cultivated upon its soil nearly one-seventh of the entire wheat and corn crop of the United States. In 1865, 177,095,852 bushels of Indian corn were produced, and 25,266,745
bushels of wheat. The entire grain crop in 1865, including Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and butickwheat, amounted to 232,620,173
bushels. The crop of potatoes was 5,864,408 bushels, tobacco, 18,867,722
pounds, and 866

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ILLINOIS. hay, 2,600,000 tons, the whlole amounting in value to $116,274,322. Besides this, there were produced in 1865, 5,000,000 pounds of cotton, a branch of industry just beginning to receive attention, yet already pronounced one of the most profitable crops in the southern part of the State; also large quantities of grass-seeds, maple and sorghum sugar and molasses, flax, flaxseed, lhemnp, hops, silk cocoons, beeswax, honey, wine, butter and cheese, peas and beans. The wool clip in 1865 was over 6,000,000 pounds; orchard products of the value of $2,000,000, andl market $500,000. “The year 1865 was unfavorable for wheat in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, the yield in each being less than either 1862, 1863, or 1864. Illinois then produced 32,213,500 bushels. “In every year since 1860, the State has maintained a position as the leading wheat and corn-growing region, while the product of other staples is annually increasing.” In 1869 the principal returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat,…. Indian corn,.. ” oats,.. ” Irish potatoes,5 ” rye,… “
buckwheat,. ” barley,… Pounds of butter,….. Tons of hay,…… Number of horses,…..1 ” mules and asses, ” milch cows,. ” sheep,… swiine,….

” young cattle,. Value of domestic animals, COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES.

Illinois possesses a large lake and river trade, dealing principally in agricultural products. The grain trade of Chicago is immense; the lumber trade is also important, and Chicago is at present the principal pork market of the Republic. Manufactures are rapidly increasing in Illinois.

In 1870, the State contained 12,597 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $94,368,057, and 82,979 hands; consumed raw material worth $127,600,077, and yielded an annual product of $205,620,672. 867 29,200,000 121,500,000

35,726,000 7,500,000 675,000 251,000 1,250,000 28,052,551 2,800,000

1,340,320 99,450 850,340 1,340,120 3,502,820 2,320,500 $100,501,270

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Illinois is one of the foremost States in the Union in respect to its internal improvements.

In 1872, there were 5904 miles of complete(l railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of nearly $200,000,000. The Report of the General Land Office for 18S67 thus refers to the internal improvements of this State: “The railroad system is on a scale commensurate with its advantageous position in respect to agriculture and internal commerce; 3160 miles are completed, ai(nd now in olperation, 812 miles more are in course of construction, making in the aggregate 3979 miles, or one miie of railroad to 14 square miles of territory. Eight lines cross the eastern boundary of the State, anld the Mississippi River is approachled within the State by thirteen, connectiing with the east and west throug,h routes across the States of Missouri and Iowa, antl(i northern routes tlihrough tl isconsin and Minnesota, westwar(l to the Pacific, and( eastward to the great trade marts of the Atlan-tli coast. In addition to thie facilities thus afforded to commnerce, a canal has been constructed from Lakle Michigan, at Chi(ago, to La Salle. on the Illinois River, 100 miles in length, affording communication by water between the lake and the Mississippi. The canal is now being enlarged by deepening its channel to accommodate large class vessels, so that the waters of Lake Michigan will flow through to the Illinois River, the bed of which is improved so as to establish uninterrupted steam navigation at all seasons from the Mississippi, by wavy of the lakes and the St. Lawrence, to the Atlantic.”

EDUCATION. There are twenty-foutr colleges in Illinois; the majority of them are in prosperous condition. Some of them are really entitled to ranll only as acadlemies and seminaries. The public school system is excellent. There is a permanent school fund, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. In 1870, the amount thus exl)ed(ed( in the State was $6,027,510. In the same year there were 11,050 schools in the State, conducted by 20,097 teachers, and attended by 677,623 children. The State Normal University is located at Normal, near the city of Bloomington, and is a flourishing institution, amply provided with buildings and grounds.

At the close of the regular term, a Teachers’ 868

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ILLINOIS. Institute is usually held for two weeks, and is attended by hundreds of teachers from all parts of the State. The State Industrial University is located at Quincy. It was opened in 1868, and has a good number of students. It embraces the following schools: Science, Literature, and Arts; Agriculture; Mechanical Science and Art; Military Tactics and Engineering; Mining and Metallurgy; Civil Engineering; Analytical and Applied Chemistry; Natural History and Practical Geology; Commercial Science and Art. Students may choose their studies, provided they are sufmiciently advanced to keep tip with the regular classes. The educational system of the State is under the general supervision of a State Superintendent of Public Schools, who is elected by the people for four years. He has power to make such rules as he may (leem necessary for the government of the schools, and his construction of existing laws upon this subject must be accepted by his subordinates. He reports once in two years to the Legislature. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who is required to visit the schools and direct their general operations. He reports bieninially to the State Superintendent.

Each township elects its Trustees, who have the immediate management of its schools. They report once in two years to the County Superintendent.

Each District has three Directors, who manage the finances of the schools.

All teachers are required to possess certificates of competency from the State or County Superintendent. A County Superintendent’s certificate is good for two years in the county in which it is issued. The State Superintendent’s certificate is good in any part of Illinois (luring the life of its holder. In 1870, there were 785 private schools in Illinois, attended by 90,152 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Joliet, and was completed in 1868. “The whole area of land pertaining to the Penitentiary is 72.19 acres; whole area within main wall, 16 acres; the main wall is 25 feet high and 6 feet thick; there are 100 cells for separate system, 7 by 15 feet, and 15 feet high, 900 cells for congregate system, and 100 cells for females, 4 by 7 feet, and 7 feet high. Each cell has a distinet ventilating tube extending to roof, with two registers in each All partitions, floors, and ceiling of cells are formed each of one stone, 83) I,

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. eight inches thick. The buildings and walls stand on rock foundation. All the buildings and grounds are supplied with pure water from a spring at the bluff; the buildings are warmed by steam the kitchen and wash rooms are fiurnished with steam and other cooking and washing fixtures of the most modern and approved kinds. The engines, of 150 horse power each, furnish the motive power for the machinery, running nearly 1500 feet of heavy line shafting. Altogether, it is one of the most complete prisons in the United States, as well as the most extensive and best arranged manufacturing establishmeut in the West. Until July, 1867, the labor of convicts had been farmed out to contractors, who were bound to meet all the expenses of the prison. At that date, the State assumed entire control. A Board of Commissioners was appointed by the Governor, and this Board selected a Warden, who has the general management of the prison, under the direction of the Commissioners. All minors under the age of 18, except for the crime of robbery, bIur,glary, or arson, convicted of any criminal offence, are exempted from punishment in the Penitentiary.

They may be fined and sent to county jail, or either, for misdemeanors, but for higher crimes are always sent to the county jail. The number of these young offenders is steadily increasing in the State.” * The Illintois State Hospital for the Insane, the Institution for the Edclucation of the Blind, and the Institution for Idiots and Imnbeciles, are located at Jacksonville. They are admirably organized] and conducted, and are filrnished with commodious buildings. They take rank among the first institutions of a similar nature in the Union. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 3459 churches in Illinois. The value of church property was $22,664,283. LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1870, there were 13,570 libraries in Illinois, containing 3,323,914 volumes. Of these, over 5000 are public libraries. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals pll)lished in the State was as follows: daily, 39; semiweekly, 4; triweekly, 10; weekly, 364; miscellaneous, 88; making a total of 505, with an aggregate annual circulation of 113,140,492 col)ies.

* American Year Book, vol. i., p. 321. 1;70 l’,

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ILLINOIS. FINANCES. On the 30th of November, 1874, the State debt amounted to $1,730,972, being $329,178 less than on December 1st, 1872. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30th, 1868, were $2,276,763, and the expenditures $2,126,668. Ill 1868, there were 83

National banks, with a capital of $12,070,000 doing business in the State.

GOVERNMENT. Every mnale citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county ninety days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The government of the State is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 51 nmembers chosen for four years, onehalf retiring biennially), and a House of Representatives (of 153 members, chosen for two years), all elected by the people. All the State officers, except the Treasurer, whose term is two years, are chosen for four years. The Legislature meets annually on the first Monday in January. The courts of the State are, the Supreme Judicial Court, 28 Circuit Courts, and Justices’ Courts. The Supreme Court consists of three divisions, corresponding to the three divisions of the State, and has appellate jurisdiction only. The city of Chicago has its own courts.

The seat of Government is established at Springfield. The State is divided into 102 counties. HISTORY. This State was first known to the whites by the name of “The Illinois Country,” and was first explored, in 1673, by Marquette (a missionary), and Joliet, who came from Canada, and were followed by La Salle and Hennepin. About the year 1693, mission stations were established by the French at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Peoria. During the early part of the eighteenth century the French made several settlements on the lower Mississippi, and a Jesuit monastery was established at Kaskaskia. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the British began to advance their claims to the Illinois 871

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. country, and the French commenced to build new forts and strengthen the old ones to resist them. In 1763, all the French possessions east of the Mississippi were ceded to Great Britain, who thus became mistress of the Illinois country. During the Revolution the British had posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and St. Vincent (the latter now Vincennes, Indiana). They were captured by General Rogers Clark, the American commander in this region, in one of the most memorable campaigns in our history. In 1784, Virginia ceded her territory northwest of the Ohio River (of which Illinois then formed a part) to the United States. In 1800, the Territory of Indiana was formed, embracing the country between the State of Ohio a(nd the Mississippi, and, in 1809, Illinois was erected into a separate Territory, with its present name. It grew rapidly in population, and on the 23d of December, 1818, was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. During the war of 1812 the settlers suffered much from the savages and British. In the year 1812, Captain IHeald, commanding Fort Dearborn, which occupied the site of the present city of Chicago, was directed by General Hull, who surrendered Detroit to the British, to evacuate that post, distribute his stores among the Indians, and retire to Fort Wayne, in Indiana. Captain Heald lhad no confidence in the savages, and threw his powder into the wells, and poured his wl-hiskey on the ground. This done, lie abandoned the fort, and set out on his march to Indiana. The savages were particularly anxious to obtain the powder and whiskey, and were so exasperated at failing to secure them that they fell upon the garrison after it had proceeded two miles from the fort, and massacred 41 men, 2 women, and 12 children. This terrible occurrence for a long time cast a gloom over the Territory. In 1832, during the prevalence of the Black Hawk War, the northern part of the State suffered much from the depredations of the savages. In 1840, the Mormons, being driven out of Missouri, settled on the east bank of the Mississippi, in this State, and founded a city which they called Nauvoo. They were granted extraordinary privileges by the State, but were the object of the bitter hatred of the inhabitants of the surrounding country. Several conflicts occurred between the two parties, and the State militia was called out to preserve the peace. Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader and ” Prophet,” and his brother, Hiram, were imprisoned in the jail at Carthage, where 872

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ILLINOIS. STATE IIOUSE, SPRINGFIELD. they were attacked by a mob and assassinated, on the 27th of June, 1844. The prisoners were at the timne under the protection of the State, and this made the assassination all the more outrageous. like all such violent acts, it failed of its object, and made the success of Mlormonisni more certain. Soon after this, the Mormons abandoned Nauvoo, and began their emigration to their present home in Utah. During the late war, the State of Illinois furnished (to December 1, 1864) 197,364 troops to the service of the United States. CITIES AND

TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of Illinois are, (Chlicag,o, Peorill, Quincy, Bellville, Alton, Rockford, Galena, aind Bloomington. SPRINGFIELT)D, riie capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Sanganion county, 3 miles southl of the Sangamon River, 97
miles northeast of St. Louis, and 188 miles southwest of Chicago. Latitude 39~ 48’ N.; longitude 89~ 33’ W. The city lies near the centre of the State, and is built on the open prairie which surrounds it in every direction. It is regularly laid out, and is well built. The streets aro 873 .54

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. wide and straight, and( are ornamented with shade trees. From the abundance of its shrubbery and floral ornaments Springfield has been called “the City of Flowers.” Many of the residences are large and handsome, and the business section contains numerous showy buildings. The State House is an elegant structure, and stands in a beautiful square of three acres, in the centre of the city. On the streets facing the square are the various public buildings of the State and city.

The Court House and State Arsenal are the other prominent buildings. The city contains about 13 churches, several public and private schools, the Illinoi State University, 2 hotels, and 5 newspaper offices, and is lighted with gas. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 17,365. Lying in a country unsurpassed in fertility, Springfield is a place of considerable commercial importance. It has railway connections with Chicago and St. Lollis, and with all parts of the State and the West. It is also engaged in the manufacture of flour, woollen goods, and iron ware. In the vicinity are extensive beds of bituminous coal. The city is noted as having been the home of the late President Lincoln. In the picturesque cemetery of Oak Ridge, two miles north of the city, the statesman lies buried. Springfield was first settled in 1819. In 1822 it was formally laid out, and in 1837 it became the capital of the State. CHICAGO, The metropolis of the State, is the fifth city of the Republic and the second city of the VWestern States. It is situated in Cook county, on the western side of Lake Michigan, ab)out 30 miles north of its southern end, at the mouth of the Chicago River, on the margin of a prairie several miles in width. It is 188 miles northeast of Springfiel(, 285 miles northeast of St. Louis, 300 miles northwest of Cincilnnati, 928 miles northwest of New York, and 763 miles northwest of Washington. The site of Chicago is low, being but five feet al-bove the lake, but sufficiently elevated to prevent inundation. “The general direction of the lake shore here is north and south. The water, except at the mouth of the river, is shoal, and vessels, missing the entrance ground, go to pieces in a storm within 100 yards of the shore. The harbor of Chicago is the river, and nothing more. It is a short, deep, slugglish stream, creeping through the black, fat mud of the prairie, and 874

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CHICAGO.

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J ~ mm I I I Il ii 11I li I I r

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ILLINOIS. in some places would hardly be thought worthy of a name; but it makes itself wonderfully useful here. Outside of its mouth a vessel has no protection, nor are there any piers or wharves. The mouth of the river has been docked and dredged out, to afford a more easy entrance; but, after you are once in, it narrows to a mere canal, from 50 to 75 yards ill width. The general course of the river, for about three-fouillrths of a mile, is at right angles with the lake shore, and this portion is known as the Chicago River. It here divides, or more properly, two branches unite to form it, coming from opposite direc tions, and at nearly right angles to the main stream. These are called, respectively, the’North Branch’ and the’South Branchll,’ and are each navigable for some 4 miles, giving, in the aggregate, a river firont of some 15 or 16 miles, capable of being increased by canals and slips, somne of which have already been constructed. Into the’South Branch’ comes the Illinois Canal, extending from this point 100 miles to La Salle, on the Illinois River, forming water communication between the ]llkes and the Mississippi. For the want of a map, take the letter H; call the upright column on the right hand the lake shore; let the cross-bar represent the Chicago River, the left hand column will stand for the two branches, and you have a plan of the water lines of the City of Chicago, which will answer very well for all purposes of general description. The general divisions thus formed are called, respectively,‘North Si(le,”South Side,”West Side.’ In this narrow, muddy river, lie the heart and strength of Chicago. Dry this uip, and Chicago would dry up with it, mean and dirty as it looks. From the mouth of the St. Joseph River, in Michigan, round to Milwaukie, in the State of Wisconsin, a distance, by the lake shore, of more than 250 miles, Chicago is the only place where 20 vessels can be loaded or unloaded, or find shelter in a storm. A glance at the map, then, will show that it is the only accessible port-and hence the commercial centre-of a vast territory, measuring thousands of square miles of the richest agricultural country in the world.” The harbor is being gradually deepened to admit vessels of a large class, and is being so greatly improved at the expense of the General Government that it will soon be one of the best on the lakes. The city is regularly laid out in rectangular l)locks, with the streets hlaving an average width of 80 feet. From the lake the city extends westward for about 5 miles. Its length, parallel with the lake, is al)out 8 miles. The ground gradually rises to the westward to an extent sufficient to drain the city thoroughly. The streets are paved 877

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to a great extent wvithl the Nicholson pavement of wooden blocks. Until 1856, most of the streets of Chicago were planked, and the buildings then erected were generally without cellars.

Consequently in the spring of the year the ground asserted its original character of a swamIp. Since 1856, it has b)ecome necessary to change the grade of the city several times, and this has made a difference of from two to five feet ill the original level. The process of raising the houses of Chicago was one of great interest. Buildings of immense size, an(l even entire blocks, were raised several fbet above their original level without a crack being made in themn, or a single thing, displaced. I)uring all this time the houses were occupied, and the business and every day life of the occupants went on as usual. The f(-llowiIig account from the Chticago Tiribune, of the raising of a entire block of business houses, in the spring of 1860, will show howv the work was carried on: “For the past week the marvel and thle wonder of our citizens and visitors has been the spectacle of a solid front of firstclass business blocks, comprising the entire block on the north side of Lake street, between Clark and La Salle streets, a length of 320 feet, being raised about four feet by the almost resistless lifting force of 6000 screws. The block comprises 13
first-(lass stores, and a large double marble structure, the Marine Bank Building. Its subdivisions are a five-story marble front block of three stores; a second four-story block of three stores, and a five-story block of four stores, at the corner of Clark street-these all presenting an unbroken firont, in the heart of our city, and filled with occupants. This absence from annoyance to the merchants and the public was due to the skill with which the contractors hung the side walks to the block itself, and carried up the same with the rise of the building. The block was raised four feet eight inches, the required height, in five days, when the masons put in the permanent supports. The entire work occupied about four weeks. An estimate from a reliable source made the entire weight thus raised about 35,000 tons. So carefulily was it done, that not a pane of glass was broken, nor a crack in masonry appeared. The internal order of the block prevailed undisturbed. The process of raising, as indicated above, was by the screw, at 6000 of which, three inches in diameter and of three-eighths thread, 600 men were employed, each man in charge of from eight to ten screws. A complete system of signals was kept in operation, and by these the workinen passed, each through his series, giving each screw a quarter turn, 878

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ILLINOIS. Fm i;’, Th>~~~ _____ THiE TRIBUNE BUILDING. then returning to repeat the same. Five days’ labor saw the immense weight rise through four feet eight inches, to where it stood on temporary supports, while rapidly being replaced by permanent foundations. The work, as it stands, is worth going miles to see, and has drawn the admiration of thousands within the past week.” Chicago is one of the most magnificent cities on the continent, and is often called the “New York of the West.” The business streets are lined with splendid warehouses, which have no superiors ill elegance and convenience in any of the Eastern cities. Iron, stone, and marble are in common use. Lake street is the Broadway of Chicago, while Michigan avenue and Wabash avenue are lined with princely edifices, and are adorned with rows of luxuriant trees. South Water street is devoted to the heavy wholesale trade. Many of the private residences on the north and west side of the river are handsomely built, and are surrounded with elegantly ornamented grounds. 879 I r-7” V t

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Chicago River is crossed by nutmerous bridges, uniting the various parts of the city. These are all drawbridges, made so ill order not to interfere with the navigation of the river. They are hung in the mniddle, and turn on a pivot, only two men being needed for each bridge. In 1867-S, a tunnel was built under the river, and is now in constant use by vehicles and pedestrians. It is the only work of the kind in America, and with the exception of the Tlhamres Tunnel, ill London, the only one in the world. Street railways connect the various portions of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from Lake MIiclhigan. The wfater is brought into the city by means of a tunnel, extending from the shilore, under the bed of the lake, to a crib or well built up in the lake, two miles from the land.

The depth of the shore .slaft is 69 feet, and of the lake shaft 64 feet.

The crib is simply a well into which the water of the lake is allowed to flow, and from whichl it makes its way to the city through the tunnel, which is nearly circular in form, being 5 feet 2 inches high, and 5 feet 2
inches wide. It is enclosed in brilck masonry, 8 inches thick. The cost of the entire work was a)out $1,000,000. The city contains two artesian wells of great value. They are respectively 911 and 694 feet deep, and flow about 1,200,000 gallons daily. The principal public l)uildiings are the Custom House, in which is the Post Office, a fine building of stone; the Chamber of Commerice, a beautiful edifice of white marble; the Court House; Crosby’s Opera House; and the JIerchants’ Exchange. There are about 112 churlches in the city. Some of which possess handsome buildings. The schools of the city, both public and private, are noted for their excellence. There are about 27 public schools, 3 commercial colleges, and 24 Roman Catholic convents and schools in operation. The institutions of the higher class are the University of Chicago, foundedl by the late Senator Douglas, and possessing a series of elegant buildings; tie Chicago Theological Seminary; the Presbytei(in Theological Sem,i,airy; the Uiversity of St. Mary of the Lake; the Rushlt ledical College, and two other medical colleges. The Dearborn Observatory possesses a fine telescope. The Academy of Sciences has a collection of 38,000 sp )ecimens in the various departments of natural history. The Tist(,)‘ical Society Library numbers 85,000 bound and unbound books and )atmphlets. The library of the Young Mlen’s Association contains about 10,000 volumes; that of the Law Institute numbers over 8000 volumes. 880

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ILLINOIS. The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous and well managed. The principal are the United States,Varine Hospital; the Cook County Hospital; the Maydalen Asylut; the Protestant Orphan Asylum; the Homefor the’riendless; St. Joseph’s (male) and St. .Ja iy’s (female) orphan asylums; and the Soldiers’ Home. The city contains about 5
theatres, and a number of concert and lecture halls, and second-class places of aniusement. The cemeteries are 12 in number. Graceland, Rose Hill, Calvary, and Oakwoods are the principal. They are all situated beyond the city limits. The city contains a number of handsome public squares. The principal of these are the Esplanade or Lake Park, and Dearborn, Union, Jefferson, and Lincoln Parks. With the exception of the last, these contain from 1 to 5 acres each. Lincoln Park embraces an area of 60 acres, fronting on the lake, and will eventually be the handsomnest pleasure-ground in the West. The hotels of Chicago are among the best in the country, including four or five firstclass establishments, and several inferior houses. The Grand Pacific, Sheirman, Palmer, and Briygs’

Houses are the leading establishments. The city is supplied with an efficient police force and steam fire department, a police and fire alarm telegraph, and is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people.

In 1870, the population was 298,977. The position of Chicago on the lake and its connections by railway withl the rest of the Union have made it one of the most important places in America. Possessing now one of the best harbors on the great chain of lakes, it controls a large share of the enormous trade of those inland seas, and its water communication with the Gulf of Mexico is made sure by means of the Michigan and Illinois Canal, which is so constructed as to turn the current of the Chicago River into the navigable portion of the Illinois River. This canal is beiing deepened so as to admit the passage of steamers from the IIlinois to Chicago and the lakes. Fifteen lines of railway centre here, and afford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the Union. Lines of steamships ply between Chicago and the various ports on Lakes MIichigan, Huron, and Superior. Some idea of the lake trade of Chicago may be gained from the following statement published by the Custom House authorities of the port.

The states ment is for the year 1870: 881 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS LESOURCES. During the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, (O)ctober and November, the following number of vessels entered and clearedi thae port of Chicago, and those of the other cities mentioned: E,;te ed. Clearedi.

Chicago…………………………………………………. 12,546

12,358 New York…………………………………. 5757 6158

Philadelphia……………………………………….. 2098 1698

13altimore………………………………….. 1736 1866 N\ew Orleans………………………………………….. 1148 1352 San Francisco……………………………….. 468 499

Mobile………………………………………………………….

456 408 Savannali………………………………………… 596 610

Enitered at Chicago during the eight inoiitlis of navigation… 12,546

Entered at othler ports during the same time……………………

12,259 Chicago’ s
excess…………………………………………………. 287

Average tonnage of vessels entered at Chicago……………….. 239,921

Average tonnage of vessels entered at New York……………. 599,661

ClIicago is the largest interior grain market in the world. In 1838, the first shipmnent of wheat was made, and consisted of 78 bushels. In 1867, the total receipts of grain and flour were as follows: 1,814,236 barrels of flour; 13,090,868 busllels of whleat; 23,018,827 bushels of corn; 10,988,617 buishels of oaits; 1,306,204 bushels of rye; 2,246,446 bushels of barley; in all, equal to 59,722,142 bushels of grain, the heaviest amount received in any one’ear. The grain elevators of Chicago are among its greatest curiosities. There are about 17 in all, possessing an aggregate capacity of 10,055,000 bushels. An English traveller thus describes them: “An elevator is as ugly a monster as has been yet produced. In uncouthness of form it outdoes those obsolete old brutes who used to roam about the semi-aqueouis world, and live a most uncomfortable life with their great hungering stomachs and huge unsatisfied maws. The elevator itself consists of a big moveable trunk-moveable as is that of an elephant, but not pliable, and less graceful even than an elephiant’s.

This is attached to a huge granary or barn; but in order to give altitude witlhin the l)arn for the necessary moving up and (down of this trunk-seeing that it cannot be curled gracefully to its purposes as the elep)hant’s is curled-thlere is an awkward box erected on the roof of the barn, giving some twventy feet of additional height, up into which the elevator can be thrust. It will be understood, then, that this big moveable trunk, the head of which, when it is at rest, is thrust tip into the box on thIe roof, is made to slant down in an oblique direction from the building to the river; for the ele 882

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ILLINOIS. 883 i i SCENE ON LAKE STREET. vator is an amphibious institution, and flourishes only on the banks of navigabl)le waters. When its head is ensconced within its box, and the beast of prey is thus nearly hidden within the buildiing, the unsuspicious vessel is brought tip within reach of the creaturc’s trunk, and down it comes, like a mosqulito’s proboscis, right through the deck, in at the open aperture of the hold, and so into the very vitals and bowels of the ship. When there, it goes to worl( upon its food with a greed and an avidity that is disgusting to a beholder of any taste or iniagintation. And now I nmust explain the anatonmical arrangemelit by whichl the elevator still devours and continues to devour till the corn within its rea(.l] has all been swallowed, nmasticated, and digested. Its long trunkl, as seen slanting down from out of the building across the wharf and into the ship, is a mere wooden pipe; l)ut this pipe is divided within. It has two departments; and as the grain-bearing troughs pass up the one on a pliable band, they pass empty down the other. The system, therefore, is that of an ordinary dredging machine; only that corn and not mud is taken away, and that the buckets or troughs are hidden from sight. Below, within the

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. stomach of the poor bark, three or four laborers are at work, helping to feed the elevator. They shovel the corn up toward its maw, so that at every swallow he should take in all that he can hold. Thuls the troug,hs, as they ascend, are kept full, and when they reach the upper building they empty themselves illto a shoot, over which a porter stands guard, moderating the shoot by a door, which the weight of his finger call open and close. Through this doorway the corn runs into a measure, and is weighed. By measures of forty bushels each, the tale is kept. There stands the apparatus, with the figures plainly marked, over against the porter’s eye; and as the sum mounts nearly up to forty bushels he closes the door till the grains run thinly through, hardly a handful at a time, so that the balance is exactly struck. Then the teller standing by marks down his figure, and the record is made. The exact porter touches the string of another door, and the forty bushels of corn run out at the bottom of the measure, dis appear down another shoot, slanting also toward the water, and de posit themselves in the canal boat. The transit of the bushels of corn from the larger vessel to the smaller will have taken less than a minute, and the cost of that transit will have been-a farthing.

“But I have spoken of the rivers of wheat, and I must explain what are those rivers. In the working of the elevator, which I have just attempted to describe, the two vessels were supposed to be lying at the samne wharf, on the same side of the building, in the same water, the smaller vessel inside the larger one. When this is the case, the corn runs d(lirect from the weigllitg measure into the shoot that comnimunicates with the canal boat. But there is not room or time for confining the work to one side of the building. There is water on both sides, and the corn or wheat is elevated onl the one side, an(d reshipped on the other. To effect this, tile corn is carried across the breadth of the building; but, nevertheless, it is never handled or mloved( in its direction on trucks or carriages requiring the use of menl’s muscles for its motion. Across the floor of the building are two gtltters, or channels, and through these small troughs on a pliable band( circulate very quic(kly. They which run one way, in one channel, are laden; they which run by the other channel are empty. The corn pours itself into these, and they again pour it into the shoot which commands the other water. And thus rivers of corn are running through these buildings night and day. The secret of all the motion and arrangement consists, of course, in the elevation. The corn is lifted up; and when lifted up, can move itself and arrange itself, and weigh itself, and load itself.” 884

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ILLINOIS. Next to its trade in grain is the lumber trade of Chicago; the city being the most important lumber market in the United States. In 1867, there were received here 861,912,900 feet of lumber, 432,261,000 shingles, and 143,847,000 pieces of laths. Chicago ranks next to New York as a beef and cattle market, In 1864, its receipts were 336,627 head. As a beef-packing point it is unsurpassed by any city on the continent, its annual packing amounting to about 100,000 head. As a pork-packing point it is the first ill the Union, having sur passed Cincinnati some years ago.

In 1864-5, 760,514 hogs were killed and packed here. In the same year, the total receipts of hogs at Chicago amounted to 1,410,320. The pork houses of Chicago are models of their kind, and are richly worth visiting. The pork house is usually a substantial structure of brick, of about 180 by 160 feet on the ground floor, with a large and commodious lard house adjoining, but separated from it by a heavy brick wall and iron doors to prevent the steam and vapor from entering the main building. Tlie pork house is three stories high, with a strong, double, flat roof, and this roof is arrange(l into convenient pens, the whole being capable of containing 4000 hogs at once. The lower floor is used for curing and storing the meat, the second for packing and shipping, and the third for cooking and cutting up the hogs. As soon as the hogs arrive at the pork house, they are driven up an inclined plane to thile pens at the top of the building. They are allowed to remain there two nights and a day. By this arrangement they are given an abundance of pure, fresh air, and are brought to the best possible sanitary condition. If they were killed imnmediately after hard exercise and excitement, as in driving them to the slaughter pens, the flesh would( be in a high state of fever, the miarrow in a semti-fluid condition, and this would produce what is known as foul joints, and the mneat would in a short time become tainted and eventually unfit for use. When the time for killing arrives, twenty hogs are driven into a pen with a fine grated floor. A man enters the pen, and with a long hammer deals each hog a blow on the forehead between the eyes, which fells him to the floor. He is followed lby another man, who cuts the throat of each animal with a sharp knife, the blood flowing through the grated floor into gutters which conduct it to a large tank outside the building.

Another lot of hogs is driven into an adjoining pen, and the same process gone through with. 885 Ie

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OUR COUNT’RY AND ITS PRESOURCES. When the hogs have been bled sufficiently, they are, one at a time, slid down an inclined plane into a large scalding tub or vat, in which the water is kept at a regular temperature by steam coils. lHere they are floated along slowly until they reach the table at the opposite end, where they are taken out by a very simple contrivance worke(l by one man. After being placed upon the table, they are passed along thlrough the hands of different men, each of whom has stated duties to perform. The first two take fronm the back in an instant all the bristles suitable for the brushmaker or cobbler, and deposit them in barrels for removal; eight or ten pairs more of men strip the hog of its coat, and clean it, when the gambrel stick is put into it, and it is swung to an overhead railway, and thoroughly drenched with cold water to remove all inmpurities. It is then opened and the intestines removed, after which it is again drenched with cold water, and the back bone is split down, and the leaf lard loosened. It is then taken to the cooling room, and allowed to remain there two days, in which time all animal heat disappears. The hog, is then cut up. One blow from an immense cleaver severs the head firom the body. Another man cuts away the hinid-parts containing the hamis, and the remainder of the hog is cut up according to the requirements of the market, the leaf lard being taken away by hand. So rapidly is the cutting process performed, that two expert men can easily cut up over 2000 hogs in eight hours, though the day’s work is generally confined to about 1200 head. The process is completed in the curing room. Here a solution of saltpetre is liberally applied to all the green mieat, except the shoulders; and, while wet, it is covered with salt, and packed away in tiers to dry. In three weeks it is han(lled again; receives a second dressing of salt, and is allowed to stand seven days more, when it is cured, and ready for packing. After the small intestines are removed from the hog, they are taken tv men and boys, and all the fat is separated from them and placed in large vats of water to wash it clean, going through two waters, when it is ready to be put into the lard tank. The lard house is, like the main building, three stories in height. In the second story are seven large iron tanks, extending up through the ceiling into the third story, where they are each provided with an opening used for filling them. In these tanks all the fatty substances used for making lard are placed until the vessels are full. The mass is then subjected to a jet of steam from the boilers, of a 886

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ILLINOIS. pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch. Each tank is provided with a safety valve, so that on ie-rbing, the maximum pressure al lowed the steam passes off, causing, a continuous flow of steam through the whole mass. By this process every particle of lard is set free from the mass. After the steam has been kept on for a certain time, a faucet is opened midway of the tank, or about where the lard and water meet, and the former is drawn off’ into an iimmense clarifying vessel, ill wvhich, oln being subjected to a hlieat of 300 degrees Fahrenhleit, it is thoroughly cleared of all impurities, a part rising to the top of the lard, where it is skimme(l off; and the rest settling at the bottom, firomI which it is drained off by a faucet. The remainder is the purest and sweetest lard that caii b)e made, being entirely free from any tiun pleasant odor, and as agreeable to the taste as new, unsalted butter. The refuse material is used in various wvays, nothing that can be put to any conceivable use being thrown away. The salt trade of Chicago is also important, varying from 650,000 to 775,000 barrels annually. In 1867, there were 7500
buildings erected in Chicago, at a cost of $7,500,000. The name of the city is said to have been derived as follows: Along’ the shores of the river the wild onion was found in great abundance, to which the Indians gave the name Chi-ka-jo, from which the word Chicago is derived. The first white men to visit the spot were the early French Jesuit nmissionaries and fur traders. Father Marquette visited it in 1673, and Perrot about the year 1770. At that time, this territory was in possession of the Miami Indians, but subsequently the Potawatomies crowded the Mliamis back, and became the sole possessors, until the year 1795, when they became parties to a treaty with Wayne, by which a tract of land, six miles square, at the mouth of the Chicago River, was ceded to the United States-the first extinction of Indian title to the land on which Chicago is built. In 1804, Fort Dearborn was built by the United States on the point south of the river, near its mouth. In 1812, the Government, becoming applrehlensive that a fort so fiar advanced from the frontiers could not be successfully held against the British and their allies, ordered its evacuation. On the 12th of August, Captain Heal(], the commandant, marched out of the fort with his little garrison, consisting of about 75 p)ersons in all, and commenced his withdrawal along the lake shore. WTh?n he had gotten about two miles from the fort he was attacked 887

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. by the Potawa,omie Indians, and 52 persons, viz., 12 militia, 26 regulars, 2 women and 12 children, were killed and wounded. The rest succeeded in escaping. The Indians destroyed the fort, but it was rebuilt in 1816, under Captain Bradley. The fort was held as a military post until 1837, when the Indians having left the country, it was abandoned. In 1831, Chicago contained a few log cabins which had sprung up around the fort, and about a dozen families besides the officers and soldiers in Fort Dearborn. On the 26th of September, 1833, the town was laid out, and on the 4th of March, 1837, received its first charter. At that time, it contained 4470 inhabitants. It remiained stationary until about 1840, when it began its remarkable career of prosperity. The following table will show its rapid growth during the past thirty years: P(opiilation. ………………………………………..4853

……………………………… 29,963

………………………………………..109,420

………………………………………..298,977 On the evening of Saturday, October 8th, 1871, a fire broke out in a stable on De Koven street, near the river, on the west side of the city. It was caused by the overturning of a kerosene lamp by the kick of a cow. The flames spread rapidly, and were fanned furiously by a high wind. The quarter in which the fire originated being of wood, there was everything to favor the progress of the conflagration, which soon defied all efforts to control it. It raged until after midnight on the 9th, and destroyed the entire quarter between the lake and the north branch of the Chicago river, and the larger and more important part of the district lying between the lake and the south branch of the river, involving in the general ruin the entire business quarter, and a large portion of the residence section. It was the most disastrous conflagration of modern times. The total area burned over, including streets, was 2124 acres, or very nearly three and one-third square miles. The number of buildings destroyed was 17,450; about 98,500 persons were rendered homeless; and 250 persons died during the conflagration. The loss occasioned by the fire amounted to $196,000,000 as nearly as can be ascertained. The exact loss will probably never be known. The people of Chicago met their crushing disaster with a manly firmness that excited the admiration of the civilized world. The 888

Year, 1840, 1850, 1860, 1870,

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ILLINOIS. ashes of their city were scarcely cold when they set to work to rebuild it, and to win back the prosperity and comfort of which they had been so suddenly deprived. In the short space of two years they succeeded in almost obliterating the traces of the fire. New and splendid edifices were erected, and the city has assumed its old aspect, with this difference,-that the new buildings are generally of a handsomer and more substantial character than the old ones. A stranger visiting the city at present would scarcely believe that four years ago the busy, teeming city, with its splendid streets and superb edifices, was a blackened ruin. The city has profited by the lesson of the fire, and wooden edifices are disappearing and giving place to structures of brick, stone, and iron. The energy and enterprise which surmounted the great loss of 1871, and won back for Chicago the prosperity she had so fairly earned, must ever rank among the proudest achievements of the American people, or of the human race. The new city was visited, in 1874, by an extensive fire, which would have been regarded as a great disaster, but for the more serious calamity of 1871. QUINCY, In Adams county, is the second city of the State. It is situated on the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi, 160 miles above St. Louis, 268 miles southwest of Chicago, and 109 miles west of Springfield. The city is built on a limestone bluff, 125 feet above the river, of which it commands beautiful and extensive views. It is well built, and contains a number of lhand(some edifices. Sonme of the residenccs are tasteflil and elegant. It is lighted with gas and supplied with water. It contains several excellent public and private schools, 24
churches, 10 public halls, a court house, and 5 newspaper offices. Two of these journals are printed in the German language, a large proportion of the inhabitants being of German origin. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 24,052. Quincy is actively engaged in the Mississippi River trade, and the landing is usually thronged with steamboats. The city is the terminus of two lines of railway, which connect it with all parts of the West on both sides of the Mississippi. The surrounding country is an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated prairie; and of this region Quincy is the principal market. The city is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures; iron, tobacco, lumber, flour, ma 889

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. chinery and carriages being the principal articles produced. About 100,000 hogs are packed here annually. Quincy was settled about the year 1822, the first inhabitant being John Wood, of the State of New York. In 1825, the town was laid out by order of the county court. It received its name on tilhe day that John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States. The Indians continued in the vicinity as late as 1832, when the Black Hawk War occurred. At the time of the first settlement of the town, there were but three white inhabitants within the limits of the present county of Adams. These were obliged to go to Atlas, 40 miles distant, where there was a horse-mill, in order to have their corL: meal ground, this being their principal breadstuff. QUINCY.

GALI,ENA, In Jo Daviess county, is an important city. It is situated on Fevre River, 6 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi, 250 miles north-by-west of Spriniifiel](1, 160 niles west-northwest of Chicago, mn90

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ILLINOIS. 1651 miles above New Orleans, and 450 miles above St. Louis.

“The river, sometimes called the Galena, on whose rocky shelf this town is built, is more properly an arm of the Mississippi RPiver, sitting up between lofty bluffs, around whose base it winds with picturesque effect.

Tlhe streets rise one above another, and communicate with each other 1)y fligh)ts of steps, so that the hlouses on the higher streets are I)perched like an eagle’s eyrie, overlooking the rest, and comumanding an extensive prospect. Pleasant churches meet the eye on the first ledge or terrace above the levee, and private residences wearing an ispect of neatness and comfort adlorni each successive height.” The city is wvell paved, and the houses are built mostly of brick. It is lighted with gas, and contains, beside the county buildings, a number of churches and public schools, and several newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 7019. Galena is one of the oldest and most interesting towns in the State, but owes its importance entirely to the great lead mines by which it is surrounded in every direction. Considerable quantities of copper are found in connection with the lead. It is estimated that these mines are capable of yieldiing, 150,000,000 pounds annually for an indefinite period in the fiuture. Mineral fioni some eight or ten mining localities in Wisconsin is sent to Galena for shipment down the Mississippi, there being regular steamboat communication between Galena and the river towns. The city is connected with all points east and west by rail way. The lead mines lie in every direction around the city.

The country is hilly, and has a desolate and bleak appearance. A visitor thus describes it: “Every hill is spotted with little mounds of yellow earth, and is as full of holes as a worm-eaten cheese. Some winding road at lengthl brinigls you to the top of one of these bare, bleak hills, and to a larger nmocnd of the same yellowish earth, with which the whole country in sight is nmottled. On the top-of this mound of earth stands a windlass, and a man is wiinding, up tubs full of dirt and rock, which continually increase the pile under his feet. Beneath him, forty, fifty, a hundred feet under ground is the miner. As we look around on every ri(lge, see the windlass-mlen, and know that beneath each one a smnithy-faced miner is burrowing by the light of a dim candle, let us descend into the mines and see the miners at their work. The windlass-man makes a loop in the end of the rope, into which you put one 55 891

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. foot, and, clasping, at the same time, the rope with one hand, slowly you begill to go down; down, it grows darkler and (larker; a damp, grave-like smell comes up from below, and you grow dizzy with the (ontinual whirling around, until, whenv you reach the I)ottom and look u}) at the one small spot of daylight throlugll which you came down, -ot start with alarm as the great mass of rocks and eartlh over your lI(,,(-l seem to be swaying and tumrl)ling in. You draw your breath a little rmoie freely, however, when you perceive that it was only your o\Il (li/ziness, or the scuddling of clouds across the one spot of visible ,sky, aill yout take courage to lookl about you. Two or three dark little passages, from four to six feet lhigh, and about three feet wvide, lead off into the muLrky recesses of the mine; these are called, in mining par lance, drifts. You listen a little while, and there is a dull’thud!

thiud!’ comes from each one, and tells of something alive a;a,y off in the gloom, and, candle in hand, you start in search of it. You eye the rocky walls and roof uneasily as, half Lent, you thread the narrow passage, until, on turning some angle in the drift, you catch a glimpse of the miner, he looks small and dark, and mole-like, as on his knees, aln(l pick in hand, hle is prying from a perpl)endicular crevice in the rock, a lump of mineral as large as his lhea(l, and wl-ich, by the light of his dim candle, flashes and gleams like a huge carbuncle; or, perl)aps, it is a horizontal sheet or vein of mineral that Il)rcisents its edge to the miner; it is imbedlded in the solid rockl, which Ilust be picked ain(l blasted( down to get at the mineral. iTe strilkes tlhe rock with his 1i(k, ]and it rings as though he hlad struck an ativil. You cannot conceive how, with that strip of gleaming metal, seeming like a magiciain’s wand, to beckon hlim on and on, he coul(l gnanw, as it were, his narronw way for hundreds of feet tlhrough the rock. But large, indeedl, you thinkl, nmutst l)e hlis organ of hope, and resolute his perseverance. to do it with n(o such glittering prize in siglht. Yet such is otioi tl,e case, and maiiv a miner has toiled for years, and in the whNole time has discovered scarcely enough mineral to Iay for the )owv(ler used. Hope, however, in the breast of the miner, has as many lives as a cat, and on no day, in all his toilsome years, could you go (ldowvn into his dark and crooked hole; a lihindred f-(t firom grass and sunshine, but he would tell yoTl t-hat he was’ close to it now,’ in a few days he hoped to strikle a lode (pronounced among miners as thotugh it was spelled leedl), anal so a little longer and a little longer, and his life of toil wears away, while his work holds him with a fascination equalle(d only by a gambler’s passion for his cards. Lodes or 8.92

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ILLINOIS. veins of mineral in the same vicinity run in the general direction. Those in the vicinity of Galena, run east and west. The crevice which contains the mineral, is usually perpendicular, and from 1 to 20
feet in width, extending from the cap rock, or the first solid rock above the mineral, to uncertain depths below, and is filled with large, loose rocks, and a peculiar red dirt, in which are imnbedded masses of mnineral.

These masses are made up cubes, like those formed of crystallization, and many of them as geometrically correct as could be made with a com)ass and square. Before the mineral is broken, it is of the dull blue color of lead, but when broken, glistens like silver. Sometimes caves are broken into, whose roofs are frosted over with calcareous spar, as pure and white as the frost upon the window-pane in winter, and from dark crevices in the floor comes up the,gurgling of streams that never saw the sun. The life of a miner is a darkl and lonesome olne. hlis drift is narrow, and will not admit of two abreast; therefore, there is but little conversation, and no jokes are bandied about from mouth to mouth by fellow-laborers. The alternations of hope and disappointment give, in the course of years, a subdued expression to his countenance. There are no certain indications by which the miner can determine the existence of a vein of mineral without sinking a shaft. Several methods are resorted to, however. The linear arrangement of any number of trees that are a little larger than the generality of their neighbors, is considered an indication of an opening underground corresponding to their arrangement. Depressions in the general surface are also favorable signs, and among the older mniners there are yet some believers in the mystic power of wvitch-hlazel and the divining-rod. In the largest number of cases, however, but little attention is paiil to signs other than to have continuous ground-that is, to dig on the skirts of a ridge that is of good width on top, so that any vein that might be discovered would not run out too quickly on the other side of the ridge. On such ground the usual method of search is by suckering, as it is called. The miner dig,s a dozen or more holes, about 6
feet deep, and within a stone’s thl-row of each other, and in some one of these he is likely to find a few pieces of mineral, the dip of certain strata of clay then indicates the direction in which he is to continue the search, in which, if hlie is so successful as to strike a lode, his fortune is made; in the other event, hlie is only the more certain that the lucky day is not far off.” The city derives its name from the French word signifying a lead mine. It was settled in 1826, and was then about 300 miles from the settlements. Previous to the war it was the home of Presideu,t Grantn 893i,

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. He was at that time an unknown man, and was a clerk in the leather house of “J. R. Grant.” “He was courteous and popular with all who met him on business, but never sought acquaintances.

He was a very poor salesman, could not chaffer, and did not always know the price of an article.” While residing there, he once declared he would like to be mayor of Galena, as he would then cause the sidewalk from his house to the business quarter of the town to be properly laid. His remark was laughed at at the time, but was remembered in after years. He was residing in Galena at the commencement of the civil war. In the summner of 1865, Grant returned to Galena on a brief visit. tie had left it an unknown man; he returned to it one of the most noted personages in the world, the conqueror in the most formidable struggle of the century. His biographer thus describes his reception: “As he neared Galena, the enthusiasm was unbounded. Whlen the train arrived there, callnon were booming, bands ljaying, flags flying, and thousands of human throats lustily cheering…. An arch spanned one street, bearing the inscription wreathed with flowers, ‘General, the sidewalk is built.’ The people had presented to him a comnpletely furnished house-costing sixteen thousand dollars-first building a new sidewalk half a mile to the statioln.” ALTON, In Madison county, is a prominent city. It is situated on the left or east bank of the Mississippi River, 3 miles above the mouth of the Missouri River, 21 miles above St. Louis, 20 miles below the mouth of the Illinois, 76 miles southwest of Springfield, and 257 miles southwest of Chicago.

“The site of the city is quite uneven and broken, with high stony bluffs, and in front of it the Mississippi runs almost a due course firom east to west.” The city is one of the handsomest in the State, and is well l)uilt.

It contains a splendid City Hall, 10 churches, one of which (the Cathedral) is a magnificent structure, 4 newspaper offices, and a number of flourishing public and private schools. Shurtlef College and the floHticello Female Seminary are located in the vicinity. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 8665. Alton is one of the principal towns on the Mississippi, and is actively engaged in the trade of that river and of the Missouri. It has direct railway communication with Chicago and Terre Haute, Indiana. It is engaged in manufactures to a considerable extent.

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ILLINOIS. ALTON. Alton was first settled about the year 1808. The first settlers were much exposed to the savages, and lived in block houses for their mutual protection. The town was lai(l out about the year 1818. It grew slowly until 1832, vwhen the Penitentiary of the State was located here. This gave a considerable impetus to Alton. The Penitentiary has since been removed to Joliet. In 1837, Alton was incorporated as a city.

MISCELLIANIES. GREAT CONFLAGRA’rION IN CITICAGO. The following account of the origin andl progress of the fire is taken from’ IIarper’s Veekly: The fire hadl an igtnoble beginning. Late on Sunday evening, October 8thl, 18‘71, a woman went into a stable on Dekoven street, near the river, on the west side, to milk a cow, carrying withll her a kerosene lamp. This was kicked over by tlhe cow, and the burning fluid scattered among the lay and straw. A sin,le fireextingutlishler on the premises, or thle immediate application of water, w ould liave confined the flames to the quarter wllhere the fire began; but thle en,ines were waited for, and whlen they arrived the firemen, stupefied by thlleir exposure allnd exertions at a large fire the previous nig,lt, worked with less than their usual readiness and skill. The flames soon obtained headway. A higli wind fanned them into fury, and they became uncontrollable. They sprang from nhouse to house, and from square to square, until the district burned over the dlay 1)ef’olre was reached. In tile otlier direction the flames crossed the river northl of T’well’thl street to the southl side, and threatened the business portion of the city. The full extent of the danger was then for the first time realized(; the firemen, already worn out and exhausted, worked like heroes, and the Mayor and other officials bestirred thlemsQlves to take measures for the protection of the city. But 895

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the opportunity was lost. The time when thlorough organization could have blown up buildings, or prepared for the emergency, had been allowed to pass, and It was now a fight for life. The wind blowing, a stiff gale had possession of the flames, and the beautiful buildings, Chlicag,o’s glory, lay before them. Harrison, Van Buren, Adams, Ionlroe, and Madison streets were soon reached, the inter vening blocks fromn the river to Dearborn street, cn thle east, being consumed and within an incredibly short space of time nearly a mile of brick blocks was consumed, as if by imag,ic. It being, Sunday evening,, this part of the city was nearly deserted. Proprietors and employes were at homeC, utterly unconscious of whlat was taking place. Those who saw the light of this fire supposed it was the remains of Saturday nighlit’s fire, and, hlaving confidence in the Fire Department, were unconcerned but between 11 and 12
o’clock, a rumtnor got abroad that the fire was in the business portion of the city. Then everybody was onl the alert, and firom the southern part of thle city a stream of people poured toward the scene of the conflagriltioln. By this time nearly all the public buildings were either consumed or in flames. Thle air was filled with burning brands, which, carried north and east by tlhe wind, kindled new fires whlerever they fell. The fire-engines were powerless. The streams of water appeared to dry up the moment they touched the flames. An attempt was made to blow up the buildings; but this availed little, as the high wind carried the flaming brands far across the space thus cleared away. To add to the hlorrors of the scene, the wooden pavemients took fire, driving the firemlen fromn stations lwhere their efforts might have been continued for many precious minutes. Nothling could long resist the terrible hleat of thlle flames. Thley scemed to strikle ri,ght thlrough the most solid walls. Buildiing,s supposed to be fire-proof burned like tinder, and crumbled to pieces like charred paper. Block after block was consumned.

The red hot coal shot higher and highler, and the flames spread further and further, until that part of the city lying, north of Lake street was a vast sea of fire. At one time the people were so lhemmed in by the circle of flame that thousands were in danger of perishing,, and escaped only by a precipitate retreat. The hotels were hurriedly emptied of their guests, who swarmed into the streets with whatever they could carry away. Those who could do so, made their way to the yet unburned b)ridges, and escaped across the river, while others fled to the lake shlore, and found a safe line of retreat to the southern part of the city. This, it must be borne in mind, was in thle nigllt-time, but tlhe city and the country and lake for miles around were illuminated with a lurid( lighlt. When morning dawned at lengthl, there was but one block of buildings left in what the dayv before had been the most flourishing business part of the city. The niagnificent Court HIouse, the Board of Trade building, the Slherman House, and othler hotels, and hundreds of stores and offices, were inii ruins. The Tiibune block alone remained unharmed. A wide space had been burned around it, and its safety was supposed to be assured. A patrol of men, under Mr. Samuel Medill, swept off live coals and put out fires in the side walls; and another patrol, under tlhe direction of the Hon.

Joseph Miedill, watclhed thle roofs. Up to 4 o’clock in thle morning, writes thle correspondent o)f thle Wo, 1d, the reporters lad sent in detailed accounts of the fire. At 5 o’clock the forms were sent down. In ten minutes tl)e two ei,ght-cylinders in the press-room would have been throwing off the morning paper. Then the front basement was discovered to be on fire. The plug on tlhe corner was tapped, l)ut there was no water.

The conflagration which had for some time been raging on the north side had destroyed: 896

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CHICAGO IN FLAMES. V } A

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1II ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~III 3:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_____ t~_ 0: 2 I ~~~~II ~~~~~~~______II CO-i_ _#i ill’ i

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ILLINOIS. the Water-works. There was not a drop of water in thle city. The pressmen were driven fromi tlieir presses. The attachles of the office said good-b)y to the haiidsoinest newspaper office in the Western country, and tearfully withdrew to a place of safety. In a very slhort timie thle office was enveloped in fire, and i)y 10 o’clock the whole block was a mass of blackened ruins. M’Vicliar’s fine thleatre, the Crosl)y ()pera Hiouse, whlich was to hlave been reupened Mondl.iy evening, the office of the Pullman Car Company, the great Unionl Railrhoad De)ot at the toot of Lake street, all the banks, and many of the finest churchles in the city hlad already been destroyed. By the destruction of the Water-worIks, on the north side of thle river, early il the day, the efficiency of the Fire Delpartment was fatally impaired. It was impossil)le, owing to the smoke and fire, to get to the lake or river. So intense was the hleat that the sluggish river seemied to boil, and clouds of steam rose ilrom its surtface to ming,le withl the smoke ti’om the flames. Early in the forenoon ot’f Monlday, it became evident that nothingl could save the city, and all thle streets leadingi soutlhward and westward lironi thle liurni,r quarter were crowded withl men, womien, and children, all flying tor lit’e, and attempl)ting to save sometlhing tro)Ii the general wreck.

The noLmber is vaguely estimated at 75),000. Every sort of velhicle was pressed into service. W7itli the selfishness which on suchl occasions comies uppermost in somie natores, the truckmen chlarg,ed enormous prices for tranlsporting trunks, boxes, and l)ackages, and turned a deaf ear to all whlo could not pay the money down. Thousandls of persons, inextrical)ly comnmingled wvithl liorises and vehicles, poor people of all colors and shlades, andl of every nationality-, mad witlh excitement, struggled witlh eaclh othler to get awvay. Maniiy were trampled under foot. Men and wonien were loaded withl bundles, to whlose sklirts children were clingingi, half-dresEedl and barefooted, all seeking a place of safety. Hours afterward these people mighlt hlave been seen in vacant lots, or on the streets ftir out inll the suburbs, stretched in thle (lust. Mlany pitiful sights were witnessed in the course of this terrible scramble for life. There were mothers and fathers, who, leaving children in places of supposed safety, hlad gone to save clothing, and valuables from their burning houses, and returned to find thlleir little ones swept away, and were seeking tllhemll in vain among, thle maddened crowd. There were men and women wlhom terror hlad made insane. Among, the saddest incidents of this calamity was the appearance in the streets of hundreds of’ mlen and boys in a state of beastly drunkenness. In the North Division the liquor saloons were broken open, and their contents fltung into the streets, whlere they were eagerly seized upon )y the maddened crowd, whlo seem to hlave felt the samie impulse that leads sailors on a sinking shi) to drown thlleir tenrrors in thle delirium of intoxication. There can l)e hardly any doubt that many of these poor wretclhes found their deathl in the flames flom whlichll thlley were helpless to escal)e. Several hundred persons souglut retluge on a bI)arge, and were towed out into thle lake, whlere they remained all niglit. The loss of life cannot yet be definitely ascertained(l, but wvill prol)ably reachl several hundred. ‘I’lius the dreadful day wore on, and nighlt drew niear. Tlhe principal business portion of the city, and the Northl Division, from the river to Lincoll Park, had been swept l)y the flames, comn)rising an area of more than 5
square miles. As the awfuil d(lay drew to its close, tlhousands of anxious eyes watched the clouds of smoke that hlung over the scene of desolation, dreading lest a change of wind might drive the flames upon that portion of the city which was still unburned, and fervent were the prayers for rain, 89,9

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. No pen can describe the horrors of the night. A hundred thousand people encamped in thle fields and ill Lincoln Park. I’le weather was tempestuous and cold. A heavy rain the day previous had drenched the turf, whichl the trampling feet of the thousands of flugitives froml thle fire had soon beaten into a morass. And thlere, on thle bleak prairie, shlelterless and half-naked, delicate women slept with their babes clasped to thleir breasts, or nmoaned in llunspeakab1e angulish throlughlout the dreadfuttl nigilt, longing for clay and yet dreading its dawn. Aliat ilealrts were broken during thlat awvful watch in cold, and dalrkness, and terror, wlat lives of lingering sickness and pIain prepared, can never be known. It would seem as if sucli distress mighlt soften the nmost obdurate heart; yet even there airmed patrols were needed to guard the hel)less from robbery and tlhe baser passions of desperate ruffians, who, u(lnder cover of the general panic and disorglllization, soug,lt to inatugurate a new reign of terror. Houlses were b!oken open and pillaged all over the towvn. Rape, and arson, and murder were not ulitiequent; and it became necessary to form vigilance committees. Fortunately General Sheridan was at his post. Thle city was placed under martial law, and wretches cau,ghlt in the act of pillaging or settilng fire to buildings-for, incredible as it may seem, men became incendiaries in thle midst of the burning townwere executed on the spot.

During tile whlole of thle nigi,lt of the 9tll, the fire continued to burn on the north side; but thle wind vwent dowvn, and shortly after midnigilt rain commenced fallingl, and by daylight tile flames welre under conltrol.

Freed from anxiety in regard to thle further sprea(ling of thle flames, thle citizens took measures for thle protection of property and for thle care of the thousands who were homeless and shelterless. Thle first night few could be provided withl shlelter, and tlhe most harrowing scenes were witnessed on every hand. Several children were born into tile world in the midst of thle stoiirm, only to die. Thlere were invalids of every ag,e and condition of life, whlo had been taken firom their beds and carried where death came to them less swiftly but not less surely than in thle fiery flood. In response to thle cry for help that went up from the stricken city, instant and abundant relief was sent fromi every part of tile Union.

The General Governnmeit sent thousands of tents and army rations.

Societies and private citizens sent money, clothing, and provisions.

Railroad companies dispatched special trains laden with these gifts. From Canada and from Europe camne expressions of sympatly and proffers of assistance. Whierever tile news was carried, it awiakened( thle best impulses of human nature. Tlhe spirit and courage exlil)ited l)y tlhe business people of Chlicago is above all praise. Thle smoke still hung over thleir ruined city, whlen they met and resolved upon measurees that would restore its fame and magnificence, and maintain its credit unimpaired. Tlhe newspapers, withl thleir accustomed enterprise, inmmediately resumed( publication as best they could, and generous assistance was aff,)rdled bly the press of othler cities, in the shape of type, paper, etc. Temporary buildings were erected in every direction, and in less than a week afterl thle cessation of the fire, hundreds of houses were ready for occupation. The spirit of proslration gave way to one of confidence and hope. Every business man who could lhire a shed resumed business. One hundred thousand dollars were subscribed toward rebuilding the Chamber of Commerce, and thle work will be commenced at once. With this spirit animating her citizens, Chicago will soon recover from this great cslamnity, more lmagtificent and beautiful than she was before the fire. 900

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ILLINOIS. THE MASSACRE AT CHICAGO. On the 7thl of August, 1812, in the afternoon, Winnemieg, or Catfish, a fliendly Indian of the Potawatomie tribe, arrived at Chlicago and brou,ght desp’tches fionm General Ilull, containing the first, and at that time the only initelligeice of the (leclaratioln of war. General Ilull’s letter announced the calpture of Mackinaw, and directed Captain Healdll “to evacuate the t)rt at Cllica.go, it’ practicable, alnd in tlhat event, to distribute all of thlle United States property contained in the fort, and thlle United States factory, or agency, aimong the In(li.nis in thlle neCig’l)bor hloodl, and,eplail to Fort Wayne.”” Winnenieg, lhaving, delivered his desl)atclhes to Cal)taiin Iteall(, and statedl that lie was acquainted withl the purlp)oit of the coil imunicati(on lie tiacl brought, urgIed uponl Cal)taiiil lleald the policy of remaining in the loit, being supplied as tllhey were withl aImmunlitioni and pr’ovisions for a considerable time. In case, liowevei, Captain Il-ealdl thought pro)per to evacuate the pl)ace, ie utigoed upon lilni the propriety of doing’ so immediately, before the Potawatom,ies (thlrotughl whose country thley must pass, and who wveie as yet ig norant of tlie ol)ject of hlis mission) could collect a force sufficient to oppose them. This advice, tihough given in great earnestness, was not sufficiently regald(ed by Captain leald; who observed that lie should evacuate the fort, but hlaving, re ceived o,rders to distribute the public pro(perty among, the Indians, lie di(d not feel justified in leavingi it until lie had collected the Pot,awatomies in its vicinity, and made an equitai)le distribution among them. Winnemieg then sugg,ested the ex I)ediency of mtircliing out, aid leavin, everytling sta n jding; “while thle Iindians,” said lie, ” arc dlividing the spoils, the troops will be able to retreat without mllo lestation.” This advice was also unheeded, and an order for evacuating thlc lort was read next morning on parade.

CaptainI HIealdl, in issuing it, had ine(lected to consult his junLior officers, as it would have been proper for himi to have d(lone in such ain eine,gency, and as lie probably would have dlone had there not been some coolne ss between him and Ensign RonIan. Tlhe lieutenant and ensign, after thle piromuilgation of this order, waited on Captaiii Ileal(d to learn his intentions; and bei,ng apprised, for thec first time, of the course lie intended to pursue, they remonstrated against it. ”’ We do not,”’ said tlhey to Captain Heald, ” believe tlhat our troops can pass in safety thllroughl the cou,ntry of thle Potawatornies to Fort Waynel. AlthiouIgh a ipart of thleir chliefs were oppl)osed to an attack upon us last autumn, they were actuate(d 1y motives of private friendship for some particular indiNviduals, and not fr’om a regard to the Ame’ricains in general; and it can hardly be supposed that in the present excited state of t’feeliong among the Indians, those clliefs will be al)le to influence the -whole tribe, inow tliristinug for vengeance. Besides,” said they, “our nircli must be slow, on iccount of the women and children. Our force, too, is small. Some of our soldiercs are superannuated, and some of them aie invalids. AVWe tlhink, tlherelore, as yirur orders are discretionary, that we had better fojtify ourselves as strogngly as p)ossible, and remain Nwhere we are. Succor may reach us lbefore we shlall be atttacked firom iMackinaw; and, in case of suchl an event, we had better tfall into thle bands of the Englishl than become victims of the savages. ” Cil)ptaiii [leald replied that his force was inadequate to contenld witlh the I(ndians, and that lie should be censulred were hlie to continue in garrison whien the prospect of a safe retreat to Fort Wayne was so aipparent. He therefore deemed it advisable to assembl)le the Indians and distribute the public property among tlhemn, anld ask of them an escort tlhitlher, with the promise of a considerable sumin oft’ money to be paid on their safe arrival; addin g, that he had perfect confidence in the friendly 901

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. professions of the Indianis, from vlwhom, as well as from the soldiers, thle capture of Mackinaw had studiously been concealed. From this time forward, the junior officers stood aloof from their commander, and, considerin,g his project as little short of madness, conversed as little upon the subject as possible. Dissatisfaction, however, soon filled the camp; the soldiers beg,an to mlurlmur, and insubordination assumed a thlreatening aspect. Tile savages, in the meantinie,’ b)ecalme lnore and more trl()ublesomie; entered the lolrt occasionally in defiance of the sentinels, and even made their way wvithout ceremony into the quarters of its commanding officer. ()n one occasion, ai Indiani, taking up a rifle, fired it in the parlor of Cail)tain Ileald. Some wvere of’ opinion that this was intended as thle sig,nal for an attacl. The old chliefs at thllis time passed back and forthl am.olig the asselmbled groups, apparentlyl agitated, ann(l tile squat\vs seemed miuchl excited, as thlough some terrible calamility was ip(n’lding.:No furtlier maniifestations, however, of ill-feeling were exhibited, and the diay passed without bloodshed. So infatuated at this time was Captai IIeal-l that lie supposed lie had wrought a favorable impression uponl the savag,es, and that the little garrison could nowv maricl forth in safety. From the 8thi to the 12thi o’f August, the hostility of the Indians was more and more apparent; and the feeling,s of the garrison, and of those connected wit. lndl del)endent upon it for their safety, imore and more intense. Distrust everywhere at lenigthi prcvailed, and the want of unanimity among, the officers was al)palling.

Every iinmate retired to rest, expecting to be aroused by the warv-whloop; and each returning, day was regarded by all as anothler step on the road to massacre. The Indians from the adjacent villages lhaving at lelgtlh arrived, a council was held on the 12thl of August. It was attended, hlowever, only by Captain IHeald on the part of the miilita,ry; the other officers refused to attend, hlaving previously learned that ai massacre was intended. This flet was comnmiunicated to Captain Ileald; lie insisted, however, onI their going, and they resolutely persisted in their refusal. Wliei Captainl Heald left the fort, they rel)aiired to the blocklhouse, whichl overlooked the grlound whliere the council was in session, and, openingii the )pot-hloles, pointed their cannon in its direction. This circumstance and their absence, it is supposed, saved the whites fromi massacre. Captain Heald intformed the Indians in Council that he would next day distribute among tihem all the goods in the United States factory, togethler withl the ammniunition anid provisions with which the garrison was supl)lied; and desired of tliecm an escort to Fort Waayne, promiising, thlem a reward oil their arrival thither, in addition to the presents they were about to ri(ceive. The savag,es assented with professions of friiendship to all lie proposed, and promised all lie required. The council was no sooner dismissed, than several, observing tlhe tone of feeling whlichl prevailed, anud anticipating from it nlo good to the garrison, waited on Capttain Ileald, in order to open his eyes, if possible, to their condition. The imapolicy of furnishling the Indians withl arms anld ammunition, to be used against thelmselves, struck Captain Ileald with so much force that lie resolved, without consultino-his officers, to destroy all Iot required for immediate use. On August 13thl, tllhe goods in the factory store were dlistributed among the Indians whlo had collected near the fort; and in the evening the alnmmuinition, and also the liquor belonging to the garrison, were carried, thle former into the sallyl)ort and thrown into thle well, and the latter through thle southl gate, as silently as possible, to the river bank, where the heads of the barrels were knocked in and their contents discharged into the stream. 902

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ILLINOIS. The Indians, however, suspecting the game, approached as near as possible and witnessed thle whole scene. The spare muskets were broken up and thlrown into the well, togethler withl bags of shot, flints, and gun screws, and other thlings; all, however, of but little value. On the 14thl, the despondency of the garrison was for a while dispelled by the arrival of Captain Wells and 15 friendly 3ilianmis. Having heard at Fort Wayne of the order to evacuate Chlicago, and knowing the hostile intentiolns of the Pota watomies, hle hastened thither, in order to save, if possible, tle little garrison from its doom. Having on his arrival learned that the ammunition had been de stroyedcl, and thle provisions distributed among the Indians, le saw there was no alternative.

Preparations were tllerefo]re made for marchling on the nmorrow. In the afternoon, a second council was held witlh the Indians, at which they expressed their resentment at the destruction of the ammiunition and liquor in tile severest terms. Notwitlistanding the precautions which had been ol)served, the knocking in of thle heads of thle whiskey barrels had been heard by thle In dians, and thle river next miorning tasted, as some of them expressed it, “like strong grog,.” lIurimurs and tlhreats were everywhlere heard, and nlotling ap paienitly was wanting but an opportunity for some public manifestation of thleir resennltment. Thle morning of the 15thl dawned as usual. Thle sun rose with uncommon splendor, and Lake MIicliigan’ was a sleet of burnished gold.” Early in thle day, a message was received in thle American camp from To-pee nia-bee, a chief of tile St. Josephl’s l)anlld, informing them that mischief was birew ing aniong thle Potaw’atomies, whllo had promised them protection. About 9 o’clock, thle troops left the fort with matrtial music antd in militar array. Captain Wells, at the head of thle 3Iiamis, led the van, his face hlackened after the manner of thle Indians. The garrisonl withl loaded arms followed, anti thle wagons withl the baggage, thle women and children, tile sick< and thle lame, closed tile rear. Thle Potawatomies, about 500 in number, who had promised to escort thenm in safety to Fort Wayne, leaving a little space, afterward followed. Thle party in adivance tookl thle beach road. They had no sooner arrived at the sandhills, which separate thle prairies from the beach, about a mile and a half from the fort, when thle Potawatonmies, instead of continuing in thle rear of tlhe Americans, left the beach and took to the prairie. Thle sand-lills, of cou’rse, intelrvened, and presented a barrier between thle Potawatonies and the Alierica and Ilianti line of’ iarcli. This divergence had scarcely been effected Awhen Captain Wells, who, with the M3iamis, wvas consideralbly in advance, rode backl and exclaimed: ” They are about to attaclk us; form instantly and charge upoon them.” The words had scarcely been uttered before a volley of musketry tfoinom belihiid the sandhills was poured in upon them. The troops were brought immiediately into a line, and chlarged up the bank. One man, a veteran of seventy, fell as they ascended. Thle battle at once became general. Thle 3Iiam.is fled in thle outset; their chief rode up to the Potawatomnies, chlarged them with duplicity, and, brandclisiinig his tomahawk, said, ” lie would be the first to head a party of Americans, and return to l)unish them for their treachery.”” Hle then turned his hlorse and galloped off in pursuit of his companions, who were then scouring across the prairie, and niothiing was seen or heard of themn more. ‘Tile American troops belhaved gallantly.

Though fewv in number, they sold tlieir lives as de.arly as possil)le.

They felt, however, as if their time had come, and sougilt to forgot all that was dear on earth. While the battle was raging, the surgeon, Doctor Voorhes, who was badly,~ 903

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. wounded, and whose horse had been shot firom under him, approaching Mrs. Helm, the wife of Lieutenant Helm (lwho was in the action, participating in all its vicissitudes), observed: ” Do you think,” said lie, “they will take our lives? I am badly wounded, but I think not mortally. Perhlaps we can purchase safety by offering a large reward. Do you thlink,” continued lie, ” tlere is any chlance?” -“Doctor Voorlies,” replied Mrs. I-Ielm,‘let us not waste the few llmomenlts whichl yet remain, in idle or ill-founded hopes. Our fate is inevitalble.

WVe must soon alppl)ear at the bar of God. Let us make suchl preparations as are yet in our power.”-” Ohl,” said lie, “‘I cainnot die! I am unfit to die! Ift’ I lhad a short timec to prepa,re!-Deathl!-ohl, how awful!” At this moment Ensign Ronani was fig’l,ting at a little distance withl a tall and portly Indian; the former, mortally wounded, was nearly down, and strugg,ling desperately on one knee. Irs. Ilelmn, pointing’ her fing,er and directilng the attentioni of Doctor Voorlies thither, observed “Look,”

said shle,’ at that young man, lie dies like a soldier.” ” Yes,” said Doctor Voorlies, ” but lie has no terrors of thlle future; he is an unbeliever. ” A youngi savage immediately raised his tomahawk to strike Mrs. Helm. She sprang instantly aside, and the b)low intended for her head iell upon her shoulder. She thereupon seized him atround his neck, and while exerting all her efforts to get possession of his scalping-knife, was seized by anlothler In(lian, and dra(r,ged forcil)ly Ifrom his grasp.

The latter bore her, struggling and resisting, toward the lake.

Notwitlistanding, lhowever, the rap)idity withl whlichl she was hurried along, slhe recognlized, as she passed, the remains of the unfortunate surgcon, stretched lifeless on the prairie. She was plunged immediately into the water and held there, notwithstanding her resistance, witlh a forcible hand. Shle shortly, however, perceived that the intention of her captor was not to dclrown her, as he held her in a position to keep her head above the water. Thlus reassured, she looked at him attentively, and, in spite of his disguise, recog,nized the ” white iman’s friend.” It was Black Partridge. Wlien the firing had ceasedl, her preserver bore her from tlhe water and conducte(d her up the sand-bank. It was a beautiful day in August. The lhealt, lhowever, of tlhec sun was oppressive, anld wvalkiug thlroug’h the sand exposed to its )Lurni., rays in her drenched condition, weary and exhausted )by effoirts leyond( her strengtlh, anxious beyond measure to learn the fate of lier frienlds, and alarlieI ior her own, her situation was one of agony. The troopls llhaving fought withl desperation till twothirds of their number were slain, the remainder, 27 in all, borne down by an overlwhelming force and exlitusted( by efforts hithlerto unequalled, at lengthl surrendered. Tliey stipulated, l.owever, for their own safety and for the safety of their remaininig wonmen and clildren. The wounded prisoners, however, in the hurry of the moment, were unfortunately omitted, or ratlher not particularly mentioned, and wvere therefore regarded by the Indians as lhaving been excluded. One of the soldiers’

wives, having frequently been told that prisoners taken by the Indians were subjected to tortures worse tlhan deathl, had irom the first ex pressed a resolution never to be taken, and when a party of sava,es approachled to make her their prisoner, she fough,t with desperation, and though assured of kind treatment and protection, refused to surrender, and was literally cut ii pieces,,and lher mangled remains left on the field.

After the surrender, one of the ba,,ggage-wagons, containing 12 children, was 904

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ILLINOIS. assailed by a single savage, and the whole number were massacred. All, withoult distinction of’ ag,e or sex, fell at once beneath his miurderous tomiahawk. Captain WAells, vlio had as yet escaped unharmed, saw fromn a distance the whole of tlis murderous scene, and being apprised of the stipuiation, and on seeing it thus violated, exclaimed aloud, so as to be heard by the Potawatomies around him, whose prisoner lie then was: “If this be your game, I will kill too’” and, turning his hlorse’s head, instantly started for the Potawatomlie camp, whllere the squawNs and Indian clhildren had been left ere the battle b)egan. IIe had( no sooner started than several Indians followed in his rear, and dischlarged thlleir rifles at him as lie galloped across the prairie. He laid himself flat on the neck of his horse, and was al)lparently out of their reach whenll the b)all of one of hlis pursuers tookl effect, killing’ his horse and wounding him severely. I-Ie was again a prisoner. As the savages came up, Winnemeg andcl Wa-b)an-see, two of thlleir number and bothl his friends, used all their endeavors in oiler to save him; they had dlisegi;,ged him already from his hlorse, and were suplortiig him along. whlen Pee-so-tum, a Potawatomie Indian, drawing a scalpintg-kiiife. stabbed him in the l)aclkI, and thus inflicted a mortal wvound. After struggling ior a lmomnent, lie fell, and breathed his last in the arms of his fiiends-a victim for those lie had soughlt to save-a sacrifice to his own rashl, presumptuous, and perhlaps indiscreet intentions. The battle hlaving en(dled, and the prisoners being secured, the l.itter were conconducted to the Potawatomie camip near the fort.

Hiere the wife of Wan-beenee-mal, an Illinois cllief, perceiving the exhausted condition of Mr-s. I1elle, took a klettle, andc dipping up some water from the stream which flowed sluggishlly by them, threw into it some maple sugar, and stirring it up with her hand, ,gave her to drink. ” It was,” says 3Irs. Helm, ” the most delicious l,drauglit I had ever taklien, and her kindness of mianner amid so much atrocity touched my Heart.” Her attention, liowevei, was soon directed to other objects. The fort, after the troops had mlarchled out, became a scene of plunder. The cattle were shot down as they ran at large, and lay dead, or were dyiing around her.

It called up aliesli a remark of Ensign Roinan’s, made before “Sulch,”

said he, “is to be our fate-to be shot d(own like brutes.” The wounded prisoners, wNe hlave already remarked, were not included in the stipulation miade on the battle field, as thle fdian.8s understood it. On reachling, therefore, the Potawatomie camp), a scene followed whlichl begg,ars dlescerli)tion. A wountded soldier lying on the ground was violently assaulted by an old squaw, infuriated by the loss of firiends, or excited by thlle murderous scenes around lierwhlo, seizing a pi’elhfork, attacked withl demoniac ferocity and deliberately mllurderedcl in cold blood the wretched victim, now helpless and exposed to thlle )burning rays of the sun, hlis wounds alread(y aggravated by its hleat, and hle vwritlinglg in torture. During thlle succeeding nilght 5 othler wounded prisoners wvere tomahlawked. Those unwounded remained in the wigwams of their captors. The woirk of plundler being now completed, the fort next day was set on fire. A fir and equal distribution of all the finery l)elonging to the garrison had apparently been made, und shawls, ribbons, and feathers were scattered about the camp in great prof’usion.

ilost of thle prisoners remained among the Indians until the treaty malde in the next year, when they were returned to their friends. Captain Hleald and his wife, and Lieutenant Helm and his wife, were ransomed soon after thleir capture. Their sufferings aud perils, however, during their short captivity were most trying 905

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MICHIGAN. Area,…………..56,451 Square Miles. Population in 1

860,…….. 749,113 Popl)ulation in 1870,………1,184,05-9 TIIE State of Michigan is situated between 41~ 40’ and 47G 30’ N. latitud(e, and 82~

12’ and 90~ 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Superior, on the east bv the River Ste. Marie, Lake Huron, the Lake and River St. Clair, the Detroit River, and Lake Erie, which separate it from Canada, on the south by Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin, and on the west by Wisconsin and Lake Michigan. TOPOGRAPHY. Lakes Michigan and Huron, and the Straits of Maa klinawv, divide the State into two unequal peninsulas.

The Northern Peninsula is about 320 miles long, from southeast to northlwest, with an extreme width of 130 miles. The Southern Peninsula is aI)out 283 miles long, from north to south, and 210 mil!es wide in its broadest part. “The Southern Peninsula of Michigan, so interesting in its agricultural and economical aspects, is rather tame in its topographical features, as there is no considerable elevation (compared with the country immediately around it) within its whole extent, though the ridge which divides the waters flowing into Lakes I-IHuiron and Erie from those flowing into Lake Michigan, is 300 feet above the level of the lakes, and about 1000 feet above the sea. The country however, may be generally characterized as a vast undulating plain, sel(lom becoming rough or broken. There are occasional conical elevations of from 150 to 200 feet in height, but generally much less. The 906

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MICHIGAN. A WVESTERN RIVER. :‘F)Ircs of IL,ake I-Iiiron are often steep, forming bliiffs; while those of Lake Michigei,an are coasted by slhiftirng sandhills of from 100 to 200 feet in h-eight. In the southern part are those natural p)arks, thinly scattered over with trees, called in thle parlance of thlle col,unltry,’ oak openings;’ and in the southwest are richl prairie latnds. The 7Northerii Peniinsutla exhibits a strikii:g contrast, I)oth in soil and surface, to the southern. While the latter is level or moderately uu(lulating, a(nd luxuriantly fertile, the former is pictulresrue, rugged, and( even mountainouts, with streams abounding in rapids an(l waterftlls-richl in ininerals, btut rig,orous in climate, and sterile in soil. The Wisconsinl or Porcupine MAountains, which form thle watershed between ILaces Michigan and Superior, are nll(l nearer the latter than the former, inmd attain an elevation of abot 2000() feet in the northwestern portion of the peninsula. The eastern part of this division of the State is unldulating and( picturesque, but the central is hilly, and composed of tableland. The shores of Lake Superior are conmposed of a sandstone rock, wlhichl, in many places, is worn by the action of the wind and waves into iahicied resemblances of castles, etc., foirming the celebrated 907

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Pictured Rocks; while the shores of Lake Michigan are composed of a limestone rock. The streams on the northern slope of the Porcupine Mountains have a rapid descent, and abound in picturesque falls and rapids. The Northern Peninsula is primitive, and the Southern secondary; but primitive rockls are scattered over the plains of the latter, of more tlhan 100 tons weight, most abundant on thile borders of the Great Lakes, on the flanks of valleys, and where traces of recent floo0s are apparent.” * Lakle Superior washes the northern shore of the State, Lake Miclhigan the western, and Lakes Huroni and Erie the eastern.

They have all been described, together witl:h the channels connecting them, in the chapter devoted to the United States. Detroit, between Lakes Erie a(nd St. Clair, and Grand Haven onl Lake M\ichigan, are the principal ports of the State. The principal bays are Saginaw and Thunder bays on Lake Huron, Tequameneon and Keweclhaw bays on Ilake Superior, and Green, Little and( Grand Traverse bays, and the Great and Little Bays des Noqtiets on Lake Miichigan. A ntumnl-)er of small lakes lie in the State.

Tlhey possess no comnmercial value, but form a beautiful feature of the landscape. The rivers of the State are nearly all small. The Detroit and Ste. Marie have been noticed. Those of the southern peninsula empty into Lakes MAichig,an, I-IHuron and Erie. Those flowving into Lake Michigan are the St. Josephl’s, IKalamazoo, Grand, Mlasklegon and Manistee. Thle Au Sable and Saginawv flow into Laklie ltHuroni, the latter through Saginaw Bay, an(l the Hutron and Raisin into Lake Erie. The rivers of the northern peninsula are fine mill streams, but are unfit for navigationi by reason of rocks and rapids. The principal are the IMenomonee, Montreal, and Ontonagon. The( first flows into Green Bay, and the others into Lake Superior. A group of Islalnds, forming Maniiton county, lies in the northern part of Lake Mlichligan. MINERALS. “The upper peninsula, rich in minerals, prominent amoing whllich is copper, is mostly of primitive geological character; the lower exclusively secondary. The copper deposits among the primary rocks of the northern peninsula are the richest in the world, the copper belt * Lippincott’s Gazetteer, p. 1189. 908

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MICHIGAN. being 120 miles long and from 2 to 6 miles wide. A block of several tolls of almost pure copper, taken from the mouth of Ontonagon River, has been built into the wall of the Wrashington monument at the national capital. A mass weighing 150 tons was uncovered, in 1854, in the North American mine. Isle Royale abounds in this mineral; one house in that district, during five and a half months of 1854, shipped over 2,000,000 of pounds, and in the nine years pre vious there were produced 4824 tons. The yield of copper in the State has risen to an annual average of 8000 tons, with promise of steady increase. The opening of the St.

Mary’s Canal and the clearing of the entrance into Portage Lake have given fresh imnpetus to this branch of mining industry, which is becoming one of the most cherished interests of the State. Silver has been found in connection with the copper in the proportion of from 25 to 50 per cent. of the precious metal. Iron of a superior quality has been discovered in a bed of slate from 6 to 25 miles wide, and 150 long, extending into Wisconsin. In the production of this mineral, in 1863, Michigan was only second to Pennsylvania, having produced 273,000 tons of ore. Bituminous coal is mined on an enlarging scale to meet the demand of manufactures.

Salt also exists in quantities repaying the investment of capital. The high prices lately prevailing have caused a rapid development of the salt fields around Saginaw, a basin some 40 or 50 miles square, in which, by boring some 800 feet, an inexhaustible supply of brine is obtained, yielding 80 or 90 per cent. of salt.” * CLIMATE. Tile climate of the State is less severe than that of other portions of the country in the same latitude, being greatly tempered by the lake b)reezes. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the middle and lower part of the southern peninsula is very rich, and yields handsome returns. It consists generally of a deep, dlark, rich sandy loam, whlich is frequently mixed with gravel and clay. The northern part abounds in excellent timber. The northern peninsula is heavily wooded with white I)ine, spruce, hemlock, birch, and oak. The hardier grains do well in this part of the State, l)ut maize is not suited to it. * General Land Office Report. 56 909

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. There are upwards of 5,000,000 acres of improved land in the State. The principal agricultural returns are as follows: Bushels of wheat,….. ” Indian corn,. oats,… ” Irish potatoes, rye…… peas and beans, ” buckwheat,.. ” barley,…. Tons of hay,……

Pounds of butter,.. cc chleese,.. Number of horses,0 ” asses and mules, “
milch cows,0 ” sheep, 0, swine, ” young cattle,. Value of domestic animals, Pounds of wool,… COMMAIERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Wheat, and otier grains, flour, pork, lumber, copper, and wool, are the principal exports of the State. Michigan is admirably located for commnerce, having many good harbors, and an immense water front. In 1863, the foreign exports of the State were valued at $2,008,599, and the imports at $771,834.

Manufactures are yet in their infancy. In 1870, there were in this State 9455 establishments devoted to mnanufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $71,712,283, consumed raw material worth $68,142,515, and yielding an annual product of $118,394,676. The principal products were valued as follows: Pig iron,………….. $2,911,515

Copper,………………… 9,260,976 Sawed and planed lumber………

33,078,241 Flour………………..21,174,247 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were 2235 miles of completed railroads in Michigan, constructed at a cost of over $100,000,000. The only railroad in the northern peninsula is from the upper end of Green Bay to the iron region. In 910

16,800,000 14,100,000 8,700,000 10,32,5,000 160,000 350,000 450,000

840,000 1.300,000 .000,000 (;75,000 0,000 2,500 255,000 2,000,000 425,000

270,000 S,.5-‘,OOO,000 8,750,000

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MICHIGAN. the lower peninsula the railroads lie south of Saginaw Bay, beyond which the State is comparatively unsettled. The principal towns of the State have railroad communication with each other and with all parts of the Union. EDUCATION. There are seven colleges in Michigan, the principal of whlich is the University of Mlichigan, which is located at Ann Arbor, in the southeast part of the State. It embraces departments of literature, law, and medicine, and, in 1867, was attended by 1255
students. The State has a Normal School at Ypsilanti. It was opened in 1854, and is in a prosperous condition. The system of public education is under the general supervision of a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is elected by the people for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who manages the schools thereof. In 1870, there were 5110 public schools in Michigan, attended by 278,686
children. The amount expend(led on these schools during the year was $2,783,943. The State has three distinct school finds (the Primary School, University, and Normal School Funds), amounting in the aggregate to $2,925,644. In 1870, there were 181 private schools in the State, attended by about 12,000 pupils. In 1870, there were 26,763 libraries in the State, with 2,174,744 vol i umes. In the same year, there were 16 daily, 3
triweekly, 174 weekly, and 18 other news)apers and periodicals published in the State, making a total of 211. Of these, 167 were political, 7
religious, and 37 miscellaneous. Their total annual circulation was 19,686,978 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The ichigan State Prison is located at Jackson. It is provided with ample buildings, and in November, 1870, contained 663 convicts. The prisoners are required to labor, and the institution is self-supporting. The Refor)m School, at Lansing, was opened in 1856, and contains about 262 boys. The Michigan Insane Asylum is located at Kalamazoo. It was opened in 1859. On the 1st of January, 1870, it contained 305 inmates-156 males and 149 females. 911

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Asylum fcw the Education of the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind is at Flint. It was opened in 1854, and, in 1870, contained 120 deaf mutes, and 30 blind persons. State prisoners are sent to the Detroit House of Correction (a city institution) for crimes punishable with imprisonment in the county jails. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

In 1870, there were 1415 churches in Michigan. The value of ohurch property was $9,133,816. FINANCES. On the 30th of November, 1874, the State debt amounted to $1,588,135. The total receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending on that date, including a balance of $854,713 on hand from the previous year, amounted to $3,065,879, and the total expenditures for the same period to $1,995,604. In 1868 there were 42

National banks, with a capital of $5,210,010, doing business in the State.

GOVERNMENT. All citizens of the United States over 21 years of age, who have resided in the State six months, and all male foreigners who have resided in the State two years, and have declared their intention to become citizens six months before the elections, are entitled to vote at the elections in this State. All civilized Indians residing in the State, not belonging to any tribe, are also entitled to vote. The government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor-General, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature consisting of a Sellate (of 32 members) and a House of Representatives (of 100 members), all elected by the people for 2 years. The Legislature meets biennially, on the first Wednesday in January. The general election is held in November. The Courts of the State are the Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, Probate Courts, and Courts held by Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of four judges, elected for 8 years, one judge retiring every 2 years. All judges in this State are elected by the people. The seat of Government is located at Lansing. The State is divided into 62
counties. 912

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MICHIGAN. HISTORY. Michigan was first settled by the French. It derives its name fromnt an Indian word (Michli-sawg-ye-gan), meaning “the Lake Country.” In 1630 the French missionaries established a stationi on Lake Htiron, and ill 1660 founded one on Lake Superior. In 1668 a mission was established at the Sault-Ste.-Marie, and in 1671 Father Marquette founded the mission of St. Ignatius on the main land, to the north of the island of Mackinaw. These missionaries were so successfill in their efforts that nearly all the Hurons were converted to Christianity. Soon after this became known to the other tribes, the converts were attacked, and massacred or dispersed by the Iroquois. In 1667 the trading posts were garrisoned by French soldiers by order of the king of France, who wvished to foster the filr trade. In 1701 Detroit was founded by a colony from Montreal. A fort was erected and garrisoned for the protection of the settlement, and a flourishing trade opened witil the western Indians. The settlements languished, however. The home Government did but little to encourage them, and the Iroquois were their constant enemies. In 1763 the whole country passed, with Canada, into the hands of the British. Pontiac, one of the leading chiefs, now induced the tribes to take concerted measures for the expulsion of the whites. Simultaneous attacks were made upon the English forts. Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and all the western posts were captured and destroyed. Detroit was invested and besieged for several months. It held out bravely, however, and the majority of the Indians, becoming tired of thle siege, returned to their homes. Thus deserted bv his allies, Pontiac was forced to abandon the struggle. In 1783 Michigan, as a part of the Northwest Territory, became the property of the United States. The British, however, appreciating the importance of Detroit, held on to it for a much longer time, and did not finally surrender it to the Americans until 1796. In 1805 the territory of Michigan was organized, and General Williaml Hull, an officer who had served gallantly through the Revolution, was appointed Governor. Detroit was made the seat of government. The Territory was sparsely settled, but suffered much during the second war with England. The fortress of Mackinaw was surrendered to the British and Indians on the 17th of July, 1812. On the 15th of August, General Hulll surrendered Detroit to General Brock, 6

913

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. without making the least effort to defend it. In January, 1813, General Winchester was surprised and surrounded at Frenclitown on the River Raisin, by a strong force of British troops and Indians. He made a stubborn defence, but finally surrendered upon the condition that his men should be protected from the Indians. (renieral Proctor violated his word, however, and suffered his Indian allies to massacre Americans, the wounded and many of the disarmed prisoners. In September, 1813, the gloom which the reverses of the Americans had cast over the frontier was lightened by the splendid victory woni over the British fleet in Lake Erie, only a few miles from the shores of Michigan, by Commodore O. 1J. Perry. This was followed by the evacuation of Detroit by the Britisl), and the important triu,npll achieved by the American army under General Harrison, over the British and Indians, on the banks of the River Thames, in Canada, and but a few miles distant from Detroit.

Tecumseh was killed in this battle. Several other minor actions occurred along the Michigan frontier, but the Territory was not again occupied by the enemy. In 1820 the population of the Territory was 8900 souls, and in this estimate the dwellers in the present State of Wisconsin were included. “About the year 1832, the tide of emigration began to set strong towards Michigan Territory. Steamboat navigation had opened a new commerce upon the lakes, and had connected the eastern lakes and their population with the Illinois and Upper Mississippi. This immeneise lake navigation encircled the peninsula of Michigan. It became an object of exploration.

Its unrivalled advantages for navigation, its immense tracts of the most fertile arable lands, adapted to the cultivation of all the northern grains and grasses, attracted the attention of western emigrants. The tide soon began to set strong into Michigan. Its fine level and rolling plains, its deep and enduring soil, and its immense advantages for trade and commerce had become known and duly appreciated. The hundreds of canoes, pirognes, and barges, with their half-civilized couriers du bois, which had annually visited Detroit for more than a century, had given way to large and splendid steamboats, which daily traversed the lakes from Buffalo to Chicago, from the east end of Lake Erie to the southwestern extremity of Lake Michigan. Nearly a hundred sail of sloops and schooners were now traversing every part of these inland seas. Under these circumstances, how should Michigan remain a savage wilderness? ,New York State and the New England States began to send forth their I 914

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MICHIGAN. numnerous colonies, and the wilderness to smile. At the end of tiwo years more, or ill 1834, the population of Michigan had increased to 87,273 souls, exclusive of Indians. The following year the number amounted to more than 90,000 persons, distributed over 38 counties, comprised in the southern half of the peninsula, and the’attached HIuron, or Wisconsini District,’ lying west of Lake Michigan. The town of Detroit, which in 1812
was a stockade village, had now become’a city,’ with nearly 2500
inhabitants. The humble villages and wigwams of the Inidians, sparsely distributed over a wide extent of wilderness, had now given way to thousands of fiarms and civilized(I habitations. Towns and smiling villages usurped the encampment and the battlefield. The fertile banks of the’River Raisin’ were crowned with hamlets and towns instead of the melancholy stockade. A constitution had been adopted on the 15th of June, 1836, and the ‘State of AMilhigan’ was admitted into the Union on the 26th day of January, 1837, and Stephens T. Mason was made the first Governor.”

During the late war Michigan contributed 90,119 troops to the service of thie United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Detroit, Grand Rapids, Adrian, Kalamazoo, Ann Arbor, Jackson and Monroe. LANSING, The capital of the State, is situated in Ingham county, on the Grand River, 110 miles northwest of Detroit. Latitude 42~ 42’ 30” N.; long,itu(le 84~ 28’ W. Thle city was originally laid out upon quite an extensive plan, and is not yet built with sufficient compactness to do justice to the designs of its founders. The streets are broad, intersect each other at rightan,gles, ald are shaded with trees. The principal building is the St(ute HIouse, a large and handsome structure, located on an eminence, 50 feet above the level of the river. The State Agricultural College is located in the vicinity, and the House of Correction, for juvenile offenders, stands in the eastern portion of the city. Lansing contains a female college, 2 good public schools, 2 newspaper offices, and 12 churchles. In 1870, the population was 5241. The city has railway communication with all parts of the State. The river affords excellent waterpower, which is used for operating several flour mills’and factories 9115

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1847, a Mr. James Seymour, owning some land on the Graind River, made a proposition to the Legislature of Michigan, that if they would remove the seat of Government on to his lands, he would give 20 acres, and erect the capitol and buildings for the use of the State authorities. This offer was not accepted, but the Legislature passed a bill locating the capital in the township. At this period but one family occupied the site of the future capital. In May, 1847, the town of Lansing was laid out, and within the next few weeks one thousand persons moved into the place, which was named from Lansing in New York, the former home of some of the settlers. In 1850, the seat of Government was formally transferred from Detroit to this place. DETROIT, The metropolis of the State, is situated on the right or northwest bankl of the Detroit River, 18 miles from the head of Lake Erie, 8 miles from the outlet of Lake St. Clair, and 110 miles by railway from Lansing. The width of the river averages about five-eighthls of a mile, the width fiom the docks of Detroit to the opposite docks of WVindsor, in Canada, being about half a mile. The depth between the docks varies from 12 to 48 feet, averaging 32 feet; the descent from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie is about 6
feet, averaging 3 inches per mile; and the velocity of the current in the deepest part opposite the city is two miles and a half per hour. The stream is so deep and its current so strong and uniform, that it keeps itself clear, and its navigation is not affected as is that of the Mississippi, with either rocks, sand-bars, trees, or sawyers. Its current also carries along the ice with a slow and uniform motion, so that it is never dammed up in winter, while the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, is shallow, full of rocks, against which the ice lodges, and often forms a dam across the river, and raises the water from 20 to 25 feet, overflowing its low banks for miles, and sweeping off and destroying large amounts of property. These peculiarities make Detroit a secure and accessible harbor in all seasons. Bordering the river, along which it extends for several miles, and for 1200 feet back from the water, the plan of the city is rectangular. In the rear of this portion it is triangular. The city covers an area of about 10 square miles, and is for the most part well built. The streets and avenues are wide, many of them from 100 to 200 feet. Five of these cent;e at a public ground, called the Grand Circus. In the city are several public squares or spaces, the principal of which 916

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- j -; A  ___________ _______ ____ CAPITOL OF MICHIGAN AT

LANSING.

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_ ___ ~; Ii CAPITOL OF MIC(HIGxN AT LAN~SINC?.

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MICHIGAN. are the Grand Circus and the Campus Martius. The streets are gen erally well paved, with broad side walks, and are shaded with noble forest trees. Jefferson and Woodward avenues, and Congress street are the most important thoroughfares. Lines of street cars connect the principal points of the city. A large portion of the city is built of wood, but of late years, brick, stone, and iron have been largely used in erecting new edifices and in improving ol(1 ones. In consequence of this, the business streets now present a handsome appearance, and in the private sections are to be found many elegant and tasteful residences. The principal buildings are the Castomr House, a magnificent stone edifice; the City IIcall, a fine structure of stone; and the Old State House, now used for literary purposes. The city contains about 66 public schools, each of which is provided with handsome and convenient buildings. The citizens are very proud of their free school system, and with good reason. The benevolent and charitable institutions are numerous, and are well conducted. The principal establishments are the Industrial School, the HarTer, St.

Ylary’s, and Jla,rine Ho.spittls, the Orphan Asy(llm, and the House for the Frien(less. In the Industrial School, the ragged and vagrant children of the city are gathered and taulglht to read, write, and sing, to mend and make their clothing, and are given a good meal every day. The citv contains about 38 churches, some of which are among its principal ornaments, 11 newspaper, and( 3 magazine offices, and 3 firstclass hotels.

It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water, which is pumped from the Detroit River by means of a steam engine into a hydraulic reservoir, from which it is supplied to the city pipes. The city is provided with an efficient police force and a steamn fire (department, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 79,577.

The admirable position of Detroit has made it an important commercial point. It controls a large share of the commnerce between the United States and Canada, but its chief source of prosperity is the lake trade.

Commanding the only outlet of the three upper lakes, it of necessity controls a large share of their commerce, and also conducts a large trade with the ports of Lake Erie. It is largely interested in the rich trade which the working of the copper and iron mines of Lake Superior has developed. Regular lines of steamers ply between the city and the ports on the lakes. Detroit has direct railway communication with all parts of the Union, and the terminus of the Great 919

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Western Railway of Canada is at Windsor, on tile opposite side of the river. The grain trade of Detroit is important, and is increasing every year. The city is extensively engaged ill manufactures. The most important articles produced are locomotives, iron machinery, window sashes and blinds, cabinet ware, leather, malt liquors, iron and brass ware, and lumber. The Detroit Copper Smelting MWorks annually smelt over $2,000,000 worth of copper ore into ingot copper.

Another large establishment is engaged in manufacturing iron from the iron ore sent from the Lake Superior mines. In 1670, the French built a fort on the present site of Detroit. The vicinity at this time was occupied by villages of the Huron, Potawatomy, and Ottowa Indians. Ninety years later, in 1760, the French posts passed into the hands of Great Britain. In 1783, after the close of the Revolution, Detroit became a part of the United States, but was not formally delivered up to the American forces until 1796. MISCELLANIES. PONTIAC’S EFFORT TO CAPT”URE DETROIT. As every appearance of war was at an end, and the Indians seemed to be on a friendly footing, Pontiac approached Detroit without exciting any suspicions in the breast of the Governor or the inhabitants. He encamped at a little distance from it, and let the commandant know that he was come to trade; and being de. sirous of bri,ghtening the chain of peace between the English and his nation, desired that he and his chiefs might be admitted to hold a council with him. Tlhe( Governor, still unsuspicious, and not in thie least doubting the sincerity of the Indians, granted their general’s request, and fixed on the next morning for their reception. On the evening of that day an Indian woman, who had been appointed by Major Gladwyn to make a pair of Indian shoes out of a curious elklskin, brought them home. The major was so pleased with them that, intending these as a present for a friend, hlie ordered her to take the remainder back and make it into othe’rs for himself. He then directed his servant to pay her for those she had done, and dismissed her. The woman went to the door that led to the stre(et, but no further; she there loitered about as if she had not finishled the busin(ss onl whlich she came. A servant at length observed her, and asked her whly she stayed there. She gave him, however, no answer. Sonme short time after, the Governor himself saw her, and inquired of his servant what occasioned her stay. Not being able to get a satisfactory answer, he ordered the woman to be called in. When she came into his presence, hlie desired to know what was the reason of her loitering about, and not hastening homle before the gates were shut, that she milght complete in due time the work he had given her to do. She told him, after much hesitation, that as he had always 920

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MICHIGAN. belhaved with great goodness towards her, she was unwilling to tale away the remainder of the skin, because hlie put so great a value upon it; and yet had not been able to prevail upon herself to tell him so.

He then asked her why she was more reluctant to do so now than she hadl been when she made the former pair. With increased reluctance she answered, that she should never be able to bring them back. His curiosity was now excited; lie insisted on her disclosing the secret that seemed to be struggling, in her bosom for utterance. At last, on receiving a promise that the intelligence she was about to give him should not turn to her prejudice; and that, if it appeared to be beneficial, she should be rewarded for it, she informed him that at the council to be held with the Indians on the following day, Pontiac and his chiefs intended to murder him, and, after having massacred the garrison and inhabitants, to plunder the town. That for this purpose all the chiefs who were to be admitted into the council-room had cut their guns short, so that they could conceal themn under their blankets; with which, on a signal given by their general ol delivering the belt, they were all to rise up and instantly to fire on him and his attendants. Having effected this. they were immediately to rush into the town, where they would find themselves supported by a great number of their warriors that were to come into it during the sitting of the council under the pretence of trading, but privately armed in the same manlier. Having gained fromnt the woman every necessary particular relative to the plot, and also the nmeans by which she acquired a knowledge of them, hlie dismissed her with injunctions of secrecy, and a promise of fulfilling on his part with punctuality the engagements hlie had entered into. The intelligence the Governor had just received gave him great uneasiness, and lie imniedcliately consulted the officer who was next himni in command on the subject. But this gentleman, considering the information as a story invented for soime artful purpose, advised him to pay no attention to it. This conclusion, however, had happily no weight with himn. He thought it prudent to conclude it to be true till hlie was convinced it was not so; and therefore, without revealing his suspicions to any other person, hlie took every needful precaution that the time would admit of. He walked around the fort for the whole night, and saw himself that every sentinel was upon duty, and every weapon of defence in proper order. As lie traversed the ramparts that lay nearest to the Indian camp, he heard them in high festivity, and, little imagining that their plot was discovered, probably pleasing themselves with the anticipation of their success. As soon as the morning dawned, hlie ordered all the garrison under arms, and then, imparting hllis apprehensions to a few of the principal officers, gave them such directions as lhe thoughlt necessary. At the same time he sent round to all the traders to informi them, that as it was expected a great number of Indians would enter the town that day, who lmight be inclined to plunder, hlie desired they would have their arms ready, and repel any attempt of that kind. About 10
o’clock, Pontiac and his chiefs arrived, and were conducted to the council chamlber, where the Governor and his principl)al officers, each with pistols in his belt, awaited his arrival. As the Indians passed on, they could not help observing that a greater number of troops than usual were drawn up on the parade, or marching about. No sooner were thl)ey entered, and seated on the skins prepared for them, than Pontiac asked the Governor on what occasion h’i young men, meaning the soldiers, were thus drawn up and parading the streets 92i

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. He received for answer that it was only intended to keep them perfect in their exercise. The Indian chief warrior now began his speech, which contained the strongest professions of friendship and good-will towards the English: and when hlie came to the delivery of the belt of wampum, the particular niode of which, according to the woman’s information, was to be the signial for the chiefs to fire, the Governor and all his attendants drew their swords half way out of their scabbards; and the soldiers at the same time made a clattering with their arms before the door, which had been purposely left open. Pontiac, though one of the bravest men, imnmediately turned pale and trembled; and instead of giving the belt in the manner proposed, delivered it according to the usual way. His chiefs, who had impatiently expected the signal, looked at each other with astonishment, but continued quiet waiting the result. The Governor, in his turn, made a speech; but, instead of thanking the great warrior for the professions of friendship hlie had just uttered, he accused him of being a traitor. He told him that the English, who knew everythling, were convinced of his treachery and villanous designs; and as a proof that they were acquainted with his most secret thoughts and intentions, hlie stepped towards an Indian chief that sat nearest to him, and drawing aside the blanket, discovered the shortened firelock. This entirely disconcerted the Indians and tiustrated their design. He then continued to tell them, that as he had given his word, at the time they had desired an audience, that their persons should be safe, he would hold his promise inviolable, though they so little deserved it. However, he desired them to make the best of their way out of the fort, lest his young men, on being acquainted with their treacherous purposes, should cut every one of them to pieces. Pontiac endeavored to contradict the accusation, and to make excuses for his suspicious conduct; but the Governor, satisfied of the falsity of his protestations, would not listen to him.

The Indians immediately left the fort; but, instead of being sensible of the Governor’s g(enerous behaviour, they threw off the mask, and the next day made a regular attack upon it. Thus foiled, Pontiac laid lormal siege to the fortress, and for many months that siege was continued in a manner and with a perseverance unexampled among the Indians. Even a regular commissariat department was organized, and bills of credit drawn out upon bark were issued, and, what is rarer, punctually paid. MASSACRE AT THE

RIVER RAISIN. Immediately after the battle of the 18th of January, 1813, some of the French inhabitants, who had sold provisions to the British, followed them to Malden to get their pay. On their return, they brought word that the British and Indians were collecting in large force, to the amount of 3000, to attack Frencltown. General Winchester paid but little attention to these reports, feeling considerable confidence in his own strength, and expecting reinforcements that would render him safe beyond a doubt, before the enemy could possibly attack him. The British seemed to be aware that they must make the attack before these reinforcements came up, if they wished to effect anything; hence they hastened their preparations. On the 21st, several of the more prominent French citizens went to Winchester and told him that they had reliable information that the American 922

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MICHIGAN. camp would be attacked that night or the next day. He was so infatuated that he paid no further deference to their statement than to order those soldiers who were scattered around the settlement, drinking cider with the inhabitants, to assemble and remain in camp all night.

About daylilght, on the morning of the 22d of January, 1813, a large force of British and Indians, under Proctor and the celebrated Indian chiefs, Round Head and Split Log, attacked the camp of the Americans. The attack was made all along the lines, but the British forces were more particularly led against the upper camp, occupied by Major Madison and Colonels Lewis and Allen, and the Indians against the lower camp, occupied by Colonel Wells. The British wer3 unsuccessful at their part of the lines, where the Americans fought with great bravery, and were protected very much by the pickets, which, being placed at some distance from the woods, afforded the Kentucky riflemen a fine opportunity to shoot the enemy down as they were advancing. An attempt was then made by the British to use a field piece just at the edge of the woods, by which they hoped to prostrate the pickets and batter down the houses, but the Kentuckians, with their sharpshooters, picked the men off as fast as they attempted to load it, so that they were forced to abandon the attack and suffer a repulse. While these things were happening at the upper camp, a far different state of things existed at the lower one. The attack of the Indians was so impetuous, the position so indefensible, and the American force so inadequate, consisting of only 200 men, that, notwithstanding the bravery of Colonel Wells and his men, it was impossible to retain the position. Colonels Lewis and Allen attempted to take a reinforcement to the right wing, to enable Colonel Wells to retreat up the river on the ice, under eover of the high bank, to tihe upper camp. But before they arrived at the lower camp, the fire of the savages had become so galling that Wells was forced to abandon his position. This he attempted to do in good order, but as soon as his men began to give way, the Indians redoubled their cries and the impetuosity of their attack, so that the retreat speedily became a rout. In this condition they were met by Colonel Allen, who made every effort to call them to order and lead them in safety to the upper camp. But, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of Colonel Allen, and his earnest protestations and commands, they continued their disordered fight, and from some unaccountable reason, probably through an irresistible panic, caused by the terrible cries and onslaught of the savages, instead of continuing up the river to the upper camp, they fled diagonally across to the Hull road, so called, which led to Maumce, and attempted to escape to Ohio. And now the flight became a carnage. The Indians seeing the disorder of the Americans, who thought of nothing save running for their lives, and escaping the tomahawks of the savages, having warriors posted all along the woods which lined or were within a short distance of the river, now raised the cry that the Americans were flying, which cry was echoed by thousands of warriors, who all rushed to the spot and outstripped the fleeing soldiers. Some followed them closely in their tracks and brained them with their tomahawks from behind; some posted themselves on both sides of the narrow road and shot them down as they passed; and finally some got in advance, and headed them off at Plumb Creek, a small stream about a mile from the River Raisin. Here the panic-stricken soldiers, who had thrown away most of their arms to facilitate their flight, huddled together like sheep, with the brutal foe on all sides, were slaughtered, and so closely were they hemmed in, tradition says, that after the battle, 40 dead bodies were found lying scalped and plundered on 2 rods square. 923

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. General Winchester, impressed with the foolish idea that an attack would not be made, had retired the night before without having made any arrangements for safety or dispatch in case of an attack. Therefore, when awakened by the firing, he and his aids made great confusion, all crying for their horses, which were in Colonel Navarre’. stable, the servants scarcely awake enough to equip them with haste. Tile luckless commander became very impatient to join his forces, nearly a mile distant, and, to gratify his desire, Colonel Navarre offered him his best and fleetest horse, which had been kept saddled all night, as Navarre, in common with all the French inhabitants, expected an attack before morning. On this horse lie started for the camp, but, on the way, finding that a large number of the troops were then fleeing on the Hull road, hlie followed after them to rally them, and, if possible, regain the day; but on his way hlie was taken prisoner by an Indian (said to have been Jack Brandy), who knew by his clothes that he was an officer, and therefore spared his life. Proctor persuaded the Indian to deliver him over into his hands. Colonel Allen was also taken prisoner about the same time; he had behaved with extraordinary courage during the whole action, although wounded in the thigh. He was finally killed by an Indian while held a prisoner. With Winchester as his prisoner, Proctor felt that he could dictate terms to that portion o’f the American troops under the command of Major Madison in the upper camp, who had thus far made a successful resistance. Proctor sent with a flag one of General Winchester’s aids, with the peremptory orders of the latter, directing Major Madison to surrender. Colonel Proctor had demanded an imme diate surrender, or he would burn the settlement, and allow the Indians to massacre the prisoners and the inhabitants of the place. Major Madison replied, that it was customary for the Indians to massacre the wounded and prisoners after a surrender, and he would not agree to any capitulation General Winchester might make, unless the safety and protection of his men were guaranteed. After trying in vain to get an unconditional surrender, Major Madison and his men being disposed to sell their lives as dearly as possible, rather than run the risk of being massacred in cold blood, Proctor agreed to the terms demanded, which were, that private property should be respected, that sleds should be sent next morning to take the sick and wounded to MIalden, and that their side arms should be restored to the officers on their arrival there. These terms completed, the surrender was made, and the prisoners, and Britislh, and Indians started for Malden; not, however, until the Indians had violated the first article of the agreement, by plundering the settlement. But finally all departed, except the sick and wounded American soldiers, who were left in the two houses of the upper camp, to await the coming of the sleds on the morrow.

Only two or three persons were left in charge of them, a neglect which was nearly or quite criminal on the part of Proctor. The last and most disgraceful scene in this bloody tragedy was yet to be enacted. The sleds that were to take the ill-fated sufferers to Malden never came. In their stead came, the next morning, 300 Indians, painted black and red, determined on massacreing the wounded Americans, in revenge for their loss the day before. The slaughter soon commenced in earnest. Breaking into the houses where the Americans were, they first plundered and then tomahawked them. The houses were set on fire, and those within were consumed; if any attempted to crawl out of the doors ,)r windows, they were wounded with the hatchet and pushed back into the flames: those that happened to be outside were stricken down, and their dying 924

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MICHIGAN. bodies thrown into the burning dwellings. Major Wolfolk, the secretary of General Winchester, was killed in the massacre. Thus ended the “Massacre of the River Raisin.” Thus perished in cold blood some of Kenltucky’s noblest heroes: their death filled with sorrow many homes south of the Ohio. No monuiiient marks the place of their death: but little is known of the private history of those brave spirits who traversed a wilderness of several hundred miles, and gave up their lives for their country: who died alone, unprotected, wounded, in a settlement far from the abode of civilization. Blut few of the killed were ever buried. Their bones lay bleaching in the sun for years. On the 4th of July, 1818, a company of men under the charge of Colonel Anderson. an old settler of Frenclitown, went to the spot of the battle andl collected a large quantity of the bones, and buried them, with appropriate ceremonies, in tihe old graveyard in Monroe. For years after, however, it was not uncommon to find a skull, fractured by the fatal tomahawk, hidden away in some clump of bushes, where the dogs and wild beasts had dragged the body to devour its flesh. 925

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WISC ONSIN. Area,………… 53,924 Square Miles. Population in 1860…….. 775,881 Population in 1870,…….. 1,054,670 THE State of Wisconsin is situated between 42~ 30’ and 46~ 55’ N. latitude, and between 87~ and 920 501 N. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan, Lake Superior and Minnesota; on the east by Lake Michigan; on the south by Illinois; and on the west by Iowa and Minnesota. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 285 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 255 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is generally an elevated rolling prairie. The highest point is in the northwest, while a slight ridge divides the waters flowing into Lake Superior from those flowing into the Mississippi. Another ridge crosses the south central part of the State. A third ridge crosses the southeast corner, and separates the rivers flowing into Green Bay from those emptying into Lake Michigan.

The rivers which flow into Lakle Superior descend abruptly to it, and are broken by numerous falls and rapids, which afford fine mill sites. Lake Superior washes the northern shore of the State, and Lake Michigani the western. Green Bay enters the State from Lake Michigan, in the extreme northeast. It is about 100 miles long, and from 15 to 35 miles wide. It lies between this State and the northern peninsula of Michigan. It has an average depth of 500 feet, and abounds in picturesque scenery. It possesses an active trade, and is navigated by steamers to Green Bay City, its head. The Fox River unites the Bay with Lake Win 926

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WISCONSIN. tebago, about 25 miles south of Green Bay City. This lake is about 28 miles long, and about 10 miles wide. It is navigable for steamers, as is also the Fox River. The scenery is very beautiful. Fond du Lac, at the southern end of the Lake, is the principal town. From Oshkosh, on the western side of the Lake, a ship canal has been constructed to Portage City, which affords uninterrupted communication between the Mississippi River and Lake Michigan. The Mississippi River washes the southwestern shore of the State as far as Prescot, where it bends to the northwest, and passes into Minnesota. It receives the waters of the St.

Croix, the Chip)pewa, the Black, the Bad Axe, and the Wisconsin rivers.

The St. Croix River rises south of the western end of I,ake Superior, and flows southlwest to the Minnesota line, when it turns to the south, separates Wisconsin from Minnesota, and empties into the Mississippi about 40 miles southeast of St. Paul. It is about 200 miles long. Near its mouth it expands into a lake 36 miles long, and 4 miles wide, known as St. Croix L,kle. It is about 100 yards wide at its mouth. It is repeatedly )rolken by falls. The Chippewa is about 200 miles long, and the Black about 150.

The Wisconsin River rises in the extreme northern part of the State, and flows south to Portage City, where it is joined by the waters of a number of small lakes, extending north(ast into Lake Winnebago. This chain forms the Grand Portage, by neans of which water communication is maintained between the Mississippi and the lakes. From Portage City it flows southwest into the Mlississippi, near Prairie du Ch.enl. It is about 500
miles long, and is navigable for steamers for about 200 miles. The Menomonee forms aL part of the northeast boundary, and flows into Green Bay. It falls 1049 feet during its course, and is an excellent mill stream. A number of small lakes are scattered through the State. MINERALS.

“Thle mineral resources of the State are varied and valuable. The lead region of Illinois and Iowa extends over an area of 2140 square miles in Wisconsin, which conmpares with the other portions in the abundance and richness of the ores. In 1863, there were 848,625 pounds of lead received at Milwaukee. The completion of the Southern Wisconsin Railroad will raise the aggregate to 2,500,000 pounds. It is mingled with col)pper and zinc ores. The iron region of Lake Superior presents within the limits of this State abundant deposits of great richness. Magnetic iron, plumbago, and the non 57 927

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OUR C(OUNTRY AND ITS RESOUICES. COPPER MINE. nmetallic earths aboundl.

Copper deposits have also been developed, bIlt as yet have only been vworked to a limited extent. Beautiful i’arbles, susceptible of elaborate working, exist. The mineral pro(lactions are rapidly opening a very inviting field for capital and ilnti{stry, )roIlmising all immense addition to the resources of this e l yergotic ounIg State.” * CLIMATE.

The wvinters are long and severe, buit the temperature is somewhat litigated by the lake breezes. The sumniers are warm, but )pleasant. i’he State is healthy as a general rule, and is less liable than other iiew places to the diseases incident to new settlements, owing to the openness of’the country. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. ThIe soil, as a general rule, is fertile, and is productive, even in tllo miiieral regions of the north.

The best lands are on the prairies, where the soil consists of a dark brown vegetable mould, fromn one to * Report of the General Land Office.

928

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WISCONSIN. two feet in depth, very mellow, and entirely destitute of stones or gravel. ” Wisconsin possesses abundant timber resources, and an immense lurberiing business is carried onl in many of the northern and western counties, the pineries of Maratlhoni, Chippewa, Clark, Wood, St, Croix, and other counties, filrnishing many millions of feet of logs and lumber annually. Our Clark correspondent claims that 100,000,000 feet of pine timber is cut each year in that county alone; while ill Monroe 30,000,000 feet is annually cut into lumber by about twenty mIills. Ilard wood timber also abounds in all parts of the State, and these are few counties without suffi(ient wood for local uses. The lumrebering business is a source of great profit to those engaged in it, and in 3rown county parties boast of cutting enough white pine logs ti’om eighty acres to net $1200 to $1500.” * Wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, and hlay, are the staple crops of’ this State, the first named being the most important. In 1870, there were in Vrisconsin 5,795,538 acres of improved land. In the same year the returns were as follows: Bushels of whleat,………

rye,………. Indian corn,……. ” oats,……….. barley,………. “
potatoes……… Pounds of wool………. ” butter,………

cheese,……. h hops,……… Tons of hay,……… Number of horses,………. ” asses and mules,…… ” cattle………. “
sheep,………. swine……… ” milch cows…….. Value of domestic animals, about,….$ 0 Estimated value of all farm productions,. Total assessed value of real and personal estate, $326,765,238 COMMERCE AND

MANUFACTURES. Possessing water communication with the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, Wisconsin has a growing commerce. Her exports of grain *

Agriculural Report, April, 1868. 929 25,323,647 1,356,736 14,875,968

19,878,794 1,627,569 6,642,8,45 4,086,638 22,257,117 1,494,145 4,738,222

1,280,432 149,989 1.998 4807319 790,4,-,8 865,998 250,312 $28,000,0.00

$77,507,261

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and lumber are very large. In 1863, thie foreign exports were valued at $3,323,637, and the imports at $24,479. A large part of the products of the State passes through Chicago.

Manufactures are yet in their infancy. In 1870, there were in the State 7136 establishments, employing 39,055 operatives, and producing goods to the amount of $85,624,966. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State contained, in 1872, 1725 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of nearly $45,000,000. Thle principal towns of the State are connected with each other, and with all parts of the Union. The main lines lead either to Chicago, Illinois, or to St. Louis, Missouri. Besides these roads, there is the Portage Canal, already mentioned, connecting the WAVisconsin with Lake Winnebago, which was constructed by the State. EDUCATION. There are seven colleges in the State, the principal of which is the State University, at Madison. It embraces a College of Letters, a College of Arts, a Preparatory Department, and a Female Department. It is well endowed. There is a Normal School at Platteville, and one at Whitewater, aid measures are on foot to establish others at Stoughton, Oshkosh, and Sheboygan. Teachers’ Institutes are held at stated times in various parts of the State. The educational system is under the general supervision of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected by the people of the State for two years. Each county and each city has a separate Superintendent, who manages its affairs, as in the other Western States. There is a permanent school fliid, amounting to $2,205,487. In 1870, the amount expended for the schools was $2,094,160. The number of public schools was 5000, attended by 264,525 pupils. In the same year there were about 400
private schools in the State, attended by about 30 000 pupils. In 1870, there were 2857 libraries in Wisconsin, containing 880,508 volumes. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals published in the State was 173, nearly all political. They had an aggregate annual circulation of nearly 11,000,000 copies. 930

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WISCONSIN. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Waupun, and is one of the best in the country. In October, 1870, it contained 217
convicts. In May, 1870, the workshops were destroyed; loss, $70,000. The Hospitalfor the Inane, at Madison, is an excellent institution, and is in a prosperous condition. In October, 1870, it contained 532 inmates. The Institute for the Education of the Deaf and Dutmb is at Delavan, and the Institttionfoe the Education of the Blind, at Janesville. The former contains about 122, and the latter 64 pupils. They are excellent institutions, and besides furnishing their pupils with the rudiments of a plain education, teach them some simple, but useful employment. The State Reform School, at Waukesha, is in excellent condition; and is conducted on the family system. In 1870, it contained 239 boys and girls. The Soldiers’

Orphan’, Home Schoot, at Madison, is in a prosperous condition, and is crowded to its utmost capacity. In 1870, it contained 331 pupils.

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 1466 churches in Wisconsin.

The value of clhur(h property was $4,890,781. FINANCES. In 1870, the total debt of the State amounted to $2,252,057. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year, ending September 30th, 1870, were $886,696, and the expenditures $906,329. In 1868, there were 34 National banks, with a capital of $2,960,000 doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. In this State, all citizens of the United States, without regard to color, all foreigners who have legally declared their intention to become citizens, Indians who have been declared citizens by Congress, and civilized persons of Indian descent who do not belong to any tribe, are entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, State Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legis 931

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lature, consisting of a Senate (of 33
members) and House of Repre sentatives (of 100 members), all chosen by the people. The State officers and Senators are elected for two years, and Representatives for one year. The general election is held ill November.

The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court (consisting of a Chlief Justice and two Associates, elected by the people for six years), Circuit Courts, County Courts with probate powers, and in Justices of the Peace.

All judges are elected by thle people. The seat of Government is established at Madison. The State is divided into 58 counties. HISTORY.

The country west of Lake Michigan was first explored by the French, in 1659. Its name is derived from its principal river, which was called by the Chippewas, who dwelt along its head waters, Weeskon-san, which signifies “gathering of the waters.” In 1661, the Jesuits in Canada began to establish missions along the south side of Lake Superior; and in 1668, after the peace between the French and the Six Nations, a number of new missions were established, and the country fully explored. Father Marquette and his companions passed from the head of Green Bay to an Indian village on the upper part of Fox River. Father Allouez had visited this village, but no Frenchman had ever gone beyond it. “Being guided by the friendly Indians, Marquette and his companions came to the Wisconsin River, about three leagues distant, whose waters flowed westward. They floated down the river till the 7tlh of June, 1673, when they reached the Mississippi, the great’Father of Waters,’ which they entered with’a joy that could not he expressed,’ and raising their sails to new skies, and to unknown breezes, floated down this mighty river, between broad plains, garlanded with majestic forests and cliequlered with illimitable praries and islaind groves. They descended about 180 miles, when Marquette and Joliet landed, and followed an Indian trail about six miles, to a village.

They were met by four old men, bearing the pipe of peace and’brilliant with many colored plumes.’ An aged chief received them at his cabin, and, with uplifted( hands, exclaimed:’ How beautiful is the sun, Frenchmen, when thou comest to visit uis!-our whole village awaits thee in peace thou shalt enter all our dwellings.’ P’revious to their departure, an Indian chief selected a peace pipe from amnong his wvarriors, embellished with gorgeous plumage, which he hung around the neck 932

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WISCONSIN. of Marquette,‘the nmysterious arbiter of peace and wvar-tlie sacrc( calunmet-the white mnan’s protection among satva-ges.’ Oil reachilng their boats, the little grolp) proceeded onward.‘I did not,’

says MIarquette,’ f(,ar death; I should have esteemed it the greatest lIappiness to have died for the glory of God.’ They passed the mnouth-of tlhe Missouri, and the lhumble lmissionary resolved in his mind, oi,e day, to ascend its miglhty current, an(d ascertain its source; alnd(l descending from thence toward the wvest, publish the gospel to a people of whom ihe had never heard. Passing onward, they floated by the Olhio, then, and for a brief time after, called the Wabash, and contintued their explorations as far soutith as the mouth of the Arkansas, where they were escorted to the Indian villauge of Arkansea. Being now satisfied that the Mississippi entered the Gulf of Mexi(o, wvest of Florida, and east of California; and having spoken to tlhe Indians of God and the mysteries of the Catholic faith, Marquette and( Joliet prepared to ascend the stream.

Thley returned by the route of the Illinois River to Green Bay, where they arrived in August. Marquette remained to preach the gospel to the Miamis, near Chica’go Joliet, in person, conveyed the glad tidings of their discoveries to Quebec. They were received with enthusiastic delight. The bells were run, during the whole (lay, and all the clergy and dignitaries of thle place went in procession, to the cathedral, where Te Deuma was sulg, and high mnass celebrated.” The country continued to lbe occupied by French traders and missionaries, until the treaty of 1763, by which it was sturrendered to Great Britain. The territory was governed by the laws of Canada until after the Revolution. Great Britain parted w\ith it reluctantly, and( did not withdraw her garrison from the post at Green Bay, until 1796. It was then mnade a part of the Northwest Territory of the United States. In 1809, it was included( in the Territory of Illinois, and continued to forni a part of it until 1818, vlwhen Illinois becamtne a State of the Union. TIhen Wisconsin was joined to Miclhigan for purposes of goverinment. The principal events of tlhe Black Ilawk war occurre(l within tli! liraits of the present State of Wisconsin, and the country wxvas tlti.i l)rotigllt so conspicuously before the public, that its nmerits excite(l a decided enthusiasm amongst the people. After the peace, many emii,rants located themselves in the southern part. In 1836, Michigan was erected into a State, and Wisconsin was organized as a separate Territory. In i841, a heavy emigration set 933

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in, and continued during 1842 and 1843. In the last year, the nui’ber of persons who settled in the Territory is estimated at over 60,000. The population increased rapidly, and on the 29th of May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Uniion as a State.

During the rebellion this State contributed 96,118 men to the service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are. Milwaukee, Green Bay, Watertown, Prarie du Chien, Racine, Kenosha, Janesville, Beloit, La Crosse, and Fond du Lac.

MADISON, The capital of the State, is situated in Dane county, on an isthmus between Lakes Mendota and Monona, 80 miles west of Milwaukee, and 132 miles northwest of Chicago. I,Latitude 43~ 5’ N., longitude 89~ 20’ W.

The city lies in the midst of the “Four Lake Region,” so calle(l from a chain of beautiful lakes which extend over a distance of 16 miles, and discharge their surplus waters into Yahara or Catfisll River, a tributary of Rock Rivert. Mendota, or Fourth Lake, the uppermost and largest, is 9
miles long, 6 ia-iles wide, and firom 50 to 70 feet deep in some places, and is fed chiefly by springs. It has beautiful white gravelly shores, and pure cold water. Monona, or Third Lake, is 521 miles long, and two miles wide; and lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa are each about 3 miles in length, by 2
miles in width. Tile isthmus is about threequarters of a mile in width.

The city stands in the centre of a broad valley surrounded by heights from which it can be seen for several mnliles. “Madison perhaps combines and overlooks more charming and diversified scenery, to please the eye of fancy, and promote health and pleasure, than any other town in the West; and in these respects it surpasses every other State capital in the Union.

Its bright lakes, fresh groves, rippling rivulets, shady dales, and flowery meadow lawns are commingled in greater profusion and disposed in more picturesque order than we have ever elsewhere beheld.” The city is handsomely built, with broad, wellshaded, and paved streets dropping down to the shores of its pretty lakes. It contains many handsome public buildings, commercial edifices, and private dwellings. The Capitol is the pincipal edifice. It stands in the centre of the city, in the mnidst of a beautiful park of 14 acres, and is 70 feet 934

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WISCONSIN. MADISON. above the level of the lakes. It is built of native limestone, and is an imposing structure. Its original cost was $500,000.

The Courti 11ouse is a tasteful building. The public schools of the city are among the best in the State, and are in a flourishing condition. They consist of a high school, and a grammar school for each ward. Besides these are several private schools. The State University stands on the outskirts of the city, in a giove of 40 acres, and on an eminence overlooking the lakes. It has an annual income of over $30,000. It possesses a fine library. The Histor ical Society is a flourishing institution, with a good library and collection of relics, etc. The libraries of the city, including that of the State, number over 30,000
volumes. The State Lunatic Asylumn is located here. The city contains about 14 churches, and 6 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. IIn 1870, the population was 9176. Madison is supplied with excellent waterpower, and is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures. It is a place of considerable trade, and since the completion of the railways connecting it with the other parts of the State, has grown in every respect with marked rapidity. It is much frequented by pleasure seekers as a place of summer resort, and is regarded as one of the healthiest cities in the Union. 935

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1836, Mad(lison was selected as the seat of the State Government. At thlis titme but a solitary log cabiin marked the site. For severa’ years its growth was slow, but the completion of t.he railways from t’, southward gave it an impetus which set it fairny on the way to its present prosperity. MILWAUKEE, The metropolis of the State, is situated in the county of the samn name, on the western shiore of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Milwaukee River, 75 miiles east of Madison, and 90 miles north ot Chicag,o. “The river approaches from the north in a direction neari y parallel with the lake shore, and is joined about half a mile from its mouth by the Menomonee River, which comes from the west. The largest boats of the lakes can ascend the river two miles from its mouth, as also the Menomnlonee for some distance above its conlfluence with the Milwaukee. About $400,000 have been expended for the iniprovement of the harbor in addition to the appropriation by Coiigress for that purpose, so that now the city has one of the best harbors upon the whole chain of lakes.” The city lies on both sides of the river, and is built partly upon the river flats and partly upon the blu)tffs which overlook the lake.

These latter are fronm 20 to 100 feet lighl, and are nearly perpendicular.

Thle city is regularly laid out, with wide, straight, well-paved streets.

It is one of the best built cities in the west, and is noted for its peculiar appearance. A large portion of its buildings are of brick made in the vicinity. These bricks are of a light straw color and are very hard(
and smooth. They give to the city a light and pleasing appearance whick has earned it the name of the “Cream City” of the lakes. The ” Milwaukee brick ” is now very popular in all parts of the country, and large quantities of it are shi)pp)ed annually, even as fir east as New York and Boston. Many of the residences are elegant and tasteful, and the business portions contain sonme splendid warehouses. The prillecipal public buildings are the Customn House and Court Houtee. The formner is a fine structure of Athens stone. There are about 13 public schools, a female college, and( several private schools in the city. Also about 43 or 44
churches, 5 daily and( 7 weeklly newspapers, and 3 hotels and a public lil)rary,. The Benevolent and Chlaritabl)le institutions include 3
o(rphati asytlums, 2 hospitals, and several associations for the relief of the poor ancl afflicted. 936

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WISCONSIN. RIVER VIEW IN MIILWVAUKEE. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied withl water. Street railways connect the distant points. There are also al-efficient police force, a fire alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department. Tile city government consists of a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 71,499. nearly onehalf of the inhabitants are Germans or of German p)arentage, and the city is in many respects as much German as American in its characteristics. The annual product of lager beer is nearly 3,000,000 gallonls. Six railways connect Milwvaukee with all parts of the country, and steamers ply between it and the other lake ports. It is the shipping point and outlet of one of the richest grain pro(lucing countries ill the world, and is the greatest primary wheat market in the world. In 1862, its receipts of wheat, and flour reduced( to wheat, amounted to 18,000,000 buslhels. In 1865, 13,250,000 bushels were exported. It is provided with ample storage accommodations for grain, and its elevators are among the curiosities of the place. That of the Milwaukee andl St. Paul Railway will hold 1,500,000 bushels. There is direct communication with Detroit during the whole year, steamers plying regularly between Milwaukee and Grand(l Haven in connection with the MAlilwaukee and Detroit Railway. Great quantities of lumber are annually exported. 937

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Milwaukee River has been damrnmed, and affords fine waterpower, which is used by the rapidly growing mnanufactories of the city. Flour, iron, and iron ware, machinery, and beer, are the principal products. One of the largest rolling mnills in the West is located here. Milwaukee derives its name from an Indian word lie-ne-aw-kee, said to signify rich or beautiful land. In 1785, a trading post was established here by Alexanlder Laframboise, from Mackinaw, but the town was not settled until 1835. At first its growth was not only slow, but was hampered by the obstacles so common to western land speculations in those days. From about the year 1841, however, the improvement of Milwaukee has been rapid. In 1846, it was incorporated as a city. In 1840, the population was 1751; ill 1850, 20,035; in 1860, 45,254; in 1870, 71,499. MISCELLANY. TflE OLDEST MAN IN THE WORLD. Joseph Crele died in Caledonia, a little town in Wisconsin, on the 27th of January, 1866. He was probably the oldest man in the world, being, at the time of his death, 141 years of age. He was born of French parents, ill 1725, at a French trading-post, which has since grown into the present city of Detroit. The baptismal register of the Catholic Church in that city settles this fact positively. He lived in Wisconsin for about 100 years.

He was at one time a French soldier, and bore arms at Braddock’s defeat.

He married in New Orleans in 1754, when nearly 30. A few years after his marriage, he settled at Prairie du Chien, while Wisconsin was still a province of France. Before the Revolutionary war, he was employed to carry letters between Prairie du Chien and Green Bay. A few years ago, hlie was called as a witness in the Circuit Court of Wisconsin, to give testimony relating to events that had transpired 80 years before. For some years before his death, the old gentleman resided with a daughter by his third wife at Caledonia. He was 69 when this child was born. Until 1864, Mr.

Crele was as hearty and active as most men of 70. He could walk several miles without fatigue, and frequently chopped wood for the family use. He cast his first vote for Washington, and after that never failed to vote at every election. He had no bad habits, except that he was a constant smoker. In person, he was rather above the medium height, spare in flesh, but showing evidences of having been in his prime-100 years ago-a man of powerful physical organization. During the last few years of his life, he experienced a haunting sense of loneliness, and would frequently exclaim with sadness that lhe feared Death had forgotten him. 938

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MINNESOTA. Area,……………. Population in 1860…….. Population in 18x0,……. THE State of Minnesota is situated between 43~ 30’ and 49~ N.

latitude, and between 89~ 30’ and 97~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, on the south by Iowa, and on the west by Dakota Territory. TOPOGRAPHY. The State Government has recently published an excellent description of Minnesota, prepared by Col. Girart Hewitt, of St. Paul. We take the following from it: “Although Minnesota is not a mountainous country by any means, its general elevation gives it all the advantages of one, without its objectionable features. Being equidistant from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, situated on an elevated plateau, and with a system of lakes and rivers ample for an empire, it has a peculiar climate of its own, possessed by no bther State. The general surface of the greater part of the State is even and undulating, and pleasantly diversified with rolling prairies, vast belts of timber, oak openings, numerous lakes and streams, with their accompanying meadows, waterfalls, wooded ravines, and lofty bluffs, which impart variety, grandeur and picturesque beauty to its scenery. “The Mississippi River, 2400 miles long, which drains a larger region of country thah any stream on the globe. with the exception of 939

83,531 Square Mffes. 172,413 439,706

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OUR COUNTRY AND IFS RESOURCES. FALLS OF ST ANTHONY. the Amazon, rises in Lake Itasca, in the northern part of Minnesota, and flows southeasterly through the State 797 miles, 134 of which fiorms its eastern boundary. It is navigable for large boats to St. Paul, and above the F.-lls of St.

Anthony for smaller boats for about 1,50 miles farther. The season of navigation has opened as early as the 25th of March, but usually opens from the first to the middle of April, and closes between the middle of November and the first of December. In 1865 and 1866, steamboat excursions took place on the first of December, from St. Paul, and the river remained open several days longer; in 1867 until December 1st. The principal towns and cities on the Mississippi in Minnesota, are, Winona, Wabashaw, Lake City, Red Wing, Hastings, St. Paul, Minneapolis, St. Anthony, Anoka, Dayton, Monticello, St. Cloud, Sauk Rapids, Little Falls, Watab. The Minnesota River, the source of which is among the Coteau des Prairies, in Dakota Territory, flows fromn Big Stone Lake, on the western boundary of the State, a distance of nearly 500 miles, through the heart of the southwestern part of the State, and ampties into the Mississippi at Fort Snelling, 6 miles above St. Paul. * 940

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MINNESOTA. It is navigable as high up as the Yellow Medicine, 238 mtiles above its mouth during good stag,es of water. Its principal places are Shlakopee, Chaska, Carver, Belle Plaine, Henderson, Le Sneur, Traverse des Sioux, St. Peter, MAIanlkato, and New Ulin. The St. Croix IAives, rising in Wisconsin, near LIake Superior, forms about 130 miles of the eastern boundary of the State. It empties into the Mississippi nearly opposite Hastings, and is navigable to Taylor’s Fall, about 50 nmiles. It penetrates the pineries, and fulrnishes immense waterpower along its course. The princip)al places on it are Stillwater an(l Tavlor’s Falls.

T11he Red River rises in Lake Traverse, and flows northward, forminc the western boundary of the State from Big Stone Lake to the British possessions, a distance of 380 miles. It is navigal)le from Bre(ekenridge, at the mouth of the Bois de Sioux River, to iludson’s Baly; the Saskatchewan, a tributary of the Red River, is also said to be a navigable stream, thus promising an active commercial trade fr)om this vast region when it shall have become settled up, rid the St. Paul ald Pacific Railroad, which connects the navigable waters of the Re(l River with those of the Mississippi. Among the more inmportant of the numerous small streams are Rum River, valuable for lutimbering; Verm ilion River, furnishing extensive waterpower, and possessing some of the finest cascades in the United States; the Crow, Blue Earth Root, Sank, Le Suteur, Ztnumbl)ro, Cottonwood, Long Prairie, Red Wood, Waraju, Pejuta Ziza, Mauja, Wakan, Buffailo, \Vild RPice, Plum, Sand Hill, Clear Water, Red Lake, Thief Black, Red Cellar, and Des Moines rivers; the St. Louis River, a large stream flowingt into Lake Superior, navigable for 20 miles from its lake outlet, and furnishing a waterpower at its falls said to be equal to that of the Falls of the Mississippi at St. Anthony, and many others, besides all the innumerable hosts of first and secondary tributaries to iall the larger streams.” LIake ktperior washes the eastern boundary of the State for a distalne of 167 miles, and has several fine harbors. Minnesota is thickly studded with small lakes, which abound in fish and game, al(nd give a rich beauty to the landscape. Professor Maury sa-ys that Minnesota is the best watered State in the Union, although one of the farthest firom the sea, owing its abundant summer rains to the presence of these lakes. MINERALS. Iron is abundant along the shores of Lake Superior. Copper is found in small quantities. Coal and red pipe-clay are the other mine 941

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rals. Gold quartz has been found in Carlton county, and gold and silver about 80 miles northwest of Lake Superior.

CLIMATE. Minnesota has been so strongly recommended as a resort for inva lids, that the following remarks upon the climate, taken from the work of Colonel Hewitt, will be found interesting. “The assertion that the climate of Minnesota is one of the healthiest in the world, may be broadly and confidently made. It is sustained b)y the almost unanimous testimony of thousands of invalids who have sought its pure and bracing air, and recovered from consumption and other diseases after they had been given up as hopeless by their home physicians; it is sustained by the experience of its inhabitants for twenty years; and it is sustained by the published statistics of mortality in the different States. Minnesota is entirely exempt from malaria, and consequently the numerous diseases known to arise from it, such as chills and fever, autumnal fevers, ague cake or enlarged spleen, enlargemenit of the liver, etc., dropsy, diseases of the kidneys, affections of the eye, and various bilious diseases, and derangements of the stomach and bowels, although sometimes arising from other causes, are often due wholly to malarious agency, and are only temporarily relieved by medicine, because the patient is constantly exposed to the iialarious influence which generates them. Enlargement of the liver and spleen is very common in southern and southwestern States. We are not only free from those ailments, but by coming to Minnesota, often without any medical treatment at all, patients speedily recover from this class of diseases; the miasmatic poison being soon eliminated from the system, and not being exposed to its further inception, the functions of health are gradually resumed. Diarrhoea and dysentery are not so prevalent as in warmer latitudes, and are of a milder type. Pneumonia and typhoid fever are very seldom met with, and then merely as sporadic cases. Diseases of an epidemic character never have been known to prevail here.‘Even that dreadful scourge, diphtheria, which, like a destroying angel, swept through portions of the country, leaving desolation in its train, passed us by with scarce a grave to mark its course. The diseases common to intancy and childhood partake of the same mild character, and seldom prove fatal.’ This is the language of Mrs. Colburn, an authoress, and the experience of physicians corroborates this opinion. That dreadful scourge of the human family, the cholera, is alike unknown 942

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MINNESOTA. lhere. During the surnnmer of 1866, while hundreds were daily cut doviwn by this visitation ill New York, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other places, and it prevailed to an alarming extent in Chicago, not a single case made its appearance in Minnesota. Another, and a very large class of invalids, who derive great l)enefit from the climate of Minnesota, are those whose systems have become relaxed, debilitated, and b)oklen down by over-taxation of the mental and physical energies, lyspepsia, etc.” SOIL AND PRODUCTS. “The prevailing soil of Minnesota,”

says the work quoted above, “is a dark, calcareous, sandy loam, containing a various intermixture of (clay, abounding in mineral salts and ill organic ingredients, derived from the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter for long ages of growth and decay. The sand, of which silica is the base, forms a large proportion of this, as of all good soils. It plays an important part in the economy of growth, and is an essential constituent in the organism of all cereals. About 67 per cent. of the ash of the stems of wheat, corn, rye, barley, oats and sugarcane, is pure silica or flint.

It is this which gives the glazed coating to the plants, and gives strength to the stalk.” InI 1869, the agricultural returns were as follows Acres of improved land,. Bushels of wheat,… oats,… IndianI cor,n, barley,.. buckwlheat,. ” ryve,… Irish potatoes, ” apples,… Tons of hay, (cultivated) ” (wild).. Pounds of butter……….. wool,…….

Number of horses……. ” milch cows,…. mules and asses,.. sheep…….

swine,……8 ” cattle,……. Value of domestic animals… 58 943

1,611,594 17,271,968 10,762,209 4,236,822 1,256,686 . 51,684 75,866 1, 6
i,3, 4 8 3 9,932 73,694 ,543,7-:-)S (i,593,,528 385,766 45,780 60,740 578

27,890 150,880 98,479 ‘,;6,642,841 …. ….

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,444 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

Manufactures are still in their infancy. In 1870 the State contained 2270
manufacturing establishments, producing products valued at $23,110,700
annually. The great export is lumber, which, in 1870, was valued at $4,538,804. St. Paul maintains an active trade along the upper Mississippi. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Early in 1872, there were 1612 miles of completed railroads in Minnesota, constructed at a cost of about $60,000,000. St. Paul, and the principal towns in the southeast part of the State, are connected with each other, and with Chicago and St. Louis, through Wisconsin and Illinois. The Northern Pacific Railroad is being constructed across the northern part of the State from Lake Superior westward. EDUCATION. Minnesota possesses a State university and three normal schools, all of which are in flourishing condition. The first is liberally endowed by the State. The Governor, in his last annual message, says: “Minnesota has a larger number of schoolhouses than any other State of the same population and taxable property. Her total expen(litures for school purposes during the last two years exceeded $1,500,000, and her schoolhouses have already cost over $100,000.” Tile State has a permanent school fund arising from the sales of public lands, and amounting to $2,476,222. There are lands enough ou hand, if judiciously disposed of, to increase this fund to $15,000,000. Taxes are levied for the support of the schools. The system of education is under the supervision of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is elected by the people for two years, and reports annually to the Legislature. The first superintendent was elected in 1867, the duties of the office having been previously discharged by the Secretary of State. Each county is provided with a County Superintendent, but the immediate management of each chool is vested in a Board of Trustees. In 1870, the number of school districts was 2626; the number of

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MINNESOTA. talchers 4111; and the number of pupi]ls 110,590. The whole amiounlt expended for school purposes was $857,816. In 1870 there were 50
private schools in the State, attended by 4316 pupils. PUBLIC

INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is at Stillwater. It is in excellent condition, and in November, 1867, contained 45 convicts. A Reform School has recently been opened by the State at St. Paul. In 1870, it contained 82 inmates. The charitable institutions of Minnesota have been but recently established, but are prosperous and of a high character. The State authorities are determined that they shall be second to none in the Union. The Institttion for the Deaf and Dumb, and the Blind, is located at Faribault. It is provided with fine buildings, and ample grounds, and contains about 87 deaf mutes and blind persons. The Hospital for Insane is at St. Peter. Patients are now accomtnodated in temporary quarters; but handsome and commodious buildings are being erected by the State. In 1870, there were 100 patients under treatment. LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1870, there were 1412 libraries in Minnesota, containing 360,810 volumes; and in the same year, there were 6 daily, and 89 other iiewspapers, with an aggregate annual circulation of 9,543,656 copies, )puit)lished in the State. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 582 churches in Minnesota. The value of church property was $2,401,750. FINANCES. The Constitution of Minnesota limits the loans of the State. At the close of 1874, the State debt was about $480,000. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1873 were $1,331,210, and the expenditures $1,148,059. In 1868, there were 15 National banks, with a capital of $1,710,000, doing business in the State. 945

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1856, and grants the right to vote at the elections to all miale persons over 21 years of age, who are of the following classes, viz.: citizens of the United States; foreigners who Ihave legally declared their intention to become citizens; civilized persons of mixed white and Indian blood; and Indians not belonging to any tribe, who have been pronounced capable of voting by any District Court. The last named class must have adopted the language, customs, and habits of the whites, and must have resid(led in the United States one year, in the State four months, and in the district ten days preceding the election. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenanit-Governor, Secretary of State, Aud(litor, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen by the people. The Senators, 22 in number, are elected for two years, one half annually. The Representatives number 47, and are elected annually. The Aud(litor is chosen for three years, the rest of the State officers for two years. The general election is held in November, and the Legislature meets annually, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court (elected for seven years), District Courts, Courts of Probate, and in Justices of the Peace. The Legislature has power to establish from time to time such other Courts, inferior to the Supreme Court, as may be found necessary. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associates. All judges are elected by the people. The scat of Government is established at St. Paul.

The State is divided into 64 counties. HISTORY. The State of Minnesota derives its name from an Indian word signifying “sky-tinted water.” It was first entered by a Frenchman named Daniel Greysolou du Luth, in 1678. In 1679 Father Hennepin, and two others who had formed a part of La Salle’s expedition, accompanied the Indians to their village, 180 miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, to which they gave the name borne by the cataract to-day. In 1689 the territory was formally taken possession of in the name of the French king by Perrot and his companions. They built a fort on the west shore of Lake Pepin, just above its IQ-16

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MIIN'NESOTA. entrance. In 1695 a second fort was built by Le Sueur, on an island ill the Mississippi, just below the mouth of the St. Croix. In 1700
he built a fort on the Minnesota. The fur traders now came into the territory ill great numnbers, but no permanent settlement was made for purposes of colonization. In 1763 Captain Jonathan Carver, of Connecticut, visited Minnesota, and published a description of the country. In 1800
that part of the present State of Minnesota lying east of the Mississippi River was included in the Territory of Indiana. In 1803 the purchase of Louisiana placed the United States in possession of the lands west of the Mississippi. Fort Snelling was erected in 1819, and garrisoned by the United States. The territory was already the seat of an active trade with the Indians, and the Government had some trouble in enforcing its regulations among the traders. Minnesota was explored in 1820 by General Lewis Cass, and in 1823 by Major Long. A third exploring party was sent out in 1832 under Henry R. Schooleraft, who discovered the source of the Mississippi River. Frequent surveys and explorations were made after this, until the region became very well known. In 1842 the town of St. Paul was founded, and emigrants commenced to settle in the territory. In 1849 the Territory of Minnesota was organized by Congress. The population was estimated at 4857 souls, and one half of the lands included in tile new Territory were still the property of the Indians. Emigrants came in fast, however, and in 1857 the population was ascertained by a census to be 150,037. In 1856 Congress authorized the people of the Territory to form a State Constitution, which was done, and onI the 11th of May, 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. During the late war, the State contributed a force of 24,263 mec to the service of the United States. CITIES ANID TOWNS. Besides the capital, there is no large city in the State. The most important places are, Minneapolis, St.

Anthony, Winona, Rochester, Austin, Faribault, and Henderson. ST. PAUL, In Ramsey county, is the capital of the State. It is situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, 2070 miles from its mouth, 9 miles l)y land below the Falls of St. Anthony, and 400 miles northwest of Chicago.

Latitude 440 52’ 46” N.; longitude 93~ 5’ W. 947

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ST. PAUL. The city is built on a bluff 70
or 80 feet above the level of the river. The sides of this bluff have been gradually graded until they now form a succession of terraces, upon which the greater part of the business portion is located. Considering the difficulties to be overcome, the city is regularly laid out, and is well built. Limestone of an excellent quality is abundant in the vicinity, and has been largely used in building, thus giving to the place an appearance of elegance and solidity. The streets are wide, well paved, and shaded with trees. The principal buildings are the State House, built of brick, 143 by 50 feet; the State Arsenal; the New Opera House; and the Athenceun.

The city contains 21 or 22 churches, several public and private schools and colleges, 1 or 2 public libraries, and 4 or 5 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. In 1870 the population was 20,031. St. Paul is connected with Chicago and Milwaukee by railway, an(I also with Duluth at the head of Lake Superior. 948

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ST. PAUL. The city is built on a bluff 70
or 80 feet above the level of the river. The sides of this bluff have been gradually graded until they now form a succession of terraces, upon which the greater part of the business portion is located. Considering the difficulties to be overcome, the city is regularly laid out, and is well built. Limestone of an excellent quality is abundant in the vicinity, and has been largely used in building, thus giving to the place an appearance of elegance and solidity. The streets are wide, well paved, and shaded with trees. The principal buildings are the S(age Hofuse, built of brick, 143 by 50 feet; the State Arsenal; the Nlew Opera House; and the Athentcetm. The city contains 21 or 22 churches, several public and private schools and colleges, 1 or 2 public libraries, and 4 or 5
newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. In 1870 the population 948

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I O WA. Area,…………. 55,04t5 Square files. Population ill 1860…….. 674,913 Population in 1870,…….. 1,194,020 THE State of Iowa is situated between 40~ 30’ and 43~ 30’ N. latitude, and between 90~
and 97~ W. longitude. It is bounded onil tle north by Minnesota, on the east by Wisconsin and Illinois, fron whiclh it is separated by the Mississippi River, on the south by Missouri, an(l on the west by Nebraska and Dakota Territory. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is generally a fine rolling prairie. The highest land in the State, Table IMound, is not over 500 feet high. In the northwest there is a rugged region called the “Coteau des Prairies.” The Jiississippi River forms the eastern boundary of the State, and receives the waters of the Des Moines (beginning on the south), Skunk, Iowa, Wapsipiticon, Miakoqueta, and Upper Iowa. Davenport, Burlington, and Dubuque are the principal towns on the Mississippi. The Des J~oiJtes River is the principal stream lying within the State. It rises in the extreme southern part of Minnesota, and flows southeast across Iowa into the Mississippi, at Keokuk, dividing the State almost exactly in half. It is about 450 miles long, and at high water is navigable for light draught steamers for 250 miles. It flows through an undulating country abounding in rich prairies. The Iowa River rises in the northern part of the State, in Hancock county, and flows southeast into the Mississippi. It is about 300 miles long, and is navigable to Iowa city, 80 miles, at high water. Its principal branch is the Red Cedar River, which rises in the southern part of 949

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IOWA. very little snow, some years not amounltingo to more than six or eight inches altogether; the weather through the winter being mostly made ip of cool, sunshiny days and clear frosty nights. High, dry, salubrious, and rolling, with mnost excellent water and a bracing atmtosphere, consuimptionl was never known to seize a victim here. On the streams the ague and fever sometimes intrudes, with fevers, occasionally, of other types; but, as the country becomes settled and cultivated, these disappear and are unknown.” SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is generally fertile and easily cultivated. In this respect, Iowa is one of the most desirable States in the Union. “Corn, wheat, oats, and hay, are the great staples of Iowa, being grown to a greater or less extent in every county in the State, with the addition of rye, barley, buckwheat, tobacco, etc., in limited quantities. The corn crop of 1866 reached over 52,000,000 of bushels, with an acreage of upwards of 1,600,000, the crop being valued at about $23,000,000, or an average of between $14 and $15 per acre gross.

The wheat crop of the same year reached nearly 16,000,000 bushels upon something less than 1,000,000 acres, the crop being estimated at about $22,000,000, or an average of about $22 to the acre, gross product. The wheat crop is the principal market product, other crops being largely worked up at home and sent abroad in more condensed form, as beef, pork, wool, etc.”* There are over 9,000,000 acres of improved land in the State.

The principal returns are as follows: Bushels of wheat….. ” Indian corn,. ‘ oats,…. Irish potatoes,. rye,….. ” buckwheat,.. Tons of hay……. Pounds of butter,…. Number of horses,… mules and asses, “
milch cows,.. ” sheep,…. swiine,…. ” cattle,. Yalue of domestic animals, Pounds of wool,… * Agricultural Report (U. S.) for 1868. 951

.29,000,000 .70,000,000 .21,000,000 ‘. 6,000,000 540,000 160,000 .

1,800,000 .28,000,000 450,000 25,485 370-,OOO 900,000 . 1,360,000 625,000

$83,000,000 .,ooo,ooo … … … … … … … I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Iowa has no foreign commerce, but possesses a brisk trade along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and with St. Louis and Chicago. Manufactures are yet in their infancy. In 1870, the capital invested in them amounted to $22,420,183. They yielded an annual product of $46,534,322. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 3160 miles of completed railroads in Iowa, constructed at a cost of over $60,000,000. The principal towns are connected with each other, and with all parts of the Union. The great lines connecting with the Pacific railway, terminate at Council Bluffs in this State, which lies opposite Omaha, in Nebraska. The conformation of the surface of the State renders the construction of railroads cheap and easy. The State is showing an energy in extending and perfecting her railroad system which must greatly add to her wealth and population.

EDUCATION. The State University, at Iowa City, is a flourishing institution, and has an endowment of nearly $200,000. It has a Normal department, which has produced many excellent teachers, but efforts are beiing made for the establishment of separate normal schools. Besides this University, there are 4 universities, and 7 colleges in the State, all doing well. The State has an Agricultural College, which is said to be one of the best and most flourishing institutions of its kind in the Union.

The educational system is under the supervision of a State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The counties have eachl a separate Superintendent, and the districts have their own Boards of Directors, who have the immediate charge of the schools. The annual expenditures for the support of the schools now exceeds $3,000,000. There is a permanent school fund, and taxes are levied for the benefit of the schools. In 1870, there were 7332 public schools in the State, attended by 205,923 pupils. Besides these there are over fifty seminaries and academies, and a number of private schools in the State, from which we have no recent returns. In 1870, there were 3540 libraries in the State, containing 673,600 vol umes.

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IOWA. In the sanie year, there were 233 newspapers and periodicals (22 of which were daily) published in the State, their total annual circulation was 16,403,380 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Penitentiary is located at Fort MIadison, and in 1867 contained 160 convicts. The labor of the prisoners is let out to contractors, and the institution is almost self-sustaining. The commutation systemn has been successfully introduced, and great care is taken to reform as well as punish the inmates. The Deaf and Dauiib Asylttr is at Iowva City, but will soon be removed to Council Bluffs, and provided( with more extensive facilities. In 1867, it contained 75 pupils, about onle-fifth of the whole number of deaf mutes ill the State. The Institutioni for the Blind is at Vinton, and contains about 50 pupils. It is free to all blind persons residing in Iowa, and pupils are takeis fromnt other States at moderate rates. The Tospitaltfor Insaie, is at MIount Pleasant, and is a flourishing institution.

Additional accommodations are needed. In 1867, it contained 344 inmates.

The State makes an appropriation for the support of tfo)i)es fo,a Socliers’ Orphans at Davenport, Cedar Falls, and Glenwood. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 1446 churches in Iowa. The value of church property was $5,730,352. FINANCES. The State debt amounts to a little over $300,000, and was coiitracted principally on account of the late war. It is fully secured. The appropriations of the State in 1874
amounted to $723,170. In 1868 there were 44 National banks, with a capital of $4,057,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State six months, and in the county sixty days, except persons in the military or naval service of the Union, idiots, insane persons, or 953

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. convicts, is entitled to vote at the elections. Negroes were admitted to the franchise in 1868. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Tile State officers are elected for two years, the Senators for four years, one half retiring biennially, and the Representatives for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Court, and such other inferior courts as may be established by the Legislature.

These last consist of 28 Circuit Courts established by the Legislature in 1868. The Supreme Court consists of four judges elected by the people for six years. The judge having the shortest term to serve is the Chief Justice. All judges in this State are elected. The seat of Government is establislled at Des Moines. The State is divided into 99 counties.

HISTORY. This State derives its name fromt the tribe of Iowa Indians who inhabited a large portion of it. It was originally a part of Louisiana, and was included in the territory purchlased from France by the United States in 1803. The first white settlement was made by Jifiien Dubuque, anl Indian trader, who founded the city which bears his name. He married an Indian woman and became a famous chief among the savages, and as early as 1800, commenced to work the lead mines with the natives. In 1830, a severe war broke out between the various Indian tribes. The Sacs and Foxes, who inhabited the mining region, were driven away by the Sioux.

Later in the same year a number of miniers came out to the lead mines which had been abandoned by the Indians, and commenced to work them. They were driven away by Captain Zachary Taylor, then commanding the United States forces at Prairie du Chien, in Wisconsin. He stationed a force of soldiers at Dubuque, and held possession of it until 1832, when the Black Hawk War began. After the war was over the miners went back to Dubuque.

Upon the return of peace, the Sacs and Foxes were compelled to cede a portion of their lands to the United States, as indemnity for the expenses of the war. This tract extended nearly 300 miles north of Missouri, and was about 50 miles wide. It is usually known as the “Black HIawk Pur)chacse.” Other lands were purchased from P, 5 4

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IOWA. the Indians for $1,000,000, and the present limits of Iowa cleared of Indian titles. The first white settlement in these purchases was made at Fort Madison (in the present county of Lee), late in 1832, and, in 1835; the town was regularly laid off. In 1833, Burlington was founded, and Dubuque received a large addition to its population. In 1835, a number of Quakers emigrated to the territory, and settled the town of Salem.

Other settlements sprang up rapidly in various parts of the new country, and, in 1836, the population of the District of Iowa numbered 10,531
souls. The District of Iowa, which included nearly all the settlements west of the Mississippi for about 100 miles north of the Des Moines River, was attached to the District of Wisconsin, then a part of Michigan Territory, for convenience of government. In 1838, the Territory of Iowa was formally organized by Congress, and giveni a separate Government. The population at this time numbered 22,860 souls. A heavy emigration now set in from New England and New York, and from Europe, and, in 1840, Iowa Territory contained, according to the Sixth Census of the United States, 43,114 inhabitants. “Such had been the increase of emigration, previous to 1843, that the Legislature of Iowa made formal application for authority to adopt a State Constitution. At the following session of Congress, an Act was passed to’enable the people of the Iowa Territory to form a State Government.’ A Convention assembled in September, and on the 7th of October, 1844, adopted a Constitution for the proposed’State of Iowa;’ it being the fourth State organized within the limits of the province of Louisiana. By the year 1844, the population of Iowa had increased to 81,921 persons; yet the people were subjected to disappointment in the contemplated change of government. The Constitution adopted by the Convention evinced the progress of republican feeling, and the strong democratic tendency so prominent in all the new States. The Constitution for Iowa extended the right of suffrage to every free white male citizen of the United States who had resided six months in the State, and one month in the county, previous to his application for the right of voting.

The judiciary were all to be elected by the people for a term of four years, and all other officers, both civil and military, were to be elected by the people at stated periods. Chartered monopolies were not tolerated, and no act of incorporation was permitted to remain in force more than twenty years, unless it were designed for public improvements or literary purposes; and the 955

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. personal as well as the real estate of the members of all corporations was liable for the debts of the same. The Legislature was prohibited from creating any debt in the name of the State exceeding $100,000, unless it were for defence in case of war, invasion, or insurrection; and in such case, the bill creating the debt should, at the same time, provide the ways and means for its redemption. Such were some of the prominent features of the first Constitution adopted for the State of Iowa. Yet the State was not finally organized under this Constitu tion, and the people of Iowa remained under the territorial form of government until the close of the year 1846. “The Constitution of Iowa having been approved by Congress, an Act was passed MIarch 3, 1845, for the admission of the’State of Iowa’ into the Federal Union simultaneously with the’State of Florida,’ upon the condition that the people of Iowa, at a subsequent general election, assent to the restricted limits imposed by Congress, in order to conform with the general area of other western States; but the people of Iowa refused to ratify the restricted limits prescribed for the new State, a majority of nearly 2000 in the popular vote having rejected the termns of admission. Hence, Iowa remained under the territorial government until the beginning of 1846, when the people, thlroughl their Legislature, acquiesced in the prescribed limits, and Congress authorized the formation of another Constitution, preparatory to the admission of Iowa into the Union. ” The people of Iowa, in 1846, assented to the restriction of limits, snd the formation of a territorial government over the remaining Adaste territory lying north and west of the limits prescribed by Congress. Petitions, with numerous signatures, demanded the proposed restriction by the organi7ation of a separate Territ,ory, to be designated and known as the’ Dacotah Territory,’

comprising the Indian territory beyond the organized settlements of Iowa.

Congress accordingly authorized a second Convention for the adoption of another State Constitution, and this Conventionll assembled in May, 1846, and adopted another Constitution, which was submitted to Congress in June following. In August, 1846, the State of Iowa was formally admitted into the Union, and the first State election was, by the proclamation of Governor Clarke, to be held on the 26th day of October following. In the ensuing December, the first State Legislature met at Iowa City.”

Monette. 956

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IOWA. During the Rebellion Iowa contributed 75,860 men to the military service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Dubuque, Davenport, Burlington, Keokuk, Muscatine, Council Bluffs, Iowa (-Sty, and Fort Madison. DES MOINES, In Folk county, is the capital of the State. It is situated at the contfluence of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers, at the head of steaml)oat navigation on the Des Moines. It is 175 miles west of Davenl)ort, and 140 miles east of Council Bluffs. It lies in the exact greographical centre of the State, and in the mlidst of a smooth valley, rising on all sides, by successive benches, backl to the gently sloping hills, which finally attain a height of about 200 feet. The scenery in the vicinity is very beautiful. The city is laid off with wide streets, and is being well built. The State capitol is at present a plain structure, situated on a commanding eminence. It is designed to replace it at an early day by a building worthy of the State. The city already contains 11
churches, several flourishing public and private schools, and 3 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council.

It has railway communication with the important towns of the State.

Steamers ascend the Des Moines from the Mississippi to this point. The city contains several founderies, and machine shops. The river filrnishes abundant waterpower, and stone coal is found in the vicinity. In 1870, the population was 12,035. Des Moines was originally the council ground of the Indians. It was afterwards the site of Fort Des Moines, selected by the officers of the United States army. It was for a long time known as Fort Des Moines. In 1855 the State capital was transferred to this place from Iowa City. DAVEN PORT, In Scott county, is the largest and most important city in the State. ft is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Mississippi at the foot of Upper Rapids, 330 miles above St. Louis, 184 miles westby-south of Chicago, and 175 miles east of Des Moines. The city lies at the base of a bluff, which rises gradually from the river. It 957

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. DAVENPORT. is connected with the town of Rock Island, in Illinois, on the opposite side of the river, by a handsome bridge. The city is regularly laid out, and is well built, brick and stone entering largely into the constrtuction of its houses. It contains the county buildings, about 13 churches, a high school, and several good(
public and private schllools, anhi 3 newspaper offices. (Giiswold College, a flourishing institution, is located here. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the populatlion was 20,042. Nearly onehalf of the inhabitants are Germans. There is railway commnunication with a,l I)arts of the country, and the city conducts an active trade along the river. MIanufactures are carried on to a considerable extent. Cotton a,id woollen cloth, of an excellent quality, are made here. Stone coal is found in great quantities in the neghborhood, and, as a consequence, the inills are worked chiefly l-y steam-power. The rapids of the Mississip)pi extend for about 20 miles above the city, and during the season of low water seriously interfere with the navigation of the river. Davenport was first settled in 1837, and derives its name from Colonel George Davenport, who was born in England, in 1783. He came to America at an early age, entered the United States army, as a sergeant, and did good service on the frontier in the war of 1812. At the return of peace, he settled on Rock Island, opposite the pre 958

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IOWA. DUBUQUE. sent city of Davenport, fromn which lie carried on a trade in furs with the Indians. He was killed by a band of robbers, who were engaged in plundering his house, on the 4th of July, 1845. DUBUQUE, The second city of the State, is situated in the county of the same name, on the right bank of the Mississippi, 450 miles above St. Louis. The city is one of the most beautiful and attractive in the West. It is built partly upon a terrace, which extends several miles along the river, and partly upon a bluff, which rises 200 feet higher. Tilhe lower part of the city is laid out with great regularity; but the portioI upon the bluff is made to conform to the irregularities of the surface. The city is substantially built, and contains many handsome edifices. The principal public buildings are the United States Custom Hoi,se, the City Hall, and the Market Ho?tse.

Many of the business houses are handsomely built, and sonme of the residences are noted for their elegance, while, as a rule, all are neat and tasteful. The scenery in the vicinity is very beautiful, the country being occupied with highly cultivated farms, orchards and vineyards. The city contains about 18 churches, 3 free schools, and several private schools, and 5 newspapers, 3 of which are German. The Dub?tqTe Female College, Alexander College (Presbyterian), and the Epis 59 951-9

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. BURLINGTON. copal Seminary are flourishing institutions. The city is lighted with gas, is supplied with water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 18,434. Many of the inhabitants are Germans. Dubuque is engaged in a large river trade, and is the shipping point for an extensive grain-growing section. It is connected with St. Paul and St. Louis by regular lines of packets. It is also the great depot for the lead mining region west of the Mississippi.

Some of the best mines in the State are either within the corporate limits, or in the immediate vicinity. The annual shipment of lead from Dubuque is in the neighborhood of 10,000,000 pounds. There is railway communication with all parts of the Union. In 1788, Julien Dlub)uque, a French trader, built a trading house at this place; but his colony was driven away by the Indians. He instructed the Indians ill thie manner of working the lead mines. In 1833, the actual permanent settlement of the place began, and, in 1847, it was incorporated as a city. It is one of the most enterprising and prosperous towns in the West, and is growing rapidly. BURLINGTON, In Des Moines county, is the third city of the State.

It is situated on the right bank of the Mississippi River, 45 miles above IKeokuk, 248 miiles above St. Louis, and 210 miles southwest of Chicago.

It is regularly laid out, and beautifully situated. Part of the city is built on the bluffs, which rise, in some places, 200 feet above the river.

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iOWA. Prom these heights a magnificent prospect of the broad, clear river, and the beautiful country along its shores, is obtained. The city is well built, the larger lnumbl)er of the houses beiiing of brick or stone. It contains the county buildings, about 13 or 14 churches, several excellent schools, public and private, and several newspaper offices. It is the seat of the Butrliiyton University, conducted by the Baptist Church. It is also actively engaged in manufactures. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 14,030. There is railway comntmunication with Chicago, and all the important points of the State. The river trade is valuable, and is increasing. The country, for sixtv miles around Burlington, is sometimes called “the garden of Iowa,”

and of this fertile region Burlington is the principal market. Burlington was the home of the famous Indian chief Black Hawk, whose bones lie buried here. MISCELLANY. FRONTIER J U S T I C E. In the year 1836, was organized a band of horse-thlieves, counterfeiters, an(l higlh,way robbers, hlaving their headquarters near Elk Heart, Michigan, an(i extending their ramifications in all directions from that point many hundred miles. The Rock River Valley, Illinois, and the settled portions of what is now Iowa, were the chief points of their operations, although the band extended thlroughl Kentucky, MIissouri, and even to the Cherokee Nation. Their organization was complete. They had their passwords, and other means of recognition. No great master spirit controlled the whole organization, as is usually the case in criminal associations of that nature. The leaders were those whose education rendered them supl)erioi-to thle instincts of the half savage settlers witlh whom they were associated. Their method of doing business, and escaping detection, was as follows: B.’ s band, in Iowa, would “spot” certain horses and other “plunder,” and arrange to make a foray on some particular night. A., in Missouri, having obtained the knowledge of this, would start his band on a marauding expedition the same night. But those who were to do the plundering would make a feint to go northi or south on a trading expedition, a day or two before the time fixed upon, and, returning at ni,ghlt, would be carefully concealed until the proper time, when they would sally forth on the expedition in earnest.

The two bands then meeting half way, would exchange the stolen property, and returning, dispose of the plunder, perhaps to the very persons whom they had robbed a few nights b)efore. Those of the band who were merely accomplices, were careful to be visiting some honest neighbor on the night of the robbery, and thus avert suspicion from themselves. By this means, it will be seen that detection was almost impossible, and suspicion unlikely to rest upon the real perpetrators. The then frontier village of Bellevue was a central point on this route, and 961

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. also the headquarters of one of the most numerous and powerful of the bands. Its leader, William Brown, was a man remarkable in many respects. He came to Bellevue in the spring of 1836, and soon after brought out his family and opened a public house, which was destined to become famous in the village history. Brown, physically, was a powerful man, and in education superior to those around him. He possessed a pleasant, kindly address, and was scrupulously honest in his every day’s dealings with his neighbors. It is said that none who reposed confidence in him in a business transaction ever regretted it. Ile was ably seconded by his wife, a woman of about 24 years of age, and of more than ordinary natural capacity. They had but one child, a little girl of some 4 years of age. Ever ready to assist the destitute, the foremost in public improvements, this family soon became idolized by the rude population of that early day, so that nothing but positive proof finally fastened suspicions of dishonesty upon them. llaving, by his wiles, seduced a larger part of the young men into his band, and being daily reinforced from other quarters, Brown became more bold in his operations, then threw off the mask, and openly boasted of his power and the inability of the authorities to crush him out. It was no idle boast. Fully twothirds of the able bodied men in the settlement were leagued with him. He never participated in passing counterfeit money, stealing horses, etc., but simply planned. Anlly man who incutrred the enmity of the ” gang,” was very certain to wake some morning and find his crops destroyed, his horses stolen, and the marks of his cattle having been slaughtered in his own yard; in all probalbility the hinldquarters of his favorite ox would be offered for sale at his own door a few hours thereafter. If one otf his gang was arrested, Brown stood ready to defend him, with an argument not now always attainable by the legal profession-he could, at a moment’s notice, prove an alibi. Thus matters went on, until it became apparent to the honest portion of the community that the crisis had arrived. As an instance of the boldness which they evinced, now the band had become so powerful, we give an incident of the stealing of a plow from a steamboat.

In the spring of 1839, a steamboat landed at Bellevue to wood; the boat was crowded with passengers, and the hurricane deck covered with plows. It being a pleasant day, the citizens, old and young, according to custom, had sallied forth to the river-side, as the landing of a steamboat was then by no means a daily occurrence. The writer of this, standing near Brown, heard him remark to a man named HIapgood, and in the presence of numerous citizens, ” that as he (Hapgood) had long wanted to join Brown’s party, if he would steal one of those plows, and thus prove his qualifications, he should be admitted to full fellowship.” HIapgood agreed to make the trial, and thereupon, to our surprise, as we had supposed the conversation to be merely in jest, he went upon the hurricane deck, and, in the presence of the captain, passengers, and citizens on shore, shouldered a plow and marched off the boat and up the levee. When on the boat, Hapgood conversed with the captain for a few minutes, and the captain pointed out to him which plow to take. In a few moments the boat was gone, and Hapgood boasted of the theft. It was supposed that he had bought the plow and paid the captain for it, but the next day, when the boat returned, there was great and anxious inquiry, by the captain, “for the man that took that plow,” but he had disappeared, and remained out of sight until the boat was gone. About the same time, another bold robbery occurred near Bellevue, the incidents of which so well illustrate the character of these ruffians, that we cannot forbear recounting them. 962

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IOWA One Collins, a farmer, living about 8 miles from town, came in one day and sold Brown a yoke of cattle for $80. Being a poor judge of money, and knowing Brown’s character well, he refused to take anything in payment but specie. On his return home that evening, he placed his money in his chest. About midnight, his house was broken open by two men, upon which he sprang from his bed, but was immediately knocked down. His wife, coining to his rescue, was also knocked down, and both were threatened with instant death if any more disturbance was made. The robbers then possessed themselves of Collins’ money and watch, and departed. In the morning, he made complaint before a justice of the peace, accusing two men in the employment of Brown with the crime. They were arrested and examined. On the trial, Collins and his wife swore positively to the men, and also identified a watch found with them as the one taken. In their possession was found $80 in gold, the exact amount stolen. A farmer living near Collins, testified that about 11 o’clock, on the night of the robbery, the accused stopped at his house and inquired the way to Collins’. Here the prosecution closed their evidence, and the defence called three witnesses to the stand, among whom was Fox, afterward noted as the murderer of Colonel Davenport, all of whom swore positively that, on the night of the robbery, they and the accused played cards firom dark till daylight, in Brown’s house, 8 miles from the scene of the robbery. In the face of the overwhelmuing testimony adduced by the State, the defendants were discharged. Another laughable instance, displaying the shrewdness and villainy of these fellows, occurred early in the spring of 1838. Godfr’ey (one of the robbers of Collins) came into town with a fine span of matched horses, with halter ropes around their necks. From the known character of their possessor, the sheriff thought best to take the horses into his custody. Brown’s gang remonstrated against the proceedings, but to no effect. Subsequently a writ of replevin was procured, and the horses demanded-the sheriff refused to give them up. A general row ensued. The citizens, being the stronger party at that time, sustained the sheriff, and he maintained the dignity of his office. Handbills, describing the horses accurately, were then sent around the county. A few days afterward, a stranger appeared in town, anxiously inquiring for the sheriff, and, upon meeting him, he announced his business to be the recovery of a fine span of horses, which had been stolen from him a short time before, and then so accurately described those detained by the sheriff, that the latter informed him that he then had them in his stable. Upon examining them, tlie man was gratified to find that they were his; turning to the crowd; he offered $25 to any one who would produce Godfrey, remarking, that if he met him, hlie would wreak his vengeance upon him in a summary manner, without the intervention of a jury. Godfrey was not, however, to be found, and the horses were delivered to the stranger. Imagine the consternation of the sheriff, when, two days later, the true owner of the horses appeared in search of them. The other was an accomplice of Godfrey, and they had taken that method of securing their booty. Similar incidents could be detailed to fill pages, for they were of continual occurrence. On the 20thl of March, 1840, the citizens of Bellevue, not implicated in the plans of the horse-thllieves and counterfeiters, held a mneeting to consider the wrongs of the community. But one opinion was advanced, that the depredators must leave the place, or summary vengeance would be inflicted upon them all. It was resolved that a warrant should be procured for the arrest of the whole 963

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. gang, from Justice Watkins-father of our present sheriff-and, upon a certain day, the sheriff, accompanied by all the honest citizens as a posse, should proceed to serve the same. The warrant was issued upon the affidavit of Anson Hlarrington, Esq., one of our most respectable citizens, chargiing about half the inhlabitanlts of the town-Brownl’s imenl-withl the commission of crimnes. A posse of 80 men was selected by the sheriff from among the best citizens of the county, who met in Bellevue on the 1st day of April, 1840, at 10 o’clock, A. MN.

Brown, in the meantime, had got wind of the proceedings, and had rallied a party of 23 men, whose names were on the warrant, and proceeded to fortify the Bellevue Hotel, and prepare for a vigorous defence. On the sheriff’s arriving in Bellevue with his party, he found a red flag streaming from the hotel, and a portion of Browvn’s men marching to and fro in front of their fort, armed with rifles, presenting a formidable appearance. A meeting of the citizens was then convened to consult upon the best method of securing the ends of justice, of which Maljor Thomas S. Sparks was Chairman. It was resolved that the sheriff should go to Brown’s fort, with two men, and demand their surrender, reading his warrant, and assuring them that they should be protected in their persons and property. It was also resolved, if they did not surrender, to storm the house, and that Colonel Thomas Cox, then a representative ini the Iowa Legislature, should assist the sheriff in the command of the party selected for this purpose.

The sheriff then went to the hotel, accompanied by Messrs. Watkins and Magoon. When near the house, they were suddenly surrounded by Brown and a party of his men, all fully armed. They captured the sheriff, and ordered Watkins and Mlagoon to return and inform the citizens, that at the first attempt to storm the house, they would shoot the sheriff. Being conducted into the house, the sheriff read his warrant, and informed them of the proceedings of the meeting. Just then it was discovered that Colonel Cox, with a party of citizens, was rapidly advancing on the hotel. Upoii the sheriff’s promise to stop them and then return, lie was released by Brown.

He met the party, and, accosting Cox, requested him to delay the attack one hour, and if he (the sheriff) did not return by that time, for them to come on and take the house. Cox was determined the sheriff should not return, saying that hlie should not keep his word with such a band of ruffians. Better counsels, however, prevailed, and the sheriff went back.

On his return, hlie found that Brown’s men had been drinking freely to keep up their courage. After some parleying, Brown determined not to surrender, comhlmanding the sheriff to return to his men and tell them to come on, and if they succeeded in carrying the hotel, it should only be over their dead bodies. The sheriff returned and disclosed the result of his interview. Mrs. Brown, inii the meantime, and a fellow called Buckskin, paraded the streets with a red flag. The citizens were then addressed by Cox and Watkins, and it was finally determined that a body of 40 men should be selected to make the attack, upon which the posse started and charged upon the house at a full run. As our men entered .the porch, the garrison commenced firing, but we being so near, they generally overshot their mark. At the first fire, one of oar best men, Mr. Palmer, was killed, and another, Mr. Vaughn, badly wounded. Brown opened the door and put his gun to shoot, when he was immediately shot down by one of our men. The battle then became desperate and hand to hand. After considerable hard fighting, the “balance” of the gang commenced their retreat through the back 9,64

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IOW’A. door of the house. They were surrounded and all captured but 3. The result of the fight was, on the part of the counterfeiters, the loss of 5
killed and 2 badly waot(nded; on the part of the citizens, 4 killed and 11
wounded. The excitement after the fight was intense. MIany of the citizens were in favor of putting all the prisoners to death. Other counsels, however, prevailed, and a citizens’ court was organized to try them.

During the fighlt, Captain Harris anchored his boat in the middle of the river, and remained there until the result was known, when the passengers ascended to the upper deck and gave three hearty cheers. Doctors Finley, of Dubuque, and Crosslman, of Galena, were sent for, and were soon in attendance on the wounded of both parties. MIuchl joy was manifested by the citizens at the breaking up of one of the most desperate gaings of housebreakers, murderers, and counterfeiters that ever infested the western country. The next morning a vote of the citizens was taken as to the disposal of the prisoners. As the District Court was not to meet for three months, and there being no jail in the county, and in fact none in the Territory that was safe, and surrounded as we were on all sides by offshoots of the same band, who could muster 200 men in a day’s time to rescue them, it was deemed the merest folly to attempt to detain tlhem as prisoners, and it was resolved to execute summary justice upon them. The question was then put, whether to hang or whip them. A cup of red and white beans was first passed around, to be used as ballots, the red for hanging, and the wolite for whllipping. A breathless silence was maintained during the vote. In a few moments the result was announced. It stood for-ty-two white and thirty-eig7ht red beans. The resolution to whip them was then unanimously adopted. Fox, afterward the murderer of Davenport, and several others made full confessions of many crimes, in which they had been engaged. The whole crowd of prisoners was then taken out, and received from 25 to 75) lashes apiece, upon their bare backs, according to their deserts. They were then put into b.)oats and set adrift on the river, without oars, and under the assurance that a return would insure a speedy death. Animated by the example of Bellevue, the citizens of Rock River, Illinois, Linn, Johnson, and other counties in Iowa, rose en masse, and expelled the gangs of robbers from their midst, with much bloodshed. Thus ended the struggle for supremacy between vice and virtue in Bellevue, which, from this day forth, has been as noted, in the Mississipi Valley, for the morality of its citizens, as it was once rendered infamous by their crimes. 965

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MISSOURI. Area……………… 65,350 Square Miles. Population in 1860………1,182,012 Population in 1870,………1,721,295 THE State of Missouri is situated between 36~ 30’ and 40~ 36’ N. latitude, and between 89~ 10’ and 96~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Iowa; on the east by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee; on the south by Arkansas; and on the West by the Indiani Territory and Kansas. Its extreme length, from east to west, is 28a miles, and its extreme breadth, from north to south, is 280 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. North of the Missouri River, the surface of the State is principally level. South of that stream it is rolling, and gradually rises into a range of bold highlands known as the Ozark Mountains, which extend through the centre of the State, from northeast to southwest; south of the Osage River, and pass into northwestern Arkansas.

Beyond the Osage River, immense prairies stretch away to the setting sun.

The extreme southeastern part of the State is occupied by a large swamp, which extends into Arkansas. Thle Mississippi River forms the eastern boundary of the State, and receives the waters of the Salt, Missouri, and Maramec rivers. The principal places on the Mississippi are Hlannibal, St.

Louis, Carondelet, Cape Girardeau, and New Madrid. The Missouri River forms the western boundary of the State to Kansas City. At this point it bends to the east, and flows east-southeast across the State into the Mississippi, above St. Louis. It receives the waters of the Chariton and Grand rivers, on the north, and those of the Osage and Gasconade on the south. The principal 967

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FLOATING ISLAND ON THE MISSOURI RIVER.

places on the Missouri are El Paso, St. Joseph’s, Kansas City, Lexinigton, Booneville, Jefferson City, and St. Charles. The Missouri in many places is lined with high bluffs, and flowvs through the State for about 340
miles. The Osage River rises in the eastern part of the State of Kansas, and flows east-northeast into the Missouri, about 10 miles below Jefferson City. It is about 500 mniles long, and is navigable at high water for 200
miles. The St. Francis and White rivers (rain the southeastern part of the State, and pass into Arkansas. MINERALS. “Missouri is richly endowed with mineral wealth. The iron region around Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob is unsurpassed in the world for the abundance and purity of its deposits. On the Maramec River, and in some other localities, are found small quantities of lead. Copper is found extensively deposited, being most abundant near the La Motte mines. It is also found with nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt, and lead, in combinations, yielding from 30 to 40 per cent.

All these metals, except nickel, exist in considerable quantities; also silver, in combination with lead ore and tin. Limestone, marble, and ether eligible building material are abundant, especially north of the 968

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MISSOURI. Missouri. The geological formations of the State are principally those between the upper coal measures and the lower silurian rocks. The drift is spread over a large surface; in the north, vast beds of bitumiiIous coal, including cannel coal, exist on both sides of the Missouri River. When these mineral resources shall receive their proper development, they will immensely enlarge the scope of industrial enterprise.” CLIMATE. “The climate is noted for extremes of temperature.

In the winter, the rivers are often frozen so as to admit the crossing of hleavily-loadce, vehicles, while in summer it is extremely warm, its enervating effects being prevented by a very dry, pure atmosphere, generally favorable to health and longevity.” SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. “The soil of Missouri is remarkable for its variety and excellence. The most productive portions’are the alluvions of the river-courses, which, though often mixed with sand, are rich in the elements of fertilization. Even in the mountain regions, there are rich valleys, and those tracts reported as inarablle are covered with valuable growths of white pine. The marshes of the southeast, when properly drained, will constitute the best farming lands of the State. The’ river bottoms are covered with luxuriant growths of oak, elm, ash, hickory, cottonwood, linden, and white and black walnut.

Thinner soils abound in white and pin oak; and, occasionally, are covered with heavy forests of yellow pine, crab-apples, pawpaws, hazel, and wild grapes of a spontaneous luxuriance.” * In 1869, there were about 8,000,000
acres of improved land in the State. The other returns for the same year were: Bushels of wheat,.. Indian corn,.. oats…… ” Irish potatoes,.

rye,….. ” barley,.. Tons of hay,……. Pounds of butter,…. Number of horses,…. ” 4 asses and lnules,. #~~~~se an mue…….. 8, , * General Land Office Report. 969 7,500,000 80,500,000 6,500,000 2,000,000 325,000

300,000 750,000 12,704,837 520,640 81,450 …….

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Number of mnilch cows,… ‘- sheep,….. “
swine,….. ” young cattle,… Value of domestic animals,. Pounds of tobacco (estimated), ” wool ” …… 390,120 …………. 1,001,890

…………. 2,790,860 …………. 790,112 ……. $58,693,673 ……

20,000,000 …… 2,000,000 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. The manufacturing interests of Missouri are growing with remarkable rapidity. In 1870 there were 11,781 manufacturing establishments in the State, employing a capital of $80,257,244, consuming raw material to the value of $115,533,269, and turning out an annual product of $206,213,429. St. Louis, on the Mississippi, is one of the most important commercial cities in the Union.

The State has no foreign commerce, its products being shipped from New Orleans and the Atlantic ports, from which also its imports are drawn.

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 2850 miles of completed railroads in Missouri, constructed at a cost of about $65,000,000. There is railroad communication between St. Louis and the principal towns, and that city is connected by the roads of Illinois with all parts of the Union. A main line extends fromin St. Louis, across the State into Kansas.

EDUCATION. There are 11 colleges in Missouri, the principal of which is the Sate University, at Columbia. It is liberally endowed, and will soon be enlarged by the addition of an Agricultural Department. It has also a Normal Department. There are a separate State Niormal College, and a private Normal School in successful operation. The schools of St. Louis are distinct from those of the State, and enjoy a high rank. The educational system of the State is under the control of a Superintendent of Public Schools, who is elected by the people for two years. The State is divided into as many school districts as it has Congressional Districts, each of which is controlled by a Board of Directors. Each district is divided into as many sub-districts as necessity may require, and each sub-district is in charge of a local director. These local directors constitute the Board of Directors for the entire district. Each county is under the supervision of a County Superin 970

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MISSOURI. tendent, who is elected by the people for two years. The permanent school fund amounted, in 1870, to $1,674,986. In the year 1870, the State expended $1,074,141 for the support of the public schools. In the same year, there were 5996 public schools in the State, attended by 320,313 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Jefferson City, and, in 1870, contained 797 convicts. The labor of the prisoners is let out to contractors. The J-issouri Tistitution for the E(lucation of the Blind, at St. Louis, was established in 1851. It is supported, in part, by the State, private donations doing the rest. In 1868, it contained 70 pupils. The Asyluri for the Deaf and Dumb, at Fulton, was closed during the war, but was reopened in 1866. The Insane Asylum is at Fulton, and is in a flourishing condition. In 1867, it contained about 420 patients. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 2082 churches in Missouri. The value of church property was $9,709,358.

LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1870, the State contained 5645 libraries, with 1,065,638 volumes. In the same year, there were 279 newspapers and periodicals (21 of which were daily) published in Missouri. Their aggregate annual circulation was 47,980,422 copies. FINANCES. In 1870, the total bonded debt of the State was $17,886,000. The receipts of the Treasury for 15 months ending December 31st, 1870, were $2,847,035, and the expenditures for the same period $10,037,137. In 1868, there were 8

State banks, with a capital of $1,960,300, and 18 National banks, with a capital of $7,810,300, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Male citizens of the United States, and male foreigners who have lawfully declared their intention to become citizens, not less than 971

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. one year, nor more than five years, before they offer to vote, who have resided in the State one year, and in the county 60 days, are entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 34 members) and a House of Representatives (of 137 members), all elected by the people. The State officers and Representatives are chosen for two years. Senators are elected for four years, onehalf retiring biennially. The general election is held in November, and the Legislature meets biennially, in December. The Courts of the State are the Supreme Court (consisting of three judges), Circuit Courts, District Courts, and County Courts. All judges are elected by the people. The seat of Government is located at Jefferson City. The State is divided into 113
counties. HISTORY. Missouri was originally a French province, and was included in the Louisiana purchase of 1803. It was first visited by Marquette I.nld Joliet in 1673, during their memorable voyage down the Mississippi. In 1719, Fort Orleans was built at the mouth of the Osage River, not far from the present capital of the State. In 1720, the lead mines were first worked by the French. The town of St. Genevieve was founded in 1755, and St. Louis in 1764. These were speedily followed by other settlements, the whole region forming a part of the Province of Louisiana, which, in 1763, was ceded by France to Spain. TIhe Spaniar(ds were very liberal and politic in their treatment of this part of their new province, and the settlers had no reason to complain of the change. At the time of the Revolution, the population of St. Louis was about 800 souls.

In 1780, a force of 1500 British and Indians from the Lakes laid siege to it, and invested it for a week, reducing it to great straits, and killing 60 or 70 of the inhabitants. Fortunately, a force of Kentuckians, under General Rogers Clarke, came to its relief, and drove the enemy away. After the peace of 1783, Spain retained possession of Louisiana, and the east bank of the Mississippi became the property of the United States. Settlers from the United States crossed over repeatedly to the Spanish shore, and built their cabins. They were not suffered to re 972

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MISSOURI. main in peace by the authorities, and this led to a diplomatic corresl)oldence between Spain and the United States, by which the former granited the free navigation of the Mississippi to the Americans. The S)paniishl officials on the river, however, paid no attention to the treaty, andl there was every prospect of a serious difficulty between the two() (.ountries when the cession of Louisiana to France by Spain, and its plurchase by the United States, removed all ldanger of’ lhostilities. The new territory was at once divided into two Govxernments, the ‘rTeiritorv of Orleans, and the District of Louisiana. Soon after this, the Territory of Orleans was admitted into the Union as the State of ILouisiiana. The namne of the District was at once changed to Missouri Ter ritory.

ELnigrants came in rapidly, and, in 1810, the population was 20,84.5. In 1817, it was 60,000. The l)eople of Missouri now applied for admission into the Union as -t State. Slavery existed in the Territory, and tihey were anxious to retain it in the new State. The Free Soil party of the country opposed its admission as a slave-holdingo State, and the South and the Democratic party sustained the demand of the Missourians. A sex-ere political struggle, which has already been described, at once l)egan, and continued for two years with such v\iolenlce that it threatcued to destroy the Union. It was allayed by a conipromise offered by Henry Clay, that Alissouri slhould be admitted as a slaveholding State; but that slavery should never exist in the territory north of 36~ 30’ N. latitude. A settlement lbeing effected upon this condition, Missoutri was admitted as a State on the 14th of Deceimber, 1821. During the excitement in Kansas and Nebraska, the western border of Missouri became the s(cene of almost constant hostilities l)between the Proslavery men and Free Settlers of Kansas. At the outbreak of the Rebellion, an unsuccessfill effort was malde to force the State into the Southern Confederacy. It failed through tie superior vigilance and promptness of the Union men of the State. riie population was divided between the Union and the Confederacy, and thousands of troops entered both armies. The American population was almost a unit in favor of the South, while the foreigners were l’tnion men. Several severe battles were fought in the State, and niany minor encounters occurred within its limits. The State was held by the United States army during the war, and its civil governitenit was almost suspended until after the return of peace. A new Constitution was adopted in 1865, and amended by the popular vote ill 1870. 97,63

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besi(les the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are St. Louis, St. Joseph’s, Hannibal, Lexington, Carondelet, St. Charles, Weston, Booneville, Washington, Brunswick, Columbia, Independence, Liberty, Palmyra, and Springfield. JEFFERSON CITY, In Cole county, is the capital of the State.

It is situated on the right bank of the Missouri River, 155 mniles by water above St. Louis, and 980 miles from Washington City. Latitude 38~

36’ N.; longitude 92~ 8’ W. The situation is picturesque, the city being located on a commanding bluff, from which an extensive view is obtained.

Tile city is tolerably well built, but, apart from being the capital of the State, has few attractions. The Slate House is the principal building.

It is constructed of stone, and presents a magnificent appearance from the river below the town. The city contains the Governor’s Mansion, the State Penitentiary, several schools, public and private, about 5 churches, and 2
newspaper offices. In 1870 the population was 4420. In 1821, Jefferson City was chosen as the capital of the State, and in 1822 the town was laid out. ST. LOUIS, In tile county of the same name, is the metropolis of the State, the largest city of the Western States, and the fourth city with regard to population in the United States. It is situated on the west bank of the MAississippi, 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri River, 174
i,iles above the mouth of the Ohio, 774 miles below the Falls of St.

Anthony, 1194 miles above New Orleans, 856 miles west-by-south of Washington, and 128 miles east of Jefferson City. “The site rises from the river by two plateaus of limestone formation; the first 20 and the other 60 feet above the floods of the Mississippi. The ascent to the first plateau, or bottom as it may be termned, is so)newhlat abrupt; the second rises more gradually, and spreads out into an extensive plain, affording fine views of the city and river. St. Louis extends in all nearly 7 miles by the curve of the Mississippi, and about 3 miles back; the thickly settled portion, however, is only 2 or 21 miles in length, following the river, and about 11 miles in breadth. The city is well laid out, the streets being for the most part 974

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MISSOURI. 60 feet wide, and, with few exceptions, intersecting each other at right angles. Front street, extending along the levee, is upwards of 100 feet wide, and built up on the side facing, the river, with a range of massive stone warehouses, which make all imposing appearance as the city is approached by water. Front, Main, and Second streets, parallel to each other, and to the river, are the seat of the principal whllolesale business. The latter is occupied with heavy grocery, iron, receiving, a1i(l shipping houses. Fourttl street, the fashionable promenade, contains the finest retail stores. Thei streets parallel to Front an(l Mlain streets are designated as Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth street, and( so on; and those on the right and left of Market street, extending at right angles with the river, are mostly named from various forest trees, similar to the streets of Philadelphia. Large expenditures have been made fi’on time to time in grading and otherwise improving tlhe streets of St.

Louis.” Within the last ten years St. Louis has made a decided improvement witlh resp)ect to its buildings, and is now one of the lhandsomest and most stibstantit.lly constructed cities in the country. The building,s are principally of brick, though marble, iron, an(] stone structures are numerous. MIaIny of the private residences will conmpare favorably with anything in the land. As the wealth of the city has increase(d, the citizens, with a large public spirit, have spared 1no expense in their efforts to adorn and beautify their noble city. The public buildings are among the finest in the Uni;.on. The City Jflul[ and Court Ho?tse is a new and s)lendid( structure. It was coimpleted in 1860, and cost over $1,000,000. It is a magnaificent edifice, constructed of limestone, and occupies the square boundled by Fourtlh, Fifth, Chestnut, and Market streets. ThIe front is ornamented witle porticoes, and from the centre of the luildinig rises a fine dome, whilchl, though of smaller proportions, greatly resembles that of the capitol at Al”.shington. The Otstont House is a beautiful edifice, built of Mlissouri marble. It is also used by the ITnited States Courts, and by the (City Post Office. It occupies the site of one of the first theatres erected in St. Louis, and is built upon piles driven more than 20 feet into the ground. The Unite1 States Arsenal, in the southeastern part of the city, is a mnassive structure. The Jllerchats’ Exchange is one of the finest buildings in St. Louis. Some of the churches are conspicuous among the ornaments of tihe citv. There are over 80 chulrch edifices in St. Louis; the most inprosing of which are the Roman Catholic C(>ale(1’(f! of S. Lortis; St. 60 9 7 4

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. COURT IIOUSE, ST. LOUIS. (Geo()ge’s, Episcopal, and the Church of the Alessilah, Unitarian. The C(athedral tower contains a fine chime of bells. The benevolent and clharitable institutions are numerous, and of a hig,h character. The most prominent are the City Iospital, Ilai1e)c Hospital (3 miles below the city), the Sisters’ Hosp)ital, the Ilome for the Friendless, the House of Refuge, the RefJormt School, and 10 Oiphant As.ylhits. The institutions controlled by the city are among the best in the country, and those dependent on private contributions are in a flourishing condition. The city of St. Louis has an excellent system of Public Schools, including a Normal School, a High School, 31 District Schools, and 3 colored schools. The annual expenditure for school purposes is about $200,000. The schools are all provided with handsomle and comifoi’table buildings. Besides these, the city contains a large inumber of private schools of every grade. The institutions of the higher class arc the St. Louis University, conducted by the Roman Catholics; the TI7ashington University; St. Louis Medical College; Concordia Colleye, a Gerii:an institution; Missouri l3edical College; and the Polytechnic Issti. t,te; the latter of which possesses a library of 27,000 volumes. There -ire 5 other public libraries in the city; the best of which is said to be the Mercantile Library, which contains 37,000
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MISSOURI. The newspaper press of St. Louis ranks very high. Some of the ablest and most influential journals in the country are published here.

Being the largest city in the West, the influence of the St. Louis press in this section is naturally very great. There are 44 newspapers and periodicals published here. Nine of these are daily, 17 weekly, 3
semi-monthly, 12 nlonthly, 1 hi-monthly, and 2 quarterly. Each of the dailies issues a weekly edition. Until withlin the last few ylears, St.

Louis paid but little attention to public parks or squares. Now, however, it is very well provided in this resl)e(t. Besides 14 small squares scattered throughout tlhe city, ai(d coantnti1iu an aggregate of 119
acres, it possesses the new Towei G)‘ove t’et’ 27621 acres in extent, and Slawv’s Garde%, 276 acres, said to be “the Wond(ler of the West.” The principal buryingground is Bellefointaine Clenete)y, about 5 miles from the Court House. It is a beautiful enclosure of about 350 acres, and contains the graves of many of the old settlers of St. Louis. The hotels of St. Louis are noted for their excellence. The principal are tile Lindell, Southern, Barnumn’s, Everett, and the Planter’s. The Liadelt and Southei’n rank among the finest hotels in the United States. They are inferior to none in the country in size, magnificence, or the accommodations offered to guests. They are among the princtipal ornaments of St. Louis. The city is supplied with an excellent system of street railways, connecting its distant points. It is lighited with gas, and is supplied with water from the Mississippi. The water is pumped by steam from the river, and forced through a tweity-inch pipe into a large reservoir, located about one mile west of the city. Thle city is also provided with an efficient police force, a steam fire department, and a police and firealarm telegraph. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 310,864. A very large uii tinmber-of tihe inhabitants are Germans, or of German origin, and German customs prevail here to a great degree. Eight lines of railway connect St. Louis with all parts of the Union. A bridge, recently constructed from the city to the Illinois shore, gives unbroken communication with the eastern side of the Mississippi. The city is the principal shipping point for almost the entire State of Missouri, and conducts an active trade along the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Ohio, and their tributaries. In 1860, the year before the civil war, the arrivals of steamboats at this port were 4371, with an aggregate tonnage of 1,120,039. The 97 I

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OUR COUNTRY AND ItS RESOURCES. civil war almost destroyed the river trade, but since the return of peace it has rapidly recovered, and has regained a very large share of its former prosperity. In 1870, the arrivals of boats, excluding all of less than 500 tons, was 2725. Tile receipts of lumber for the year were 240,760,000 feet; the receipts of cattle were 201,248 head; the receipts of grain were 23,908,910 butshels; thie receipts of flour were 2,922,630 barrels; the receipts of lea(l were 234,903 pigs; the receipts of iron ore were 316,000 tons; and the receipts of coal were 23,931,475 tons. The (ity is largely engaged in manufactures, and contains ml’anv of the largest and best establishments in the West. Among these are extensive iron works, flouring mills (which in 1870 produced 1,351,733
barrel, of flour), sutigar refineries, manufactories of hemp, rope and bagging, an(l tobacco, and oil mills. In 1870 the capital invested in manufactures iii the city amounted to $41,761,688, the number of hands employed was 33,551; the amount paid as wag,es was $15,906,131; raw material was used to the value of $60,541,012; and the total value of articles pro-. duce(l in these establishments was $131,192,670. The taxable property of the city of St. Loutis in 1870, amounted to $275,133,331; real estate( $217,355,611, personal property $57,77 7,720.

The position of St. Louis of necessity makes her a great city, Situated about half way between the Atlantic and the Pacific, and iii the geographical centre of one of the most fertile and best cultivated agricultural regions in the world, “almost at the very focus towards which converge the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Ohio, and the Illinois rivers,” there seems no limit to the wealth and importance, which the future holds in store for the great metropolis of the southwest. Within a circuit of 90 miles of the city, lie immense deposits of iron, lead, and copper ores, and coal equal to the wants of the entire Mississippi valley for centuries to come. “Amongi the many sites which the vast domain of uninhabited territory in the Mississippi valley presented for founding a city, that on which St. Louis now stands was selected by Laclede, February 15th, 1764, as one possessing peculiar advantages for the fur trade, and for defence against the Tndians. The confluence of the different rivers in the immediate neighborhood was a desideratum in the estimation of the trapper; it has become of vast importance to the place in establishing it as a centre for agricultural and manufacturing enterprises. The statistics of these early times show that for 15 successive years, ending in 1804, the average annual value of the firs collected at this port amounted to $203,750. The number of deer 980

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MISSOURI. skills was 158,000; of beaver, 36,900; of otter, 8000; of bear, 5100; and of bLuffalo, 850. The population at this period was between 1500
and 2000, onehalf of whom were absent a great part of each year as trappers and voyageurs. It will readily be perceived that the elements which gave thie settlement existence were not of a character adequate to foster it beyond the limits of a frontier village; and accordingly, as late as 1820, we find the accession of populatioil had not swvelled the original very materially. Up to this date the census only shows an advance to 4598. Military expeditions and establishments, together with a sparse immigration, confined to those peculiar temperaments which delight in the wild and adventurous, still kept up a progressive improvement, which centering here for personal security as well as for trade, still fixed it as the seat of a comniiercial and manufacturing metropolis, destined in a few years to become an object of interest throughout the world. On the 11
thli of August, 1768, a Spanish officer by the name of Rious, with a (‘oml)pany of Spanish troops, took possession of St. Louis and Upper J-ouisiania, as it was termed, in the name of his Catllolic majesty, tender whose government it remained until its final transfer to the United States, March 26, 1804. Inl 1813, the first brick house was (rected; in 1817, the first steamboat arrived-both importanit events, b)ut neither of which became frequent until several years after. Inl J822, St. Louis was chartered as a city, under the title given by Jaclede, in honor of Louis XV. of France. From 1825 to 1830, the influx of population from Illinois began to be of importance. ]romn this State the commerce of St. Louis received its first great impulse, and from this State it still derives a large portion of its sul)pport. With 1829 the keelboat entirely disappeared. The iteamer Yellowstone about this time ascended to the Great Falls, arind -vas succeeded by the Assinaboine and others. Dry-goods houses were already established, and these sent out retail branches to Springfield, and other places in Illinois. Extensive warehouses began to be erected, some of which are still standing, -having survived the great fire. They rose from their solid limestone foundations, built oiln a scale which shows that the impressions of the present were vividly portrayed to the minds of the people of that day.” * Since 1830 the city has grown with marked rapidity’ In that year the population was 6694; in 1840 it was 16,469; in 1850 it was 77,850; in 1860 it was 160,773, and in 1870, 310,864. * Lippincott’s Gazetteer. 981

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANY. MISSOURI DURING THE WAR OF

1812-15. Colonel John Shaw is the author of the following reminiscences: The Upper Mississippi Indians, of all tribes, commenced depredations on the fiontiers of Missouri and Illinois in 1811, and early in 1812. Several persons were killed in different quarters. About 30 miles above the mouth of Salt River, and fully 100 above the mouth of the Missouri, was Gilbert’s Lick, on the western bank of the Mississippi, a place of noted resort for animals and cattle to lick the l)rackish water; and where a man named Samuel Gilbert, firom Virginia, had settled two or three years prior to the spring of 1812. Ill that region, and par ticutlarly below him, were a number of other settlers. About the latter part of 4[ay, 1812, a party of from 12 to 18 Upper Mississippi Indians descended the river in canoes, and fell upon the scattered cabins of this upper settlement in the night, and kille(l a dozen or more people. This massacre in the Gilbert’s Lick settlement caused great consternation along the Missouri frontier, and the people, as a matter of precaution. commenced fortifying. Some seven or eight forts or stockades were erected, to which a portion of the inhabitants resorted, while many others held themselves in readiness to flee there for safety, in case it mi,ght be thloulght necessary. I remember the names of Stout’s Fort, Wood’s Fort, a small stockade at what is now Clarksville, Fort Howard, and a fort at Howell’s settlement-the latter nearest to Colonel Daniel Boone; but the people bordering immediately on the MIissouri River, being less exposed to danger, did not so early resort to the erection of stockades. About this time, probably a little after, while I was engaged with 18 or 20 men in building a temporary stockade where Clarksville now stands, on the western bank of the Mississippi, a party of Indians came and killed the entire family of one O’Neil, about 3 miles above Clarksville, while O’Neil himself was employed with his neighbors in erecting the stockade. In company with O’Neil and others, 1 hastened to the scene of murder, and found all killed, scalped, and horribly mangled. One of the children, about a year and a half old, was found literally baked in a large pot-metal bake-kettle, or Dutch oven, with a cover on; and as there were no marks of the knife or tomahawk on the body, the child must have been put in alive to suffer this horrible death; the oil or fat in the bottom of the kettle wvas nearly two inchles deep. I went to St. Louis, in company with Ira Cottle, to see Governor Clark, and ascertain vwhlethler war had been actually declared. This must have been some time in June, but the news of the declaration of war against Great Britain had not yet reached there. On our return, I was strongly urged by the people to act as a spy or scout on the frontier, as I was possessed of great bodily activity, and it was well known that I had seen much woods experience. I consented to act in this capacity on the frontiers of St. Charles county, never thinking or troutl)ling, myself about any pecuniary recompense, and was only anxious to render the distressed people a useful service. I immediately entered alone upon this duty, sometimes mounted, and sometimes on foot, and carefully watching thli,e river above the settlements, to discover whether any Indians had landed, an.d sometimes to follow their trails, learn their destination, and report to the settlemients. 982

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MISSOURI. Upon my advice, several of the weaker stockades were abandoned, for 20 or 30 miles around, and concentrated at a place near the mouth of Cuivre or Coppel River, at or near the present village of Monroe; and there a large number of us, perhaps some 60 or 70 persons, were some two or three weeks employed in the erection of a fort. We named it in honor of the patriotic Governor, Benjamin hloward, and between 20 and 30 families were soon safely lodged in Fort Howard. Thle fort was an oblong square, north and south, and embraced about half an acre, with block houses at all the corners except the southeast one. As the war had now fairly commenced, an Act of Congress authorized the raising of six companies of Rangers; three to be raised on the Missouri side of the Mississippi, and the other three on the Illinois side. The Missouri companies were commanded by Daniel M. Boone, Nathan Boone, and David Musick. Tlhe commission of Natlhan Boone was dated in June, 1812, to serve a year, as were doubtless the others. The Indians, supplied by their British employers with new rifles, seemed bent on exterminating the Americans-always, however, excepting the French and Spaniards, who, from their Indian intermarriages, were regarded as friends and connections. Their constant attacks and murders led to offensive measures. Of the Ifamous Sink Hole battle, fought oni the 24th of May, 1814, near Fort Howard, I shall be able to give a full account, as I was present and participated in it. Captain Peter Craig commanded at Fort Howard; he resided with his fatherin-law, Andrew Ramsey, at Cape Girardeau, and did not exceed 30 years of age. Drakeford Gray was 1st Lieutenant. Wilson Able, the 2d, and Edward Spears, 3d Lieutenant. About noon, 5 of the men went out of the fort to Byrne’s deserted house, on the bluff, about a (quarter of a mile below the fort, to bring in a grindstone. In consequence of back water from the Misisissippi, they went in a canoe; and on their return were fired onI by a party supposed to be 50 Indians, who were under shelter of some brush that grew along at the foot of the bluff, near Byrne’s house, and about 15
rods distant from the canoe at the time. Three of the whites were killed, and one mortally wounded; and as the back water, where the canoe was, was only about knee deep, the Indians ran out and tomahawked their victims.

The people in the fort ran out as quick as possible, and fired across the back water at the Indians, but as they were nearly a quarter of a mile off, it was of course without effect. Captain Craig, with a party of some 25 men, hastened in pursuit of the Indians, and ran across a point of the back water, a few inches deep; while another party, of whom I was one, of about 25, rail to the right of the water, with a view of intercepting the Indians, who seemed to be making toward the bluff, or high plain, west and northwest of the fort. The party with which I had started and Captain Craig’s soon united. Immediately on the bluff was the cultivated field and deserted residence of Benjamin Allen, the field about 40 rods across, beyond which w-as pretty tliclk timber. Here the Indians made a stand, and here the fight commenced. Both p)arties treed, and as the firing waxed warm, the Indians slowly retired as the whites advanced. After this fighting had been going on perhaps some 10 minutes, the whites were reinforced by Captain David Musick, of Cape au Gris, with about 20 men.

Captain Musick had been on a scout toward the head of Cuivre River, and had returned, though unknown at Fort Howard, to the crossing of Cuivre River, about a mile from the fort, and about a mile and a half firom 99.1

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. thle scene of conflict; and had stopped w-ithl lis mcn to graze thelcir horses, when, hleaiing the firing, they instantly remounted and daslied toward the place of battle, and dismounting in the edge of the timiber on the bltff; and hitching their horses, they rushed thlrough a part of the Indian line, and slhortly after the enemy -fled, a part bearing to the right of the Sink hlolc toward Bob’s Creek, hut the most of them taking refuge in the Sink Hole, wlichl was close by where thle main fighllting had taken place. About thle time the Indians were retreating, Captain Craig exposed himself about 4 feet beyond his tree, and was shot through the body, and fell dead; James Putney was killed before Captain Ciaig, and perhaps one or two others.

Before the Indians retired to the Sink Hole, the fighlting had become animnated; thle load(iag was done quick, and shots rapidly exchanged, and wlhen one of our party was killed or wounded, it was announced aloud. This Sink Hole was about 60 feet in length, and about 12 to 15 feet wide, and 10 or 12 feet deep. Near the l)bottom, on the southeast side, was a shlelving rock, under which perhaps some 50 or 60 persons might hlave sheltered them selves. At the northeast end of tlhe Sink Ilole, the descent was quite gradual, the other end lmuch more abrupt, and the southeast side was nearly perpendicular, and the other side about like the steep roof of a house. On the southeast side, the Indians, as a further p)rotection in case thle whites should rush up, dug under the shelving rock with their knives. On the sides and in the bottom of the Sink Hole were somle bushes, which also served as somlethling of a screen for the Indians. Ca)tain AIusick and his men took post on the northeast side of the Sink Hole. and the others occupied other positions surrounding thle enemy. As the trees approached close to the Sink Hole, these served in part to protect our party. Finding we could not get a good opportunity to dislodg,e the enemly, as they were best protected, those of our mien who had tfamilies at thle fort gradually went thlere, not kinowiiing but a large body of Indias mllighlt seize the favorable occasion to attack the fort lwhile the men were mostly away, engaged in tlhe exciting, contest.

The Indiains in the Sink Hole had a drum, made of a skin stretchled over a section of l(llo(oW tree, on whichl they beat quite constantly and some Indian wouldl slhake a rattle, called she-s8/u-qui, probably a dried bladder with pebl)bles within; and even, for a moment, would venture to thrust his head in view, with his hand elevated, sliaking his rattle, and calling out peash! peasl! lwhichl was understood to be a sort of defiance, or, as Bla(ck IHawk, who was one of the party, says, in his account of that affair, a kind of bravado to come and fight them in the Sink Hole.

When the Indians would creep up and shoot over the rim of the Sink Hole, they would instantly disappear, and while they sometimes fired effectual shots, they in turn became occasionally the victims of our rifles. From about I to 4 o’clock in the afternoon, the firinig was inconstant, our men generally reserving their fire till an Indian would show his head, and all of us were studying how he could more effectually attack and dislodge the enemy. At lengthll Lieutenant Spears suggested that a pair of cart wheels, axle and tongue, which were seen at Allen’s place, near at hand, be obtained, and a mioving battery constructed. This idea was entertained favorably, and an olli or more consumed in its construction. Some oak floor punchleonls, fi-omi 7 to 8 feet in length, were made fast to the axle in an uprighlt )osition, and poit-hloles made through them. Finally, the battery was ready for trial, and was sufficiently 984

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Iarge to piotect some half a dozen or more nmen. It was imoved forward slowry and seemed to attract the particular attention of the Indllians, who had evidently lheard thle knocking and pounding conneceted with its manufacture, and vwhio now ti’equenitly popped up their heads to make momentary discoveries; and it was at lengtih mioved up to withini less than 10 paces of’ thle brink of the Sink Hole, on the southeast side. The upri,ghlit plank did nOt reach the grouLnd witlin SomIe 18 inches, our men calculating to shloot beneath the lower end of the plank at thei Indians; but tlhe latter, firom their positi(on, had the decided advantlage of this neglected aperture; for the Indians, sh(oting lieneatli the battery at an upwarl’l an(,le, would get shots at the whites before the latter could see them. Tlhe Indians also watched the port-lholes, and directed some of their shots to theni. Lieutenant Spears was shot dead, througlh the forelhead, and his death was miuch lamented, as lie had proved himself the niost active and intrepid officer engaged. John Patterson was wounded in the tlhigh, and some others wounded behind the battery. Having failed in the object for which it was designed, the battery was al)andoned after sundown. Our hope all along had l)een, that the Indians would emerge from their covert, andi attempt to retreat to where we supposed thleir canoes were left, some 3 or 4 miiles distant, in which case we were firmly determined to rush upon them, anti endeavor to cut them totally off. The men generally evinced the greatest bravery during the whole enigagemienit.

Niglht now coming on, we heard the reports of half a dozen or so of guns in the direction of the tfort, by a few Indian$ who rushed out from thle w-oodls skirting Bob’s Creek, not more than 40 rods l’om the north end of the fort. This movement on the part of the few Indians Nwho lhad escaped when the others took refuge in the Sink Hole, was evidently designed to divert the attention of the whites, and alarm them for the satety of the fort, and thus effectually relieve the Indians in the Sink liole. This was the result, for Captain:Iusick and men retired to the tort, carrying thle dead and wounded, and made every preparation to repel a nighlt attack. As the Mississippi was quite high, with much back water over the low grounds, thle approach of tile enemy was thus facilitated, arid it was feared ait large Indian force was at hand. Tlhe people were always miore app)rehensive of danger at a time when the river was swollen, than when at its ordinaryv stage. The nmen in the fort were mostly up all night, ready for resistance, if necessary. There was no physician at thle fort, and much effort was madle to set sollme broken bones. There was a well in the fort, and provisions and ammunition sufficient to sustain a pretty forniidable attack. The womien were greatly alarmted, pressilg their infants to their bosoms, fearing they mighlt not be permitted to )behlold amother morining’s light; but thle nighlt passed away without seeing or hearing an Indian. The next miorning, a party went to the Sink Hole, and found the Indians gone, xwho had carried off all their dead and wounided, except 5 d(lead bodies left ,in the northwest bank of the Sink IHole; and by the si-gns of blood within tlhe “inik Hole, it was judged that well nighll 30 of the enemy must have been killed :tied wounded. Lieutenant Drakeford Gray’s report of tlhe affir, made 8 of our l)arty killed, one missing, and 5 wounded-making a total of 14; Il had thought the numtl)er was nearer 20. Our dead were buried near thle tIort, when Captain MIusick ancd his men went over to Cape au Gris, where tlhey belonged, and of whichl garIrison Captain Iusick had the command. We that day sent out scouts, while I proceeded to St. Charles to procure medical and surgical assistance, and sent f’orward Drs. Hubbard and Wilson. 985 idissoulti,

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A R K A N S AS. Area,…………. 52,198 Population in 1860,……..

435,450 (Whites, 324,191; Negroes, 111,259) Population in 1870……..

484,471 THE State of Arkansas is sitnated between 33~ and 36~ 30’ N.

latitude; and between 89~ 45’ and 94~ 40’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Missotlri, on the east by Mississippi and( Tennessee, on the south by Louisiana and Texas, and on the west bv Texas and the Indian Territory. Its extreme length, from north to south, is 240 miles, and its greatest width, from east to west, about 225 miles. TOPOGRAPIHY. The eastern part of the State, for 100 miles back from the Mississippi, is flat and svwampy. The northwestern part is occupied by the Oza)k I-oIt,ntains, a low range extending into the State from Missouri, and never risinlg above a hleight of 2000 feet. The BI(1ck Hills lie in the north, and the lJVashita Hilils in the west are the remaining elevations.

The greater part of the State is rolling. The RIis,issippi Rie i forms the eastern boundary, and receives the waters of the Arkansas and St. Franeis rivers. The principal towns on its bankls are Oceola, Moundcl City, Helena, and Napoleon. The Arkansts RPive’ enters the State at Fort Smith on the western boundary, and flows southwest across it into the Mississippi at Napoleon. It divides the State into two unequal parts, and receives the waters of the White River on the north, and some small streams from both sides. The principal towns on its banks are Van Bureni, Little Rock, and Napoleon. S986 + Square Miles.

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ARKANSAS. The Red River tAows through the southwest part of the State, and the Washita (already described), with its branches, the Saline and Boeuf, drain the south central counties. The lVhite River is the principal branch of the Arkansas, and empties into it a few miles above the junction of the latter stream with the Mississippi. It rises in a number of branches in Southern Missouri, and flows southi through the eastern part of Arkansas.

It now flows into the Mississippi by a new channel near the mouth of the Arkansas, being in reality a tributary of both streams. Its entire length is about 800 miles, for 500 of which it is navigable for steamers. The St.

I~]acis River rises in Soutitheast Missouri, and flows into the Mississippi just above Helena. It is 400 miles long, and is navigable for 200 miles, beyond the limits of Arkansas. The Red River is navigable throughout its course in this State. The Washita is navigable to Camden, and its tributaries, tlhe Saline and Bceuf, are each navigable for a considerable distance. MINERALS. The principal minerals of Arkansas are coal, iron, lead, zinc, maai’ganese, gypsum, marble, and salt. The coal fields are very extensive, and extend along both sides of the Arkansas, from about 40 miles above Little Rock to beyond Fort Smith. The deposits of manganese are enormous, and it contains, according to Professor De Bow, mnoie zinc than any other State except New Jersey. The lead ore is very rich in silver, and gold has been discovered in-White county. There is a large quarry of oil stone near the Hot Springs, which surpasses any similar formation in the world, and is inexhaustible. In Pike county, onl the Little Missouri River, there is a mountain of pure white alabaster.

The Hot Springs, about 60 miles southwest of Little Rock, are famous for their medicinal qualities. They are especially beneficial in rheumatic and syphilitic cases. They are about 100 in number, and have an average temperature of about 145 degrees. CLIMATE. In the northern and western parts of the State the climate is severe, resembling that of Iowa and Wisconsin. The southern and eastern sections have a climate like Louisiana and( Mississippi. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil is good. The best lands are in the eastern part of the State, and need a better, systemn of drainage. 987

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1869, there were over 2,003,000 acres of improved land in the State. In the same year the principal returns were: Bushels of wheat,…… ” Illdian corn,… ” potatoes…… oats…….. ‘
peas and beans,4 Tons of hay,……….., Number of horses,…….. mules and asses,.. ” milch cows,…. sheep……. ” swine,…… young cattle,..

Value of domestic animals,.. In 1870, the cotton crop amounted to 375,000
bales. COIMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Arkansas has no foreign commerce, but possesses a profitable river trade witlh Menaphis and New Orleans. It has no manufactures of importance, and will, probably, never *attain the position of a manufacturing State. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. As late as 1868, the State was very backward in internal improve:nents. In that year it contained but 191 miles of completed railloads. The cost of construction was $4,400,000. The great abunldl;nce of water transportation in the State enables it to dispense withl.ailroads to a very great degree. In 1872, there were 258 miles of ailway in the State. EDUCATION. In 1870, there were in Arkansas, 3 colleges, with 335 students; 234 academies and private schools, with about 9000 pupils, and 1744 1)ublic schools, with 72,045
pupils. The war completely convulsed the State, and closed all the schools. By the return of peace a large number of the schoolhouses had l)een destroyed, or rendered lunlfit for occupancy, and the educational funds had been scattered. A more melancholy condition of affairs cannot be imagined. The new Constitution makes provision for a system of Public Edu 988 . 1,170,000 . 25,750,000 346,000 500,000 .. 21,489 10,000 199,600

79.800 190,500 450,030 . 1,500,630 450,005 . $20,096,977

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ARKANSAS. cation, which is placed under the supervision of a Superintendent of Public Schools. Free schools are to be established and maintained by the State, and a permanent school fiund set apart.

Attendance at school is made compulsory upon all children between the ages of five and eighteen years. Measures are being taken for the establishment of a State University, with a Department of Agriculture. In 1870, there were 1181 libraries in the State, conitainigil 135,564 volumes. In the same year, 56 weekly newspapers, with an aggregrate annual circulation of 1,824,860 copies, were published in the State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Arkansas were greatly injured by the war. The Penitentiary, at Little Rock, was used as a military prison until the readmission of the State into the Union, and was very greatly injured. In 1870, 346 prisoners were confined here. Thie Institution fo the Blind was established in 1859. It maintained a feeble existence, owing to the want of fiends, until 1863, when it wal., closed, and the property sold.

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 1141 churches in Arkansas.

The value of church property was $854,975. FINANCES. In 1874, the debt of the State amounted to $9,561,000. We have no accurate returns from the State Treasury. In 1868, there were 2 National banks, with a capital of $200,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of Arkansas was adopted in 1868. By its terms, every male citizen of the United States, and every male foreigner who has lawfillly declared his intention to become a citizen, who is 21 years old and has resided in the State one year, and in the county six months, is entitled to vote at the elections. Persons in the military and naval service of the United States, convicts, idiots, lunatics, and persons who participated in the rebellion, are excluded from the ballot. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, 989

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 24
members), and a House of Representatives (of 82 members), all elected by the people. The State officers and Senators are chosen for four years, and the Representatives for two years. The Legislature meets biennially in January. Thle courts of the State are the Supremne Court, Circuit Courts, and County Courts. The judges in this State are appointed by the Governior and confirmed by the Senate. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices, appointed for eight years. The seat of Government is established at Little Rock. The State is divided into 55
counties. HISTORY. Arkansas was first discovered by De Soto, in 1541. He reached the eastern bank of the Mississippi nearly opposite the present town of Helena, and after halting there 20 days to build boats, crossed the river, and marched 200 miles west of the Mississippi. He sought gold, but failed to find it, and wandering southl to the -Washita, descended it in 1542 to its mouthi, and passed down the Red River to the AMis sissippi, where he sickened and died, and wAas buried by his followers in the great river he had discovered. Arkansas was next visited by Father Marquette, during his voyage (lown the Mississippi, in 1673. In the next century, trading-posts were erected in the lower part of the present State.

Arkansas was included in the purchase of 1803, and after the adinission of Louisiana into the Union formed a part of Missouri Territory. In 1819, it was erected into a separate Territory, with its present niame, and in 1820, the first Legislature met at Arkansas Post. In the same year the seat of Government was removed to Little Rock. The population increased rapidly, and in 1830 numbered 30,388 souls. On the 15th of June, 1836, Arkansas was admitted into the Union as a State. In 1840, four years later, the population was 97,574, of which 19,935 were slaves. At the commencement of the civil war, a State Convention was held at Little Rock.

This body, on the 4thl of March, 1861, adopted an ordinance of secession, and the State soon after became a member of the Southern Confederacy. It was occupied by both armies during almost the entire period of the war.

Several severe battles were fought oni its soil, and the State was literally torn to pieces. 090

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ARKANSAS. LITTLE ROCK. In 1864, an attempt was made by the Union meni of Arkansas to reorganize the State Government, but Congress refilused to recognize it as a legitimate government, and orgalnized the State as the Fourth Military District. In 1868, a new Cor’stitlItio(n was adopted, and on the 22d of June, of that year, Arkansas was readmitted into the UTI ion. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal places in the State are, Helena, Napoleon, and Camnden. ILITILE ROCK, In Pulaski cotinty, is thle capital of the State. It is situated on the righlt or southern bank of the Arkansas River, about 300 miles from its mouth, 155
miles west-by-southl of Iempl)lis, 905 miles l)y water fi’om -Newv Orleans, and 1086 miles west of Waslhington City. Latitude 34~ 40’ N.; longitude 83~ 10’ AM. The city is built on a rocky bluff, al)out 50 feet high. This is the first bluff that occurs in ascending tlhe river, anld commands a fine view of the stream an,l the surrounding c(oulntry. Little Rock is built I)rineipally of wood, and is in sonme respects a handsome city. The l)rincipal buildings are the State tfouse, a handsome rough-cast brick c(lifiee; the Sta{te Penitentiai’y, w hich las been several times burned do)wn by the convicts; and tlhe United States Arsenal. Somne of the 991

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES^ HELENA. residences are elegant, and have handsome grounds. The city con tains 6 churclhes, several good schools and seminaries, and 2 news paper offies. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor an(i CouI)cil. In 1870, the population was 12,380.

Little Rockl lies in close proximity to a fertile cotton region. It i.

connecte(l witlh MIempl)is, Tennessee, by railway, and large quantities of cottonI are sent overland to that market. Being the principal town on the Arkansas River, it possesses a considerable river trade, and is connected by steamers with Memphis, New Orleans, and the imnportant towns on the Mississippi. Slate of a fine quality, goodl clay, and granite, which resembles the Quincy granite in appearance, I)ut is not so hard, are found in the vicinity. The city was bfounded in 1820, and owes its name to the rock oit whicll it is built. It was seized by the State troops at the outset ot’ the civil war, but was capture(l by the United States forces in 1862. HFL’IEN.A, Thle scol(l city of the State, is situated in Phillips county, on the( right 1),aul of the AMississippi River, 80 miles l)elow Meoplis. It is a wcll-btIlilt town, and contains the county buildinrgs, several eltnr(l’.es and s(,lools, aind a newspaper office. It is the most iimportant co!mc, ereial town iii the State. It is connected with Memphis and( I,ittle l,o k l)y regular lines of steamers, and conducts an import,ant trail(] (l,:lo the St. Francis, White, and Arkansas rivers. In the rea(r of HIen.:n is an extensive and fertile cotton cotuntry, and large qnantiti(s of tlhis staple are sent here for shii)ment to MIemphlis and Ne\w Orleans. Helena was almost entirely destroyed by fire in the summer of 18)2. In 1862, it was captured by the United States forces, and held( bI)y them until the close of the war. In 1870, tlhe populationi was.

2249. 1,,)92

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KANSAS. Area,…………. X. Population in 1860…….. Population in 1870,……. THE State of Kansas is situated between 37~ and 42~ N.

latitude, and between about 94~ and 102~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Nebraska, on the east by Missouri, on the south by the Indian Territory, and on the west by Colorado. It is about 400 miles long, from east to west, and 200 miles wide, from north to south. TOPOGRAPHY. “The general surface of Kansas is a gently undulating prairie, having no marked features like those of other prairie States, except, perhaps, the diversity presented by a more rolling surface. The division of land is of two classes. First to mention is the timber and rich alluvial bottom lands, bordering rivers and creeks, the estimated area of which is ten million acres, being fully five times the amount of all improved lands in the State at the present time. To the second belongs the upland or rolling prairie, the soil of which averages from 2 to 3 feet in depth, with a subsoil of fertilizing qualities which will, by careful cultivation, prove inexhaustible. This class of land is considered, by far, preferable for the raising of grains and fruits, while the bottom land is selected for corn, hemp, vegetables, and grasses. But such is the uniform character of the general surface of Kansas, that nearly every quarter section within its limits is capable of cultivation. Timber is confined mainly to the borders of rivers and creeks, and is not superabundant; yet its scarcity is compensated for in a great 61 993 81,318 Square Miles. 107,206 364,377

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. measure by the very general distribution of rock throughout the State, which is easy of access, and furnishes the best of building and fencing material. “No mountain ranges, swamps, sloughs, or lakes exist in the State, except in some instances where rivers have changed their beds, leaving small lakes. \Watercourses are well distributed over the State. Their usual course is south of east. Among the nmost important streams may be mentioned the Arkansas and Neosho on the south, the Kansas River and its tributaries in the northern part, and the Missouri River forming the eastern boundary. The descent of the Kansas River may be regarded as showing the rapidity of the watercourses of the State. From its mouth, west 100 miles, the fall is a little over 2 feet to the mile; for the second and third hundred miles, about 6 feet to the mile; and for the last one hundred niles, about 7 feet to the mile; making a total fall of over 2000 feet in 400 miles. Waterpowers are not abundant, but several are being improved on the Neosho and other smaller streams.” * A paper, recently published under the authority of the State, thus describes the rivers of Kansas: “The Kansas River is the largest in the State, and one of the most beautifill streams of water in the West. It is formed by the junction of the Republican and Smoky Hill, near Junction City, in the central part of the State, and flows in an easterly direction for a distance of 150 miles, tlrough a rich fertile valley, from 3 to 7
miles in width, and empties into the Missouri River at Wyandotte City, the eastern terminus of the Union Pacific Railroad. The Republican River comes down from Colorado, through the northwestern portion of the State, coursing in a southeasterly direction through a rich, wild reion of country, for a distance of over 300 miles. The Smoky Hill derives its source from the confluence of several smaller streams in the eastern part of Colorado, and flows to the east through the central part of the State, to its junction with the Republican. Along the rich valley of this river, a daily line of stage-coachles pass from the western terminus of the Union Pacific Railroad to Denver City. The Neosho River rises near the centre of the State, and flows to the southeast through a rich agricultural and stock-growing country, emptying into Grand River, near the southeast corner of Kansas. The Neosho Valley is from 3 to 7 miles in width, and contains some of the most beautiful, rich, and * Report of the Surveyor-General of Kansas. 991

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KANSAS. desirable lands in the State. The Arkansas River, collecting the snows of the Rocky Mountains, flows in an easterly direction through the southwestern part of the State, for a distance of 300 miles. The Great Nemaha rises in the northi-central part of the State, and flows east, emptying into the Missouri River at the northeast corner of the State.

There is a sufficiency of timber on its banks for all practical purposes in the country through which it passes. The Osage courses through a fine region of country in southern Kansas, about midway between the valleys of the Kansas and Neosho. The Potawatomie and other smaller streams flow into the Osage. The valleys of these rivers contain some of the most valuable farms in the State. The Big Blue, from Nebraska Territory, flows to the south, through the northcentral part of the State, emptying into the Kansas River at the city of Manhattan. The Solomon rises in the northwestern part of the State, flows in a southeasterly direction, and empties into the Smoky Hill, about 30 miles west from Junction City. The source and general direction of the Verdigris, Cottonwood, Grasshopper, Grand, Saline, and all other Kansas rivers, may be seen by referring to Rcam’s Map of Kansas. In addition to the above is the Missouri River, which washes the eastern shore of the State for a distance of over 100
miles. This river, navigable at all times, is a source of great value to the State, and especially to Leavenworth, Atchison, W’yandotte, White Cloud, Doniiphan, and other cities that stand upoI it’) banks. It is impossible to draw a line of distinction between different localities, the whole State being supplied with an abundance of pure, clear cold water.

Besides the clear running streams and cool, refreshing springs in the different localities, the best quality of water is also obtained by digging wells on the high prairies-ranging fromn 10 to 30 feet in depth.”

MINERALS. White and blue limestone are found in large quantities. Coal abounds, and is of an excellent quality. Sandstone, suitable for building, is quarried to a considerable extent, and marble, capable of receiv ing a fine polish, is found. Salt springs are numerous. CLIMATE. The climate is mild. The winters are short, and but little snow falls. The spring sets in about the first of March, and soon after the prairies begin to glitter with a profusion of beautiful wild flowers 995

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tile heat of the summer is tempered by a cool and refreshing breeze which sweeps over the State. SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. The soil is deep, rich, and fertile. In the valleys it is often four or five feet deep, and rests upon a subsoil of clay. On the prairies it is about 3 feet deep, and rests upon a subsoil composed of clay and sand. In 1870, there were about 1,000,000 acres of improved land in Kansas. In the same year the returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat,….. Indian corn,.. ” oats,.. Irish potatoes,. ” rye,….. “
barley,… Number of horses,… ” asses and mules, ” milch cows,.. “
sheep,… s wine,…. ” young cattle,. Value of domestic animals, Tons of hay,……. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Kansas is advancing rapidly in the work of internal improvements. At the close of the year 1872, there were 1760
miles of completed railroads within the State. The eastern division of the Union Pacific Railroad has been completed from Wyandotte and Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, to Sheridan, near the border of Colorado, a distance of 405 miles, and has been extended to Denver City, Colorado. The central branch of the same road extends from Atchison, on the Missouri, to Waterville, in Marshall county, a distance of 100 miles. A road unites Wyandotte and Leavenworth, (25 miles apart) extending along the bank of the Missouri. Roads are in progress in other parts of the State, and are being pushed forward with energy and rapidity. EDUCATION. Although so young a State, Kansas, in proportion to her population and means, is not far behind her older sisters in her system of publio education. . 96

2,800,000 24,500,000 1,,500,000 1,500,000 20,000 25,000 35,301 1,990

41,310 31,820 161,310 71,863 $6,631,450 250,000

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KANSAS. A State University is in operation at Lawrence, and is gradually becoming an excellent institution. It is endowed with a fund of $10,000, and 46,080 acres of land, besides the grounds occupied by it. The State also possesses and Agricultural College, to which a military department has been added, and a flourishing normal school, at the town of Emporia.

The educational system is under the control of a Superintendent of Public Schools, the counties have each a separate Superintendent, and the school dictricts are each in charge of a Board of Trustees. There is a permanent school fund, which is to be increased by sales of public lands, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. In 1870, there were 2068 school districts in the State. The number of pupils was 63,218, and the average daily attendance, 39,401. A number of fine private schools are in operation in Kansas, but we have no returns from them. There are about 97
newspapers and magazines published in the State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Penitentiary is located near Leavenworth, and when completed will be one of the finest institutions of its kind in the West. In Tovember, 1870, it contained 209 convicts. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is at Olathe. It is in a flourishing condition, and contains about 41 pupils. The Insane Asylum is at Ossawatomie. It is not provided with sufficient accommodations, but is conducted upon an excellent and successful plan. In 1870, the numiber of inmates was 41. The Institution for the Blind, at Wyandotte, contained 23 pupils in 1868, the year of its opening. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 301 churches in Kansas. The value of church property was about $1,722,700. FINANCES. In 1874, the total State debt was $1,341,775. The receipts of the Treasury, for the fiscal year ending November 30th, 1874, were $995,102, and the expenditures $976,805.

In the same year there were 5 National banks, with a capital of $400,000, doing business in the State. 997

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States, and every foreigner who has lawfully declared his intention to become a citizen, who is 21 years old, and has resided in the State six months, and in the township thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Idiots, insane persons, convicts, persons in the military or naval service of the Union, and participants in the Rebellion, are excluded from the ballot. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and AttorneyGeneral, and a ILegislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen by the people. The State officers and Senators are elected for two years, and the Representatives for one year. The general election is held in November, and the Legislature meets annually in January. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, and County Courts. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices. All judges are elected by the people, those of the Supreme Court for six years, and those of the District Courts for four years. The seat of Government is established at Topeka. The State is divided into 75 organized counties. More will be added when the western part is laid off. HISTORY. Kansas originally formed a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was first visited by M. Dutisne, a French officer, in 1719. In 1804, Lewis and Clark passed up the Missouri River on their exploring expedition, and, in 1827, Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, was built by the United States. Kansas was occupied mostly by Indians as late as 1854. By the terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery was forever excluded from this region, as it lay north of 36~ 30’ N.

latitude. Until the year 1850, the vast region lying between the western and northwestern borders of Missouri and the Rocky Mountains, was called by the general and somewhat indefinite name of “the Platte Country;” the name being derived from the Platte River. It was known to be a region of great fertility. Across it swept the grand trails of the overland route to the Pacific and to Utah. The people of the New England States were particularly anxious that the Indian 998

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ATTACKING UNITED STATES MAIL COACH.

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KANSAS. reservations which covered the eastern part should be bought up by the Government, and the country thrown open to emigration. Petitions to this effect were presented to the Thirty-Second Congress, but no action was taken upon themn until December, 1852, when Mr. Hall, of Missouri, introduced a bill into the House to organize the “Territory of Platte.” It was referred to the Territorial Committee, which, in February, 1853, reported a bill organizing the “Territory of Nebraska.” The southern delegates at once endeavored to open the proposed Territory to slavery, notwithstanding the fact that that institution was forbidden by the Missouri Compromise. The free States opposed this effort, and nothing definite was accomplished until January, 1854, wheni Senator Douglas, of Illinois, introduced a bill dividing the district into two Territories, to be called Kansas and Nebraska. He also proposed in this bill to repeal the Missouri Compromise restriction, and leave the question of slavery or free labor to be decided by the people of the Territories themselves. This fatal measure divided the people of the States into two parties. Those in favor of slavery supported the bill, but the friends of free labor opposed it. The bill was passed by Congress, and approved by the President, in 1854. The Indian reservations were bought up, and the Territories thrown open to emigration. Kansas being a more fertile Territory than Nebraska, naturally attracted the greater number of settlers. The South made no attempt to settle it, but the New England States sent out emigrants in great niumbers. The people living on the border of Missouri had long since resolved that Kansas should be a slave-holditng State, and now set to work to prevent free soil settlers from entering it. Nevertheless, the Free State men persevered, and in a few months after the Territory was organized the town of Lawrence was founded by 100 families from New England. Other settlements were established soon after, and the population increased very fast. A. H. Reeder was appointed Governor by President Pierce. He endeavored to execute the laws faithfully, but was no match for the determined and fierce proslavery leaders. He ordered an election for members of a Territorial Legislature to be held on the 30th of March, 1855, but on that day Kansas was invaded by large numbers of Missourians, who succeeded in electing a proslavery Legislature. Six districts at once forwarded to the Governor protests against the elections, showing beyond all reasonable doubt that they had 1001

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1002 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. been controlled by citizens of Missouri. The Governor, who was anxious to do justice to all parties, ordered a new election in these districts, each of which, with the exception of Leavenworth, returned a Free Soil delegate. The new delegates, however, were refused their seats upon the assembling of the Legislature, and the successfill candi dates at the original election admitted. A number of outrages were about the same time perpetrated by the Missourians upon members of the Free Soil Party. The Governor had summoned the Legislature to meet at Pawnee City, on the Kansas River, a town nearly 100 miles from the border, and supposed to be far enough away to be free from the intimidation practised by the Missourians; but as soon as the Legislature assem bled it changed the place of meeting to Shawnee Mission, on the Mistiri border. The resolution was vetoed by the Governor, passed over his veto, and at once carried into effect. Upon reassembling at Shawnee Mission, the Legislature proceeded to adopt the laws of Missouri as the laws of Kansas, and to frame a series of statutes designedly cruel and oppressive. These acts were vetoed by the Governor, who was removed by the President, and Wilson Shannon, of Ohlio, appointed in his place.

Meanwhile, the New Ellgland and other Free Soil men had come into the Territory quietly and rapidly, until at length they outnumb)ered the proslavery settlers. They now felt themselves strong enlough to resist the outrages of the Missourians, and, accordingly, on the 5thl of September, 1855, held a Conventionl, in which they disinctly repudiated the Government that had been forced upon them by men who were not residents of the Territory. They announced their intention to take no part in the election of a delegate to Congress, which had been ordered by the Territorial authorities for the 1st of October, and summoned the actual residents to send delegates to a Convention to meet at Topeka oil the 19th of September. This Convention organized an Executive Committee for the Territory, and ordered an election to be held for the purpose of choosing a delegate to Congress. Governor Reeder was nominated and elected to Congress. On the 23d( of October, the Convention adopted a free State Constitution, and forwarded it to Congress, with a petition for the admission of Kansas into the Union. A long and bloody struggle now began between the Free Soil and ProSlavery men in the Territory, during which the latter were reenforced by great numbers of young men from the Southern States, who

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KANSAS. came into Kansas for the avowed purpose of compelling the people to submit to slavery. Numerous conflicts occurred between them, and both sides were guilty of many unjustifiable acts. The odium, how ever, properly belongs to the ProSlavery men, as they were the aggressors. They captured and sacked the town of Lawrence, burned several houses, and inflicted upon it damage to the extent of $150,000. The Federal Government uisually lent its aid to the ProSlavery party, and did what it could to fasten slavery upon the Territory. In 1857, the ProSlavery party held a Convention at Lecompton, and adopted a Constitution known as the “Lecompton Constitution.” The administration of Mr. Buchanan exerted all its power and influ ence to secure the admission of Kansas under this instrument, not withstanding the plain fact that a majority of the people of Kansas were opposed to it. It was finally submitted to the people, and re jected by a vote of 11,300 against it, to 1788 votes in its favor. In January, 1859, the civil strife having subsided in the Territory, and the Free Soil men having a majority in the Legislature, a Convention was summoned at Wyandotte. It met in July, and adopted the WVyandotte Constitution, which was ratified by the people by a large majority. This Constitution was then submitted to Congress, and a bill admitting the State of Kansas was passed by the Lower House early in 1860. The Senate, however, failed to act on the bill. At the next session, the measure was revived, and on the 30th of fanuary, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free State. The bitterness of the struggle had passed from the Territory to the country at large, and it now culminated in the great civil war, which for four years desolated the land. During the late war the State furnished 19,584 men to the service of the Union. It was several times invaded by raiding parties from the Confederate army, west of the Mississippi, one of which sacked and burned the city of Lawrence. CITIES

AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal places of Kansas are, Leavenworth City, Wyandotte, Atchison, and Lawrence. TOPEKA, In Shawnee county, is the capital of the State. It is situated on the south side of the Kansas River, 25 miles west of Lawrence, and 55 miles, in an air line, southwest of Leavenworth. Latitude 39~ 5’ N., 1003

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1004 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. longitude 95~ 40’ W. The city is located on high ground, which rises gradually from the river. It is regularly laid out with wide streets, and is well built. It is growing rapidly, and promises to be one of the most important places in the State.

The principal building is the new State Capitol, now nearly completed. The entire plan is formed with a view to the future wants of the State, and will be carried into execution as the needs of the Government demand. The whole structure, which is to be built of magnesian limestone, will be one of the finest of the kind in the country. The eastern winig alone will cost the State $450,000. The city contains about 5 or 6 churches, several excellent schools, and 2 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 5790. The city derives its name from “Topeka,” an Indian word, signifying “wild potatoes,” large quantities of which grow along the river. The first settlement was made in December, 1854, by a company of emigrants fromn Lawrence. The place played a prominent part in the “Border war,” which preceded the admission of the State into the Union, and was for a time the free State capital of Kansas.

LEAVENWORTH, The principal city of the State, is beautifully situated in the county of the same name, on the west bank of the Missouri River, 45
miles east-northeast of Topeka, 70 miles south of St. Joseph, Mo., and 495
miles above St. Louis. The city is laid out in rectangular blocks, with broad streets, which are well graded and macadamized. At the river’s edge is a natural levee of rock extending along the entire front of the city.

The city is well built, and is rapidly improving. It contains about 18
churches, several excellent public schools, a medical college, about 6
private schools, including a commercial college and female seminary, a theatre, a mercantile library, and 3 daily and several weekly newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council.

In 1870 the population was 17,849. Leavenworth was laid out in 1854, and has grown with astonishing rapidity. It now conducts an important trade along the Mississippi River, and is connected by railway with all parts of the country. In 1864, just ten years after its settlement, the value of taxable real and personal estate in Leavenworth was $4,103,562. The total business of the city for the same year amounted to $18,000,000.

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NE B RAS KA. Area,…………..75,995 Square Miles Population in 1860………28,842 Population in 1870,………122,993 TIlE State of Nebraska is situated between 40~ and 43~ N. latitude, and between 96~ and 104~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Dakota Territory, on the east by Iowa, on the south by Kansas and Colorado Territory, and on the west by Colorado and Wyomnling, Territories. TOPOGRAPHY. “Nebraska extends from the Missouri westward to the Rocky Mountains, with an extreme length of 412 miles, decreasing to 310 miiles on the southern border, its extreme width being 208 miles, diminishing to 138 miles on the west. Its area is 75,995 square miles, or 48,636,800 acres. The country through its entire length dips toward the Missouri River, being upon the western slope of the great central basin of the North American continent. The larger portion is elevated and undulating prairie; there are no mountains or high hills; the bottom lands of the river valleys are generally level. Above these, from 40 to 100 feet, are second bottomns or table lands, sloping backward to the bluffs, which range with the general level of the country. These bluffs sometimes rise hundreds of feet above the river level; back of these is the undulating prairie, well watered with springs and running streams, being covered with excellent grasses. This prairie resembles the waves of the ocean suddenly arrested in their swell and changed into soil and rock. In remarkable contrast wvith the general appearance of the State is the tract known as Mau 1005

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1006 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CROSSING THE PLAINS. vaises Terres, in the western part of the State, 90 miles long and 30 wide, produced by some powerful agencies of denudation and degradation of the land. Viewed from a distance, it seems like some deserted abode of civilization; the prismatic and columnar masses appear as residences of modern architecture or public buildings, with towers, columns, and walls. A near approach dispels the illusion, the iimposing forms of architectural beauty resolve themselves into masses of rocks with labyrinthine defiles. These first appearances, however, are not correct exponents of geological character, as they are found upon examination to contain some excellent lands.” * The Missouri River forms the eastern boundary and a part of the northern. It receives the waters of the principal streams of the State. The Republican Fork of the Kansas drains the southern counties, and the Niobrara forms a part of the northern boundary, and flows into the Missouri. The Platte or Nebraska River is the principal stream in the State. It is formed by the union of its North and South forks, in the centre of the State-the former rising in Wyoming, and the latter in Colorado. The general course of the main stream and its forks is eastward to the Missouri, into which it empties below Omalha Report of the General Land-Office.

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NEBRASKA. City. Including the North Fork (which is 800 miles long), the Platte is 1200 miles long. As its name signifies, it is a shallow river.

In the summer, it is but a succession of shallow pools; but during the spring freshets, steamers call navigate it for a considerable distance.

The Elkhorn River drains the northeast part of the State, and flows into the Platte near its mouth. MINERALS. Thin beds of coal exist in several parts of the State. Limestone and sandstone abound, and salt springs are frequent, and yield an excellent quality of salt. CLIMATE, SOIL AND

PRODUCTIONS. “The climate is mnilder than the Eastern States within the same parallels of latitude; the summer is of high temperature, but the sultriness is alleviated by cool, refreshing winds blowing over the prairies. The quantity of rain is less than falls on the Atlantic side.

This dryness does not become appreciable east of the 98th meridian. West of that meridian the soil, so far as known, is arid and not so well suited to agriculture; that part of the State to the eastward, however, is not deficient in moisture. The peculiar character of soil and climate indicates that stockraising will become a very important and remunerative branch of its agricultural enterprise. The dryness of the climate and the copious vegetation, especially of nutritious grasses, will attract capital, with a view to the establishment of wool-raising interests. The soil of the eastern portion is exceedingly fertile; the prairies are covered with a heavy sod, the mnatted growth of ages of vegetation, several teams of oxen being required to break it; the subsequent tillage is comparatively easy, the ground being rendered light and mellow. Along the rivers are groves of oak, walnut, cottonwood, hickory, and willow; very dense forests of cottonwood grow along the Missouri River above the mouth of the Platte.” * There are about 1,000,000 acres of improved land in the State. Tile principal agricultural returns are as follows: Bushels of wheat,………… ”’ Indian corn………. ” 4 rye,………… *

General Land-Office Report. 1007 . 2,125,000 . 5,000,000 14,000

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1008 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of oats,…… ” barley…. 4”

potatoes,… Tons of hay,….. Number of horses,…. ” asses and mules, milch cows,0 ” sheep,…. ” swine,…. Value of domestic animals, INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. The great Pacific Railway extends entirely across this State, along the north btiank of the Platte River, from Omahla into Wyomiing Territory. There are 2143 miles of railway within the State.

EDUCATION. There is a Normal School at Peru, which has been liberally endowed by the State. It was opened in October, 1867, and is succeeding admirably. A Superintendent of Public Instruction has the control of the schools, subject to the supervision of a State Board of Education, which consists of himself, the Governor, Treasurer, Secretary of State, and five other persons appointed by the Governor. Otie-sixteenth of all the Government lands in the State, amounting to 2,643,080 acres, is set apart for the creation of a public school filnd, while 46,080 acres have been given for the endowment of a State University, and( 90.000 acres for the State Agricultural College. The fund arising from these lands cannot be expended. Only the interest can be used. The minimum price at which they can be sold is $5 per acre, so that the fund to be derived from this source cannot be less than over $13,000,000. The whole amount derived from the school fund in 1869-70 was $77,999. The whole number of children in attendance upon the public schools in the same year was 32,619. FINANCES.

The State has no public debt. Its Constitution prohibits it from incurring a debt in excess of $50,000 in amount. In 1870, the total assessed value of property in Nebraska was $53,000,000. . 1,600,000 . 220,000 . 800,000 .

170,000 32,000 3,000 35,000 30,000 65,000 $8,000,000 …… ….. I

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NEBRASKA. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1866.

By its terms, every male citizen of the United States, and every foreigner who has legally declared his intention to become a citizen, who is 21
years old, and has resided in the State one year, and the required time in the county, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested ill a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 13
members) and a House of Representatives (of 39 members), all chosen by the people. The State officers are elected for four years, and members of the Legislature for two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate Courts, and in Justices of the Peace. All judges are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associates, chosen for six years. The seat of Government is located at Lincoln. The State is divided into 51 organized counties.

HISTORY. Nebraska was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was organized as a Territory in 1854. Kansas attracted the greater part of the emigrants, and so occupied the attention of the proslavery party that Nebraska escaped the struggle by which her neighbor was torn. Emigration was very rapid until the financial panic of 1857 chlecked it. The Territory was some time in recovering from the effects of this crisis, which has been succeeded by a slower bult more substantial growth in prosperity. In 1S60, its population Iwas 28,842. The Pacific Railroad begins at Omaha, the principal city of the State, and will undoubtedly do much to build up and populate the young commonwealth. On the 21st of March, 1864, Congress passed an Act enabling the people to organize a State Government. A Constitution was ratified by the people on the 8th of June, 1866, and on the 9th of February, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. CITIES AND TOWNS. LINCOLI,N, The capital of the State, is situated in Lancaster county, 80 miles southwest of Omaha, and 50 miles west of Nebraska City, with which it is 1009

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1010 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. connected by railway. The town sprang up suddenly in the summer of 1867, and grew with remarkable rapidity.

Before eighteen months had elapsed, it had grown to such an extent in buildings and residents that on this account, as well as the prospective benefits resulting from its local position to the whole community, the people by a majority of votes selected it as the capital of Nebraska.

Towards the close of the year 1868, the seat of Government was removed from Omaha, and permanently located at Lincoln. A suitable building having been prepared for that purpose, the Legislature met here in January, 1869.

Considerable progress has been made in establishing public buildings and institutions here. The main portion of the capitol has been built of handsome white limestone, and the foundations of a State University and an Insane Asylum are laid. A Penitentiary and an Agricultural College are to be erected here, having been authorized by the Legislature at its last session. The town is built on the open prairie in the midst of a delightfully healthy, beautiful and fertile country. The population is about 2000, and is increasing rapidly. Three newspapers are published here. OMAHA, Sometimes called Omaha City, the largest and most important city of the State, is situated in Douglas county, on the west bank of the Missouri River, opposite the city of Council Bluffs, in Iowa. It is 18
miles above the mouth of the Platte River, 80 miles northeast of Lincoln, and 250 miles by river above St. Joseph, Missouri. The city lies on a plateau between the river and the bluffs. From the summits of the bluffs a magnificent view of the wide and undulating prairie is obtained. The city is regularly laid out. The streets are wide, cross each other at right-angles, and are paved with stone, with sidewalks of brilck. The principal public buildings are the old State House, and the Court House.

The former is of brick, and occupies a commanding site. The city contains about 11 or 12 churches, several good public and private schools, and 5
newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas. and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 16,083. The Missouri is navigable for large steamers for some distance above Omaha, and the city carries on a considerable river trade. Omaha is connected with all parts of the country by railway, being connected with Council Bluffs by a steam ferry. It is the eastern terminus of the Pacific Railway, and is, consequently, a place of considerable im

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MINERS AROUND THEIR CAM-P FIRE.

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I~.T - - DEPOT AT OMAHA CITY.

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NEBRASKA.. portance. It is largely engaged in the sale and transportation of goods to the mines, plains, and frontier forts. Many of the emigrants going westward obtain their outfits here. Omaha was founded in 1854. In 1860, it contained but 1883 inhabitants. It derives its name from a tribe of Indians. O)IAIIA. NEBRASKA CITY, The second city of the State, is situated in Otoe county, on the right or western bank of the Missouri River, 28 miles below the mouth of the Platte River, 50 miles east of Lincoln, and 96 miles, by water, south of Omaha. It is built on ground which rises as it recedes from the river. The buildings are mostly of wood, but the town has a bright and pleasing appearance. It contains the county buildings; 7 or 8 churches, 2 public halls, 4 public schools,/and 3
newspaper offices. [t is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 6050. The city conducts a large river trade, and is actively engaged in fitting out emigrants for the plains and in sending supplies to the frontier towns. The Pacific Railway has taken away a great share of this business. There are valuable salt springs in the western part of the county. 62 1013

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N E V AD A. Area,…………. 112,090 Square Miles. Population in 1860…….. 6,857 Population in 1870…….. 42,491 THE State of Nevada is situated between 37~ and 42~ N. latitude, anid between 115~ and 120~ W.

longitude. It isbounded on the north by Oregon and Idaho Territory, on the east by Utah and Arizona Territories, and on the south and west by California. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 348 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, about 265 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is generally mountainous, and much of it is a barren desert. The Sierra Nevada range forms the western boundary, and the Humboldt Mountains occupy the centre. The East Humboldt Mountains extend north and south through the upper eastern part of the State. A large part of Fremont’s Basin lies inll Nevada, at an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea. Twothirds of the State is a bleak desert, which can neither be inhabited nor cultivated. There are no large rivers in Nevada, and the soil is only supplied with the necessary amount of water by artificial means. The Humboldt River rises in the northeast of the State, and flowing westward, empties into Humboldt Lake. A small stream, called Wfalker River, flows through the southwest and empties into Walker Lake. Carson River rises in the southwest and flows east into Carson Lake. “The only lakes of any considerable size in the State are those formed by the Humboldt, Walker, Carson, and Truckee rivers, and 1014

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NEVA DA. PALISA-)ES H-HUIBOLDT RIVER: SCENE ON THE CENTRAL PACIFIC

RAILROAD. bearing the names of those streams respectively, together with Py,(antid Lake, the largest of the group, formLed by the waters of thel Truckee River. Lake Tahoe, with one-third of its area only withiii the borders of Nevada, is a beautiful sheet of water, 21 tmiles long and 10
wide, and though elevated more tliau 6()00 feet above the level of thle sea it never freezes over, nor does the temperature of its wateis vary much fromn 57 degrees iu summer or winter, owing probably to its being fed by springs. This lake, like Lake Pyranid, abounds in trout of large size and fine flavor, and is surrounded on every side by lofty mountains, which, rising abruptly firom its shlores, are covered for nearly twvo-thirds of the year with snow, and are heavily timbered with forests of pine, spruce, and fir. Pyramid Lake, which has a depth of 1500 feet, is 12 miles wide by 30 in length, and is situate(l in the western part of the State; its scenery is extremely grand, being walled about with mountains 2000 to 3000 feet high. Jlono Lake is about 14 miles long and 9 wide; it is so acid and nauseating as tti render it not only unfit for drilnking, but also for b)athing. Leatl(lr immersed in it is soon destroyed, and 1no animal, not even a fish or frog, can for more than a short time exist in it. The only thing able( to live in or upon the waters of this lake is a species of fly whielch, I ) A5

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1016 OUR COUNTRY AIND ITS RESOURCES. .)riJliging, from a larva bred( ill its bosom, shortly dies, and, collecting )n the surface, drifts in great quantities to the shore, to be gathered an( eaten by the Indianls. None but the stronlg(est wi(nds can rippl( the surface of this d(lesolate lake; it may aptly be calledl a Dead Sea, its b)itter and fatal waters rendering it literally such, while all its surr,oundinigs, wild, glootily, and foreboding, are lighly suggestive of sterility and death. There are many warm and col(d springs in the State, some of which are much resorted to for the curative qualities of’ t’leir waters.”* ‘MINERALS. Nevada is especially rich in mincerals. Gold, silver, quicksilver, ,:ol)per, lead(, and iron are found in great abundance. The silver mines ot’ tlhis State, however, are tl-he principal source of her weaItli. Tliey yield( inmmense sums annuallyv. The Comstock lode produce.s abl)Out $16,500,000 worth of silver every year. It furnishes the piin(io)tal potioll of the metal produced in the State, and is thus describedl 1)y R oss Browne: “Thle Comstock lode runs alotng the eastern slol)e of the Washoe Mountains, at the foot of MLIounLt Davi(lson, its loftiest sumtnit. Its outcrop is not by any means continuous, consisting of parallel belts of quartz, extending from east to west, in some places iearly 1000 feet, whiich sthow themnselves chiefly on the tops of the spurs, running down from the main ri(dge. The western of these quartz seamis, being of a hard (crystalline texture, form the most prominent outcrops, but experience has sihowNn them to be of less value than the eastern bodies, which, trom their different coniposition, have been niore easily disentegrated, :in(l are often covered up by the (lebris from the higher and steeper p)oirtions of the mountain. The vein has been moire or less thoroughly (xpl)lhre(l, and its continuity estal)isiled( by uinderground workings for i leingth of about 321 miiles, though the productive portion forms but a sniall proportion of the whole, as barren spots of great extent intervene l)etween the bonanzas or ore bodies. Its’strike’ or course, as shown l)y the exposure of the west wall, in lluiierous places, is nearly maglietie north and southi (north 16 degrees east by true meridian). But little doubt now exists that the Comstock is a true fissure vein, with a width of from 20 feet upward.

The total product of the Comstockl l()(le, for the year ending December 31st, 1867, is estimated by tihe l,st reliable authorities at $17,500,000.

It is estiniated thlat ()thl(r *
s…………………………………………………….. * Ross Browhe’s Report.

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NEVADA., SILYFI )1fNf\O. districts in Nevada have yiel(led d(luring the same period $2,500,000, miaking the total product of NTevada for the calendar year, 1867, $20,000,000. The average percentage of gold and silver is about 66 per cent. silver, and 34 per cent. gol(. In the outside districts tlhe proportion of gold is considerably less. The amount of ore raised from the mines on the Comstock lode may be put down at the present time at about 1500 tons daily, and the total amount raised since the commiencement of operations at about 2,000,000 tons. Frotm information furnished by the superintendents of the following mines, the yield per ton appears to be: Savage Mine-30,250 tons produced in the last six months of 1866, yielded an average of $42.93 per ton. Iale and Norcross Minie 16,836
tons produced in the same time, yielded an average of $50.33 per ton.

Gould and Curry Mine-62,425 tons produeed in 1866, yielded an average of $28.64 per ton. The total yield of precious metals from the’Comstock’ lode in 5 years, or from 1862 to 1866, inclusive, was $63,000,000.” 10i7

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]018 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Coal is found in small quantities, and there are large deposits of Falt and alkalies. CLIMATE. The climate, though severe, is not unpleasant, and is exceedingly lhealthfil. The year is divided into the wet and the dry season, as ire Califoriiia.

Agriculture is neglected for the mines, but where the soil can be ~u1)i)lied with water by irrigation, it yields fair crops. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. The Central Pacific Railway of California passes across the northern part of Nevadla, from the western boundary into Utah Territory.

There are 593 miles of railway within the State. EDUCATION. In 1870, there were 38 public schools in the State, attended by 1(856 1)nl)ils; and 15
private schools, attended by 417 pupils. The chief control of the schools is vested in a Board of Education, (‘osisting of the Governor, SurveyoroGeneral, and Superintendent of l’tiblic Instruction. The last official is the executive officer of the B),l,(l, and has the direct supervision of the schools. Each county (,le(ts a Superintendent, who directs its educational interests, and rel)orts to the State Sliperintendent. The counties are divided into (listri(,ts, each of which is under the immediate control of a Board of Trll.tees, chosen by the people. Where the voters fail to elect the frlistees, they are appointed by tile County Superintendent. The State Superintendent appoints a Board of Exanliners, consisting of thlree comnipetent persons, for each coutnty.

These Boards are charged vith the duty of examining teachers and granting certificates. There is a permanent school fund, and measures are on foot for the establishment of schools of a higher grade. FINANCES. The State debt in 1874 was about $733,528, and is payable in coin. During the year 1874, the receipts of the Treasury amounted to $570,277, tn(d the expenditures to $641,856.

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NEVADA. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Nevada was adopted in 1864. By its terms, every male citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State six months, and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Convicts, idiots, and insane persons are excluded from the ballot. The Government is vested in a Governor, LieutenantGovernor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 19 members), and an Assemblvy (of 38 members), all chosen by the people. The Governor and other State officers are elected for four years. The judicial power is invested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate Courts, and in Justices of the Peace. All judges are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice, and two Associate Justices, chosen for four years. The seat of Government is established at Carson City. The State is divided into 17 organized counties. HISTORY. Nevada was originally a part of Utah Territory, and constituted the western part of it. In 1861, it was erected into a Territory, and was admitted into the Union as a State on the 31st of October, 1864. Previous to the discovery of silver, it was almost entirely neglected by emigrants. In the summer of 1859, silver was found in the Washoe district, and as if by magic settlers began to pour in.

Virginia City sprang up in a marvellously short time, and in 1864 was the second city on the Pacific coast. The circumstances attending the discovery of silver, were as follows: “The Washoe silver mines were first discovered by Mr. Patrick McLaughlin, an’honest miner,’ who was working for gold in a gulch or ravine, and where he was making $100 a day to the hand. As he and his companions followed up the gulch, it paid even better, until, on arriving at a certain point, it gave out altogether, and they struck a vein of pure sulphuret of silver, which they at first supposed to be coal, but observing that it was very heavy, they concluded it must be valuable, and sent one of their number to San Francisco with some of the black ore to ascertain its value. It was given to a Mr. 1019 I 0

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1020 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. K(illaley, an old Mexican miiner, to assay. Killaley took the ore lhomue and assayed it. The result was so astounding that the old man got terribly excited. The next morning poor Killaley was found dead in his bed. He had long been in bad health, and the excitement killed himn. Immtediate search was made for the original deposit, which resulted in the since famous Comstock lode. Wlhere first found, this lode has no outcropping or other indication to denote its presence. The first assay of the rock taken from the lode when first struck gave a return of $265 of gold and silver per ton, there being a larg,,er proportion of gold than silver. Subsequent assays of ore taken from the vein, as it was sunk upon, showed a rapid increase in richness, until the enormous return was made of $7000 to the ton$4000 in gold and $3000 in silver. Still later assays of choice pieces of ore have given a return of $15,000 to the ton. In this case these ounce assays did not mislead, but a vast difference is to be observed between rich ore and a rich mine. A poor mine often yields specimens of rich ore, vlwhich through the ounce assay, serves but to delude. The true test of the value of a silver mine is the quantity of the ore, and the average yield of the ore in bulk after the establishment of red uction works.” CITIES AND TOWNS.

Besides the capital, Virginia City, and Austin, are the principal towns.

CARSON CITY, The capital of the State, is situated in Ormsby county, at the eastern b)ase of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, about 4 miles west of Carson River, 250 miles (by railway) east of San Francisco, and 15 miles south-by-west of Virginia City. It was founded in 1858, and lies in a fertile plain in the midst of some of the grandest scenery on the Continent. The State buildings, the Court House, State Prison, and United States Mint, are the principal edifices. In 1870, the population was 3042.

VIRGINIA CITY, The largest and most important city in the State, is situated in Storey county, among rocky ledges and ravines, on the eastern slope of Mount Davidson, 15 miles north-northeast of Carson City. The principal streets are level, having been in many places graded through the hard rock. In the business sections are many solid blocks of

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NEVADA. stone, five stories higlh, and the suburbs contain many beautiful and (ostly p)rivate residences. It contains 4 churches and schools, aid(
several newsl)al)er offices. It is lighteed witlh gas, and is supplied with l)ure spring water, which is distribute(l thlrough iron pip)es. In 1870, thle population was 7()08. The city owes its p)rosperity and growtli to the silver mines vit}’ which it is surrounded(l. T-he famous Comstock lode was diseovere(t here in June, 1859. Vrhe mines are the richest in the State, an(l arc said to have yielded iii 1864, $10,425,350 worth of silver. I)Duriig’ the great excitement which followed the discovery of silver, -Virginia City was the headquarters of all the adventurers who flocked to tlhe niiles. At one t,me tl-he population was fiiom 15,000() to 20,000. Since tl)en it has settled down to a better and more prosperous life. I 0,1

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CALIFORNIA. Area…….. 188,981 Square Miles. Population in 1860)………397,994 Population in 1870……….. 560,223 THE State of California is situated between 32~ 32’ and 42~ N. latitude, and between 114~ 20’ and 1240 22’ W. longtitude. It is about 700 miles long, and hlas an average widthi of 180 miles. It is bounded on the north by Oregon, on the east by Nevada and Arizona, on the south by Old California (which is a part of the Republic of Mexico), and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

TOPOGRAPHY. “California is an extremely rugged coltuntry, a large portion of its siurface being covered with mountains… The Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains, which bound the Sacramento Valley on the east, iniclude a series of ranges which, collectively, are 70 miles wide. The general name for the group is derived firom the snow, which is rarely absent from the higher peaks in the range. The Coast Range, which bounds it on the west, also consists of a series of chains, aggregating 40 miles in width, bordering the State from its northern to its southern boundary. There is a most remarkable difference in the structure and conformation of the two series. The Sierra Nevada ranges may be traced in consecutive order for an immense distance, while in the Coast Range all is in confilusion and disorder….. Those portions of this range which skirt the coast in Marin, Sonoma, and Mendocino counties, between latitude 38~ and 40~, are tolerably well timbered; but south of Bodega Bay and north of Mendocino county, except about Monterey Bay and Santa Cruz, the coast line presents a bleak and 1022

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CALIFORNIA. sterile appearance. All the valleys in the range which are open to the coast are narrow, and trend nearly east and west. The Salinas, the most extensive of these coast valleys, is nearly 90 miles in length, by 8 to 14 miles ill width, a large portion of which is adapted to agricultural purposes-being exceedingly fertile, producing abundance of wild oats and clover, where not uinder cultivation. The Russian River valley, which also opens to the sea, is also very fertile. Further inland, sheltered from the cool sea breezes by the outer range of mountains, are many tolerably broad and very beautiful valleys, which produce the finest grain, fruit and vegetables raised in this part of the coast…. The outer coast valleys are generally separated by steep, barren ridges, vwhile those inland, are divided by gently sloping hills, somewhat similar to the rolling prairie lands of Illinois, and are susceptible of cultivation over their entire surface. All the coast valleys are tolerably well watered….. To the peculiarly isolated position of Monte Dial)lo-standing aloof as it does, from the throng of peaks that rise from the Coast Range, likle a patrician separated from plebeians, the beauty of its outline commal(nding the attention of the traveller by land or sea-miakes it a landmark not possible to mistake, and causes its summit to he a centre from whence may be viewed a wider range of co(untry tlaii can be seen fromr almost any other point in the State. On the north, east, and southeast, may be seen a large portion of the gieat valleys of tlhe Sacramento and San Joaquin, with many thriving towns and villages, environed with gardens and flirns, while sweeps aId(l slopes of verdure mark the distant plains with hues inimitable bir art. In the extreme distance, as a border to this grand panorama, ri sing range upon range, is seen the Sierra Nevada mountains, stretchit, along the horizon upward of 300 miles. In an opposite direction thle beautiful valleys of the Coast lRange come into view, with all the (!larming features of prosperous and skilled rural industry, and the Al,roa(1 bay of San Francisco, where are riding at anchor a fleet of ships, from the masts of which the ensigns of nearly all nations may be seen fluttering; while beyondl, extending from the water-line to the very summit of the highest hills, is San Francisco City, the home of nearly one-fourth the populations of the State. To the right is seen the forts and earthworks that guardl the Golden Gate, while beyond, as far as the eye can reach, is the Pacific Ocean, bearing on its bosom numberless vessels, passing to and fro on the peaceful mission of commerce.” “The Natural Wealth of California.” By T. F. Cronise. I 0 2

“3

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1l)24 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ORTIGINAI,L G TREE. (30 feet in diameter). Tile highest peaks of the C(olst Ratlge are Mt. San Bernardi(-), 8500 feet high, Mt. San Gorgonio, 7000 feet, Mt. Hamilton, 4433 teet, Mt. Diablo, 3876 feet, Mt. Ripley, 7500 feet, and Mt. St.

Joljl\, :nd AlMt. Linn. The height of the last two has not yet been accurately determined. The principal peaks of the Sierra Nevada are Mt.

Wlitney, 15,000 feet, Mt. Cawiah, 14,000 feet, Mt. Silliman, 11,800 feet, Mt. Tyndall, 14,200 feet, Table Mountain, 13,000 feet, Mt. Brewer, 13,700
feet, Mt. Goddard, 13,000 feet, Mt. Lyell, 13,500, Mt. Dania, 13,500, and Castle Peak, 13,000. In the northern part of the State, the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range unite. The principal peaks of this region are Mt. Shasta, 14,440 feet, Mt. Lassen, Downieville Buttes, 8840 feet, and Pilot Peak, 7300 feet. The most important valleys along the coast are the Santa Clara, San Gabriel, Los Angeles, Salinas, Pajaro, Amador, San Ramon, Suistin, Napa, Sonomna, Petaluma, Russian River, and Humboldt Bay. In the southeastern part of the State is a sterile region 140 miles long and 70
miles wide, known as the Colorado Desert. When the Colorado River overflows its banks the centre of this tract, which is 70 feet below the level of the sea, is converted into a lake. At other times, it is an arid, dreary waste. North of this desert is a tract called

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CALIFORNIA. the Jliohave Bas-in. It is watered by a few streams, all of which ellpty into small salt lakes, which dry up) in the summer. The waters of these lakes are stron,gly impregnated with al kaline salts. No fish cani live in them, and the water of some of them scalds the skin of a htinian being, and produces painful sores. The coast is iindenlted withi several fine bays. Beginning on the north, the most important are Trinidad, Humboldt, Bodega, Tomales, Sir Franc(is Drake, San Francisco, Monterey, Estero, San Luis, San I’c(Iro, and San Diego Bays. All these, except the Bay of San Fran(iS(O, open directly upon the oceaii. San) FUrancisco Bay is the best lh.trl)or on the Pacific Ocean, as well as the largest. It extends inland lor ah))ut (60 miles, north and southl, and is 14 miles wide at its broadest l:tr t. About 30 miles firot its northern extremnity it communicates x%itli the Pacific throiugh a strait two miles long, and about six miles wi(le, whlich breaks through the range of highlands which lines the (()ast ait this point. This entrance is very picturesque, and is known as the Golden Gate. The northiern part of the bay is called San Pablo Bay, aid( communicates through the Straits of Carquinez, with Suisin Bay-, 1 6 miles loing and 5 miles wide, which is formed by the united waters of the Sacramnento and San Joat(.uin Rivers.

The city of San Francis(o is situated on the west shore of the southern part of San Francisco Bay, just witliin the Golden Gate. Several towns lie along the shore, and fbur or five small islands lie in the bay. The prinicil)al rivers of the State are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin.

The Sacramento River rises in the northern part of the State, near the foot of Mt. Shasta, and flows in a generally southern direction into Suisin Bay, throughl which it communicates with the Bay of San Francisco.

It is the most important river in the State, is 400 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for 300 miles. It flows through a valley about 50
miles wide, which is alinost a perfect level, and is remarkably open. Its principal tributaries (commencing on the north) are the Pitt, Feather, Yuba, and American rivers, which rise along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. Sacramento City is the principal place on the main river.

The San Joaquin River rises in the Sierra Nevada, near the centre of the State. It flows south for a short distance, and then, meeting the outlet of Tulare Lake, changes its course, and flows north-northwest into Suisin Bay, at the mouth of the Sacramento. It is about 350 miles long, and is navigable for about 200 or 250 miles. Its chief tributaries rise in the Sierra Nevada. They are the Calaveras, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced rivers. 1025

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1026 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Moquelumne joins the Sacramento and Stil Joaquin at tIl(ir juIl(tion. It rises in the Sierra Nevada, alnmost due east from its moutlh. The streams which flow into the Pacific (beginning on the north) are the Eel and Russian rivers, above San Francisco Bay, and the Salinas, Guiainas, Santa Inez, Santa Clara, Santa Aina, San Luis, San Diego, and Tia Juana rivers-all smnall streams. The Colorado formns the southeast boundary of the State, and the Klamnath River, of Oregol, flows through the northwest. Several lakes lie in the State. The principal are Tulare, Clear, Oweni Mountain, and Mono Lakes.

Tulare Lake is 35 miles long,, and enipties its waters into the San Joaquin River. The rest are sminall lakes. MINERALS. “The great and distinguislhing feature of California is, however, its unexampled mineral wealth. The first discoveries of gold were made in 1848, when $10,000,()0()00 were taken fioom the miines, increasing to $40,000,000 in 1849, and upwards of $65,000,000 in 1853. No returns are made of the quantity taken frinom the mines, and the lint records are the only official data existing upon the product for alny portion of the Pacific coast. Various estimates have been made by milning engineers, bankers, and other intelligent and practical business men in San Francisco, and elsevlwhere in California, as to the total product of that State since 1848. These estimates vary from eight handred millions to one billion.

Fronm the commencement of 1849 to the close of 1866, upward of seven hundred and eighty-five millionls hltve been manifested at San Francisco for exportation, all of wlii(l, wvith the exception of sixty-five millions, appears to have been tlhe product of California. How large a portion of gold found its way out of’ the State without being manifested for exportation, is, of course, a niatter of conjecture, different authorities estimating it firom one hundred to three hundred millions. But either estimate is sulfficient to furnish an idea of the immensity of the mineral wealth of the State. Silver mines in the State are comparatively inconsiderable, yet quantities of that mietal are annually obtained by separating it firom gold, wvithl which it is, in small portions, generally united when taken fioii the mines. The quicksilver mines of California are among the most valuable, and have, since their discovery, materially contributed to the prosperity of the mining interests, not only of Califbrnia and the a(ljoining States, but also of Mexico and South America. All the useful metals, such as iron, lead, copper, tin, and zinc, exist in this

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CALIFORNIA. region. Coal has been discovered in different localities, and marble, gypsum, and valuable building stone, are abundant. Some of the rarer and mllore valuable minerals, as the agate, topaz, cornelian, amethyst, and, in some instances, the diamond, have been found.” It is stated that between the years 1849 and 1864, the total amount of treasure exported from California through the Custom House, was valued at $695,684,879, and that the amount taken from the State, without being manifested at the Custom House, was about $150,000,000, making the total yield of the State during that period nearly $850,000,000. CLIMATE. “The climate of California is too much varied to be considered as a whole. It might be regarded almost as a heterogeneous mixture of the tropical and the arctic. From the capital city (Sacraniento), ulnd(er the noonday sutll of the summer solstice, with a temperature of froml 90~ to 100~, exceeding the extreme summer heat of the Atlantic States, you will see the snows glistening on the Sierras at no great distance. And by taking the cars on the trans-continental railroad, a few hours travel will transport you to an arctic landscape. On the other hand, embarking on the steamer for San Francisco, at to(-) o’clock in the afternoon, and travelling in the opposite direction, before night you are shivering in the cold sea-bieeze which sweeps up the bay. It is not necessary to journey so far in order to experience the same transition. You have only to cross anyN of the mountain walls which separate the ocean and bay from the interior, and which dam out the cold ocean atmosphere. There are essentially two climates ill California, the land climate and the sea climate. The latter derives its low temperature from the ocean, the water of which, along the coast, stands at from 52~ to 54~ all the year round. The evenness of the ocean temperature is owing to a steady ecurrent from thle northl, which is accompanied also by winds in the same direction during the entire summer season, or rather from April to October, inclusive. Almost daily, during this period, a deluge of cold, damp air, of the same temperature as the ocean over which it has passed, is poured upon the land. It is mostly laden with mist, in dense clouds, which it deposits at the foothills, and on the slopes of the highlands, or carries a short distance into the interior, wherever there is a break in the Report of the General Land-Office. 102‘7

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1028 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. land wall. The land climate is as nearly as possible the opposite in every respect. In summer and autumn it is hot and dry. It under goes various mo(lifications from the configuration of the surface of the earth. Even the mountains, which retain the snow to a late period, present a high temperature in the middle of the day; and the presence of snow on their sutnmnits, in June, is owing to the great mass which Pas accumulated on them, rather than to cold weather. A large dis triet of territory lies between the jurisdiction of the two climates, and subject to their joint influence. It is composed chiefly of valleys sur rouiiding the bay of San Francisco, and penetrating into the interior in every direction. There is no climate in the world more delightful than these valleys enjoy, and no territory more productive. Wlhilst the ocean prevents the contiguous land from being scorched in summer, it also prevents it from t)eing frozen in winter.

Heilnce, ice and Siow are nriot common in the ocean climate. Tile difference in temperature is comparatively slight between summlier and winter…. The absence of warm weather in the summer months is characteristic of the coast climate, and strikes a stranger forcibly. The most ordinary programme of this climate for the year is as follows, beginning with the rainy season: The first decided rains are in November or December, when the country, after having been parched with drought, puts on the garb of spring. In January, the rains abate and vegetationi advances slowly, with occasional slight frosts. February is spring-like, with but little rain. March and April are pleasant and showery, with an occasional hot day. In May the seabreeze begins, i)ut does not give much annoyance. In June, just as warm weather is about to set in, the seabreeze comes daily, and keeps down the temperatuire. It continues through July and August, occasionally holding up for a (lay or two, and permitting the sun to heat the air to tihe sweating point. In September, the sea-wind moderates, and there is a slight taste of summer, which is prolonged into the next month. The pleasant weather often lingers in the lap of winter, and is interrupted only by the rains of November or December.” SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the valleys is fertile, and produces liberal crops. In the districts where water is scarce it does not yield so well. The rniounitain lands are generally poor and unfit for cultivation. The Natural Wealth of California. By T. F. Cronise.

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CALIFORNIA. “The soil and climate of California, are eminently adapted to the growth of wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, hops, tobacco, hay, and sorghum; in certain localities, to corn, cotton, the southern sugarcane, to almost every variety of garden vegetables cultivated east of the Rocky Mountains; to the apple, pear, plum, cherry, apricot, nectarine, quince, fig, and grape; and along the southern coast, to the orange, lemon, citron, olive, pomegranate, aloe, filbert, walnut, hard and soft-shell almond, currants, prunes, pine-apples, and the plantain, I)anana, cocoa-nut, and indigo. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, figs, grapes, and the hardier fruits, as the apple, peach, and pear, succeed well in every portion of the State. There are very few parts of thle world where fruittrees grow so rapidly, bear so early, so regularly, so abundantly, and produce fruit of such size, and where so great a variety can be produced, and of such superior quality, as on the southern coast of California. The pear is more especially the fruittree of California. It thrives in all parts of the State; neither tree nor fruit is subject to any form of disease, the fruit being everywhere of delicious flavor and large size. Some trees produce annually 40 I)bushels of pears.

The varied climate on the Pacific, its freedom fromnt frosts, severe cold, and furious storms, give it special advantages as a fruit-growing region; and although the trees grow more rapidly and b(ar rmuch earlier than on the Atlantic, they are not sul)ject to early d(ecay. The fruittrees of the missions, many of them 30 and 40 years old, are still in excellent condition, and full bearing, not having failed at any season during the past 20 years to produce good crops. Experience has established the fact, that thle.climate and soil of Califoriiia are equal to any in the world in their adaptation to grape culture and the manufacture of wine. The yield of the grape has been larger, its freedom from disease greater, than in the most celebrated European vineyards. Three hundred varieties have been already successfully cultivated, including the choice foreign wine-producing grapes; and so diversified are the soil and climate that all wines can be produced here, and even superior in quality to the importedl. The vine in California is not subject to the oidium or grape disease, frequently so destructive in other countries, nor is it liable to mildew. The vineyards of the State seldom, or never, yiel(d less than 1000
pounds of grapes per acre, and even 20,000 pounds have been produced. The crops are regular every year, and as there ale neither severe frosts, nor hail, rain, nor thunder-storms, firom the budding of the vines until the grape is gathered, they are not liable to 63 1029

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1030 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HYDRAULIC MIINING. the accidents and drawbacks attending them in other places.:‘n Europe, the vine is trained with a stock four feet high, and supported b)y a pole put up every year to which the vine is fastened. In California it stands alone, the labor thus far being nothing compared with that bestowed upon the best European vineyards. The number of vines already set, all of which will be in full bearing in three years, is estimated at nearly thirty millions. In 1863, the total number planted in vineyards, in the State, was nearly three and a half millions, showing aln increase of 25,000,000 in four years. Hiock, champagne, port and claret, constitute the varieties of wine already exported. No doubt is entertained that when the California wine-makers have had the necessary experience, and their wines have attained sufficient age, they will take rank with the very best, and that its manufacture on the Pacific coast is destined to become of vast importance, while series of vineyards, stretching from San Diego to Mount Shasta, will within another quarter of a century add not only beauty, but substantial wealth to the State. Among the fruits cultivated on the southerni coast during the present year, have been the orange, lemon, fig, lime, the English walnut, almond, olive, apricot, and nectarine, numbering

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CALIFORNIA. in the aggregate between 400,000 and 500,000 trees, in a greater or less state of maturity. The cultivation of these and other fruits is rapidly extending in California with marked success.” * In 1870, there were about 2,500,000 acres of improved or cultivated land in the State. In the same year, the returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat,..

” barley,… “4 oats, ” rye,… Indian corn,. ” buckwheat,. peas and beans, peanuts,… Irish potatoes, Tons of hay,…… Pounds of hops,….

” butter,… cheese,… Gallons of wine,…. brandy,.. Value of agricultural produ Number of horses,… asses and mules, i’ cattle,… “
sheep,… ” swine,… Pounds of wool (estimated) *……. ….. ……

21,500,000 8,000,000 1,200,000 16,000 1,000,000 10,000 214,000 78,000 .

1,400,000 , 350,000 570,000 5,000,000 . 3,000,000 . 4,000,000 .. 300,000 .

$89,000,000 209,000 24,000 500,000 . 2,200,000 412,000 . 5,000,000

Stockraising forms an important part of the industry of California, the climnate being exceedingly favorable to it. Large numbers of horses, mnules, oxen, beef-cattle, cows and sheep, are raised in the interior.

COMMERCE. The City of San Francisco is the only port of any consequence in the State, but its situation is such as to render it one of the most iumportant places in the world. It is the great centre of the growing commerce of the Pacific Ocean, and occupies the same commercial position on the western coast of the Republic that New York does on the Eastern.

The following statement will show the proportions which its commerce has assumed: “TRADE AND COMMERCE OF SAN FRANCISCO, for the first six * The Natural Wealth of California. By T. F. Cronise. 1031 ……

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1032 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. nmonths of 1868:-Imports from foreign countries, $8,000,000 gold; fi’om the Atlantic States, $22,457,000, currency; an increase of $8,000,000 over the same period last year. The exports were-mrer. chandise, $11,000,000; coin, $20,000,000; total, $31,000,000 gold. Tile duties on imports amounted to $4,028,522, and the receipts of internal revenue, $3,000,000. During these six months, 1550
vessels arrived, bringing 500,000 tons of freight. The arrivals of passengers by sea were 32,186; departures, 11,367; net gain, 20,819. Of the $5,448,000 of merchandise shipped the first quarter of 1868, $4,316,000 was for some 50 articles of California produce, the principal items of which were as follows: wheat, $2,452,000; flour, $836,000; barley, $37,000; beans, $13,000; potatoes, $9000; borax, $10,000; quicksilver, $387,000; ores, $78,000; hides and skins, $116,000; wool, $186,000; leather, $41,000; wine, $42,000; brandy, $9000; and bread, $12,000. The gold deposits at the San Francisco Branch MAint during the first three months of 1868, amounted to 60,000 ounces, and the coinage to $1,312,000. The total exports of treasure for the first quarter of the past three years have been as follows: 1866, $9,532,544; 1867, $9,825,304; 1868, $10,540,415. The exports of merchandise for 1867 were $22,465,903; and of treasure, $41,676,722.16. About $6,000,000 was shipped east by the United States sub-treasurer, making the total, $47,676,292, and the aggregate of treasure and merchandise, $70,142,195. The total amount of treasure exported from 1849 to 1868, was $826,873,738.11.” * In 1869, the imports of the State were valued at $51,604,000, $36,104,000 being from the Atlantic ports of the Union, and $15,500,000 from foreign countries.

The exports for the same period, exclusive of treasure, were upwards of $23,000,000. The arrivals of vessels at San Francisco during 1869 were as follows: From Atlantic ports of the United States, 146; from foreign ports, 3524; from Pacific ports of the United States, 2904. MANUFACTURES.

California is making rapid progress in manufactures. In 1870 there were 3984 establishments in the State, employing a capital of $39,728,202, and producing goods to the amount of $66,594,556 annually. The principal products were valued as follows * American Year BQok, vol. i. p. 293.

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CALIFORNIA. b………. *……. Boots~~~~~ an shes……………..,24,0

Machnery.. ..….*…*…*…3*1481 …….. *……. INTERNAL

IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, there were 321 miles of completed railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of $24,200,000. The Pacific Railway, now in operation, extends froml Sacramento City eastward into Nevada, with connecting lines from Sacramento to San Francisco and other points. The railroad interest of the State is rapidly advancing, and will soonJI be equal to its necessities. In 1872, there were 1013 miles of conpleted railroads ill the State. In 1865, there were in California 491 miles of turnpike, 62 toll bridges, and 78 ferries. The principal rivers are navigated by steamers, and stage routes extend through the most important parts of the State not otherwise connected. EDUCATION. California has been very energetic in the cause of education. The school system of the State is under the supervision of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is elected by the people for four years. He is the executive officer of the State Board of Education, which consists of the Governor, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the principal of the State Normal School, the Superintendents of schools in San Francisco, and in Sacramento, Santa Clara, and San Joaquin counties, and two professional teachers holding State diplomas. Tile counties are under the supervision of County Superintendents, elected for two years. Each school district is managed by a Board of Directors, elected by the people. Certificates of competency for terms varying from the lifetime of the holder to one year, are granted by the State, City, and County Boards of Examiners. There is a State Normal School in successful operation. There are six colleges in California. The State University is located at Oakland. It was established in 1855, and is liberally endowed. The permanent school fund amounts to about $800,000, and yields an income of over $50,000 per annum. In 1867, the total amount expended by the State for educational purposes was $1,168,583. In 1870, there were 1342 public schools in the State, conducted by 1883 teachers, and attended by 75,527 pupils. 1033 Lumber,…

Flour,…. Boots and shoes, Machinery,.. Liquors,… Woollen goods,.

$6,279,914 9,036,386 2,214,807 3,814,817 3,332,934 1,102,754

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1034 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The public schools of San Francisco are distinct from those of the State, but are included in the above statement. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. Thle State Prison is located at San Quenltin. It is well conducted, but is in need of enlarged accommodations.

In 1867, there were 692 convicts confined here. The Itsane Asylum of California is at Stockton. It was opened in 1851. Ill October, 1867, it contained 769 patients. The Californiia Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind is at San lFrancisco. It was opened in 1866, and in October, 1867, contained 48 pupils. Thle State Reformn School is at Marysville, and is in successful operation. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were.532
churches in California. The value of church property was $7,404,235. The State contains large numbers of Chinese settlers, who are Pagans.

LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. The libraries of California (other than private collections) contain about 200,000 volumes, more or less. Ill 1870, there were published in the State, 197 newspapers, and 4 mlagazines, with an aggregate anlnual circulation of 47,472,756 copies. Of these, 141 were political (28 being dailies), 14 religious, 18 literary and miscellaneous.

FINANCES. In November, 1870, the public debt of the State was about $7,000,000. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1870, were $3,508,164, and the expenditures for the same period, $3,814,037. All financial transactions in this State are in coin, or its equivalent. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States, and every white male citizen of Mexico, who has become a citizen of the United States according to the terms of the treaty of Queretaro (May 20th, 1848),

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who is 21 years old, and has resided in the State six months and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenanrt-Governor, Secretary, Treasurer, Comptroller, and AttorneyGeneral, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members), and a House of Representatives (of 80 members), all chosen by the people. The State officers and Senators are elected for four years, and Representatives for two years. Onehalf of the Senators retire biennially. The general election is held in September, and the Legislature meets biennially in December. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, County Courts, and in Justices of the Peace. All judges are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief JtLstice and four Associate Justices, elected for 10 years. Judges of the District Courts serve 6 years, and those of the County Courts 4 years. The seat of Government is established at Sacramento. The State is divided into 50 counties. HISTORY. The term California is said by some writers to be derived from two Spanish words, Caliente fornalla, or horno, and to mean simply ” a hot furnace.” Other writers question this derivation. The Spaniards divided the country into two portions-Old California, which was then, as now, merely the Peninsula; and Upper, or New California, which included the present States of California and Nevada, and the greater part of New Mexico. “California was discovered in 1548, by Cabrillo, a Spanish navigator. In 1758, Sir Francis Drake visited its northern coast, and named the country New Albion. The original settlements in Calitornia were mission establishments, founded by Catholic priests for the conversion of the natives. In 1769, the mission of San Diego was founded by Padre Junipero Serra. “The mission establishments were made of adobe, or sun-burnt bricks, and contained commodious habitations for the priests, storehouses, offices, mechanic shops, granaries, horse and cattle pens, and apartments for the instruction of Indian youth. Around and attached to each, were, varying ill different missions, from a few hundred to several thousand Indians, who generally resided in conical-shaped huts in the vicinity, their place of dwelling being generally called the 1035 CALIFORNIA.

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1036 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rancheria. Attached to each mission were a few soldiers, for protec. tion against hostilities from the Indians. “The missions extended their possessions from one extreme of the territory to that of the other, and bounded the limits of one mission by that of the next, and so on. Though they did not require so much land for agriculture, and the maintenance of their stock, they appropriated the whole; always strongly opposing any individual who might wish to settle on any land between them. All the missions were under the charge of the priests of the order of Sanl Franlcisco. Eachl mission was under one of the fathers, who had despotic authority. The general products of the missions were large cattle, sheep, horses, Indian corn, beans and peas.

Those ill the southern part of California, produced also the grape and olive in abundance. The most lucrative product was the large cattle, their’hid(les and tallow affording anl active commerce with foreign vessels, and being, indeed, the main support of the inlhabitants of the territory. From 1800 to 1830 the missions were in the height of their prosperity. Then, each mission was a little principality, with its hundred thousand acres and its twenty thousand head of cattle. All the Indian population, except the ‘Gentiles’ of the mountains, were the subjects of the padres, cultivating for them their broad lands, and reverencing them with devout faith. The wealth and power in possession of the missions, excited the jealousy of the Mexican authorities. In 1833, the Government commenced a series of decrees, which eventually ruined them. In 1845, the obliteration of the missions was completed by their sale at auction, and otherwise. “Aside from the missions, in California, the inhabitants were nearly all gathered in the presidios, or forts, and in the villages, called’Los Pueblos.’ The presidios, or fortresses, were occupied by a few troops under the command of a military prefect or governor. The Padre President, or Bishop, was the supreme civil, military and religious ruler of the province. There were four presidios in Calafornia, each of which had under its protection several missions. They were respectively, StII Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco. Within four or five leagues of the presidios, were certain farms, called r achios, which were assigned for the use of the garrisons, and as depositories of the cattle and grain which were furnished as taxes from the missions. Los Pueblos, or towns, grew up near the missions. Their first inhabitants consisted of retired soldiers and attaches of the army, many of whom married Indian women. Of the villages of this

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CALIFORNIA. description, there were but three, viz: Los Angelos, San Jose, and Branciforte. In later times, the American emigrants established one on the’ Bay of San Francisco, called Yerba Buena, i. e., good herb, which became the nucleus of the flourishing city of San Francisco. Another was established by Captain Sutter, on the Sacramento, called New Helvetia. The larger pueblos were under the government of all alcalde, or judge, in connection with other municipal officers. “The policy of the Catholic priests, who held absolute sway in California until 1833, was to discourage emigration. Hence, up to about the year 1840, the villages named comprised all in California, independent of those at the missions; and at that time, the free whites and half-breed inhabitants in California numbered less than 6000 souls. The emigration from the United States first commenced in 1838; this had so increased from year to year, that, in 1846, Colonel Fremnont had but little difficulty in calling to his aid some five hundred fighting men. Some few resided in the towns, but a nmajority were upon the Sacramento, where they had immense droves of cattle and horses, and fine farms, in the working of which they were aided by the Indians.

They were eminently an enterprising and courageous body of people, as none other at that time would brave the perils of an overland journey across the mountains. In the ensuing hostilities they rendered important services. At that period, the trade carried on at the different towns was quite extensive, and all kinds of dry goods, groceries and hardware, owing to the heavy duties, ranged about 500 per cent. above the prices in the United States. Mechanics and ordinary hands received from two to five dollars per day. The commerce was quite extensive, 15 or 20 vessels not unfrequently being seen in the various ports at the same time. Most of the merchant vessels were from the United States, which arrived in the spring, and engaged in the coasting trade until about the beginning of winter, when they departed with cargoes of hides, tallow, or furs, which had been collected during the previous year. Whale ships also touched at the port for supplies and to trade, and vessels from various parts of Europe, the Sandwich Islands, the Russian settlements, and China.” The Mexican revolution of 1822 overthrew the Spanish power in California, and made it a province of Mexico. The Government of that country directed its efforts to the task of secularizing the province, and finally stripped the fathers of their possessions and power. Severe measures were also practised towards the laity, and several efforts were made by the Californians to throw off the Mexican yoke, and establish 1037

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1038 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. their independence. They were finally quieted, and emigrants began to come out to the territory in great numbers. During the years 1843, 1844, 1845, and 1846, the emigration was especially large, a very great proportion of the new settlers coming from the United States. Early in 1846, a quarrel broke out between the authorities and the American settlers. The Mexican commander undertook to expel the American settlers, who at once flew to arms, under the lead of Colonel John C. Fremnont. By a series of bold and rapid movements the Americans made themselves masters ol the greater part of the country, and proclaimed their independence of Mexico. At this juncture an American squadron, under Commodore Stockton, arrived on the coast with news of the declaration of war between the United States and Mexico. Several conflicts now occurred between the Americans and the Mexicans, the result being generally in favor of the former, and at the close of the war the greater part of the territory was held by the United States. By the terms of the treaty of peace, Mexico ceded the territory of California to the United States for the sum of $15,000,000. The white population was now about 15,000. In February, 1848, gold was discovered on the farm of Colonel Sutter, in Coloma county, and it was soon found that the precious metal was widely distributed all over the State. An enormous emigration at once set in fromn all parts of North and South America, from Europe, and from China. In about a year, the population of the territory was nearly a quarter of a million. A more reckless, daring, dangerous body of men never collected in any part of the world. An organized government became a necessity. General Riley, the military governor of the territory, summoned a convention to meet at Monterey, on the 1st of September, 1849. This convention adopted a Constitution, which was ratified by the popular vote, and on the 9th of September, 1850, California was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The first years of the new State were marked by excessive violence and disorder. The principal classes of the inhabitants were the miners and gamblers. Crime of all kinds increased with frightfill rapidity. In San Francisco especially, neither life nor property was safe.

The authorities were either in league with the criminals, or incompetent to the task of putting a stop to the outrages from which the community suffered; and in 1855 the citizens took the law into their own hands, organized a “vigilance committee,” and by a rigorous adminis

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CALIFORNIA. tration of justice brought the city to a condition of peace and order Since then it has never flagged in its career of prosperity. The growth of the State has been unprecedentedly rapid, and is now not far behind the most prosperous Atlantic communities. The Pacific Railroad is doing much to build it up, and by bringing it nearer, in point of time, to the East, will enable it to acquire with still greater facility those refining and ennobling elements of civilization, without which its material prosperity would be comparatively worthless. CITIES AND TOWNS.

Besides the capital, the most important places in the State are, San Francisco, San Jose’, Marysville, Stockton, Nevada, Grass Valley, Petalumna, Yreka, Placerville, and Oakland. SACRAMENTrO, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in the county of the same name, on the left bank of the Sacramento River, a short distance below the mouth of the American River, 75 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco, and 120 miles by the river from that city. Latitude 38~ 341’ N., longitude 121~ 26’ W. The city lies in a level plain, and is regularly laid out. It has been raised ten feet above its original level, in order to protect it against the floods of the two rivers, and for its further security an artificial wall has been built around the American River, 4 feet above high water in the Sacramento the work cost $250,000. Sacramento has suffered severely from freshets, the most disastrous being that of 1861-62, in which large amounts of property were destroyed. The street next to the river is called Front Street, the next Second Street, and so on; the streets crossing these at right angles are named from the letters of the Alphabet. The numbered streets run north and south. The city is about 3 miles in length, and is divided into four wards. The principal business houses lie within the portion bounded by Fifth, Sixth, H, and L
streets. In the business portion, the houses are built principally of brick. The dwellings are mostly of wood, and many are provided with handsome grounds. The principal building is the new Capitol, which promises to be when completed the most magnificent edifice in the West, and one of the finest in the Union. The Court House, now used as a State House, is a handsome building. The State Agricultural Pavilion, 1039

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p __ _ SAN FRANCISCO.

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SAN FRA NCISCO. -I

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CALIFORNIA. southern part of the city, are to be found many handsome residences. The first buildings of Sanl Francisco were entirely of wood, but since the destructive fires that have several times laid the greater part of the city in ashes, brick and iron have been extensively used, and the more thickly settled portions are now substantially built. Many of the business houses are splendid fire proof structures. The city was originally built around a semicircular bay, its limits, Clark’s Point, on the north, and Rincon Point, on the south, being but a mile apart. This portion is now built lip with heavy business houses, and the shore is lined with wharves supported upon piles driven into the river. Market street, a broad avenue, running southwest fromnt the bay, divides the old and new portions of the city. San Francisco, like all the Pacific cities, presents an appearance of incompleteness, though it is rapidly improving in this respect, and is already begin ning to wear a metropolitan air. Mr.

Sanmuel Bowles, thus writes of the city of to-day: “This is a very ridiculous and repulsive town, in some aspects, and a very fascinating and comnmendable one, in others, both materially and morally, physically and Esthetically. Its youth is its apology in one regard, its wonder and its merit on the other. The location must have been chosen for its water, and not its land privileges. It i,set upon the inside of a range of the purest sandhills, six or seven miles wide, blown up from the ocean, and still blowing up, between it and the bay. The main business streets are in the hollows, or on the fiat land, made by pulling down the sand from the hills. But go out of these in any direction, and you are confronted by steep hills. Some of these are cut through, or being cut through; others are scaled, to make room for the spread of the town. The happy thought of winding the streets about their sides, which would have made a very picturesque and certainly get-around-able town, came too late. If but the early San Franciscans llad thought of Boston, and followed the cow-paths, what a unique, nice town they would have made of this! Only I fear there never was even an astray cow on these virgin sandhills, as innocent of verdure as a babe of sorrow or vice. The modern American straight line style was the order, no matter what was in front; and the result is that going about San Francisco is all collar and breeching work for mian and beast. The consequlence is, also, there are only two or three streets that you can think of driving out of town on. The only way to get up and down the others with a horse, is to go zig-zag from one side to the other. Some of the principal residence streets 1043

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1044 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. are after this fashion, however; I found our friend, Rev. Horatio Stebbins, of the Unitarian Church, here, holding on by main strength to a side hill that runs up at an angle of something like thirty degrees. And so they run up and down, and the city is straggling loosely over these hills for several miles ill all directions. Some of the hilghest of the knobs are being cut down, and this leaves the early hlouses,-that is, those built four or five years ago,-away up one hundred feet or more in the air, and reached by long flights of steep steps. “Wherever the hillsides and tops are fastened with houses or pavements, or twice daily seduced with water, there the foundations are measurably secure, and the deed of the purchaser means somethilg; but all elsewhere, all the open lots and unpaved paths are still underg,oillg the changing and creative process. The daily winds swoop up the soil in one place, and deposit it in another in great masses, like drifts of snow. You will often find a suburban street blocked up with fresh sand; and the owner of vacant lots needs certainly to pay them daily visits in order to swear to title; and the chance is anyway that, between one noon and another, he and his neighbor will have changed properties to an indefinite depth. Inciderttal to all this, of course, are clouds of sand and dust through all the residence and open parts of the city, making large market for soap and clothes-brushes, and putting neat housekeepers quite in despair for their furniture. Naturally enough, there is a looseness on the subject of cleanliness that would shock your oldfashioned New England housewives. “But then, as compensation, the winds give health,-keeping the town fresh and clean; an(l the hills offer wide visions of bay and river, and islands and sister hills,-away out and onil with varying life of shipping, and manufactures, and agriculture; and, hanging over all, a sky of azure with broad horizons. Oceanward is Lone Mountain Cemetery, covering one of the hills with its scrawny, low-running, live oak shrub tree, and its white monuments, conspicuous among which are the erections to those martyrs to both western and eastern civilization and progress,-Broderick, the mechanic and senator, James Kitng of William, the editor, and Baker, the soldier. Here is the old mission quarter, there the soldiers’ camp, yonder, by the water, the bristling fort, again the conspicuous and generous Orphan Asylum, monument of the tenderness and devotion of the women of the city, and to the left of that still, the two Jewish Cemeteries, each with its

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CALIFORNIA. appropriate and tastefill burial chapel. No other American city holds in its very centre such sweeping views of itself and its neighbor hood. “Then the little yards around the dwellings of the prosperous, even of those of moderate means, are made rich with all the verdure of a green-house, with only the cost of daily watering. The most delicate of evergreens; roses of every grade and hue; fuchsias vigorous and high as lilac bushes; nasturtiums sweeping over fences and up house walls; flowering vines of delicate quality, unknown in the East; geraniums and salvias, pansies and daisies, and all the kindred summer flowers of New York and New England, grow and( blossom under these skies, throughout the whole year,-the same in December and January as in June and August,-with a richness and a profuision that are rarely attained by any out-door culture in the East. The public aqueducts furnish water, thou,gh at considerable expense, and pipes convey and spread it in fine spray all over yard and garden. The result is, every man’s dooryard in the city is like an eastern conservatory; and little humble cottages smile out of this city of sandhills and dust, as green and as yellow, and as red and as purple, as gayest of garden can make them. There is no aristocracy of flowers here; they greet you everywhere in greatest profusion, and are tender solace to home-sick heart, and cheap and sweet tonic to weary brain. “Kindred contrasts force themselves upon the observant stranger, in the business and social life of the town. Some of the finest qualities are mingled with others that are both shabby and’shloddy.’ There is sharp, fill development of all material powers and excellencies; wealth of practical quality and force; a recklessness and rioting with the elements of prosperity; much dashl, a certain chivalric honor combined with carelessness of word, of integrity, of consequence; a sort of gambling, speculating, horse-jockeying morality,-bornii of the uncertainties of mining, its sudden heights, its equally surprising depths, and the eager lhaste to be rich,-that all require somnetliug of a re-casting of relationships, new standards, certainly new charities, in order to get the unaccustomed mind into a state of candor and justice. People who know they are smart in the East, and come out here thinking to find it easy wool-gathering, are generally apt to go home shorn. Wall street can teach Montgomery street nothing in the way of’bulling’ and’bearing,’ and the’corners’ made here require both quick and long breath to turn without faltering. 1045

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1046 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “M ien of mediocre quality are no better off here than in older cities and States. Ten or fifteen years of stern chase after fortune, among the mines and mountains, and against the new nature of this original country, has developed men here with a tougher and more various experience in all the temporalities of life, and a wider resource for fighting all sorts of’tigers,’ than you can easily find among the present generation in the Eastern States. Nearly all the men of means here to-day have held long and various struggle with fortune, failing once, twice or thrice, and making wide wreck, but buckling on the armor again and again, and trying the contest over and over. So it is throughout the State and the coast; I have hardly met an old emigrant of‘49 and‘50, who has not told me of vicissitudes of fortune, of personal trials, and hard work for bread and life, that, half-dreamed of before coming here, he would never have dared to encounter, and which no experience of persons in like position in life in the East can parallel. ” In consequence partly of all this training, and partly of the great interests and the wide regions to be dealt with, the men I find at the head of the great enterprises of this coast have great business power,a wide practical reach, a boldness, a sagacity, a vim, that I do not believe can be matched anywhere in the world. London and New York and Boston can furnish men of more philosophies and theories,-men who have studied business as a science as well as practised it as a trade,-butt here are the men of acuter intuitions, and more daring niatures; who cannot tell you why they do so and so, but who will do it with a force that commands success. Such men have built up and direct the California Steam Navigation Company, that is to the waters of this State what the Oregon Company is to those of that, commanding the entire navigation, and furnishing most unexceptionable facilities for trade and travel; the California and Pioneer Stage Companies, that equally command the stage travel of the coast; the woollen mills of this city; the Wells & Fargo Express Company; the great machine shops of Pacific street; the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; and the great private banking houses, of which there are many and most prosperous. Much British capital is invested in banking here; not only in original houses, but through branches of leading bankers in London, India, and British Columbtlia. But chief of the banks is the :)ankl of California, with two millions of capital, divided into only forty shares of fifty thousand dollars each, and owned by fewer than that number of persons, who represent a total property of thirteen

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CALIFORNIA. millions (gold). This institution does about half the banking of the city, and its average cash movement every steamer day, in shipments of bullion and drafts, is five millions of dollars. It keeps the best commercial and financial writer of the coast in its employ, has agents ill all the centres of productive wealth in the Pacific States, invests, directly or indirectly, in most of the leading enterprises of the State, an eye out for the politics and religion of the country, and, to a very considerable extent,‘runs’ California every way.” The princ(ipal buildings are the City Hall, fronting upon the Plaza or Portsmouth square; the United States Ctastor I-ouse, in which is located the Post Office; the United States ila’rine Hospital; the United Sta(tes District Court Building; the UJnited States Mint; the Mercantie Libr,ary Buildingy; the M7asonic and Odd Fellows’ Halls. Some of these are eleTgant structures, and would do credit to ally eastern city. There are upwards of 50 church edifices in San Francisco. Some of these are very handsome, and are among the principal ornaments of the city. There are 3 High Schools, 8 Grammar Schools, and 24 Primary Schools in Sanl Francisco. The amount expended annually by the city for the free education of children averages about $210,000. Some of the School buildings are among the finest in the country. The city also contains about 75 excellent and flourishing private schools. There are also several public libraries in the city; 46
newspapers and periodicals are published here: 9 are daily; 26 weekly; 3
triweekly; 2 semiweekly; 7 monthly; and 2 semi-monthly. These include journals published in the French, Spanish, Italian and Germanl languages.

The benevolent and charitable institutions are numerous, liberally supported, and well conducted. They embrace the United States Marine Hos)ital, the Staute Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, tlhe City and Coanty Ios.)ital, several Orphan Asylums, and several societies for the relief of suffering and distress. The principal cemeteries are Calvary and Lone Mountain Cemetery. The latter is very beautiful. The Cemetery of the Ol(l Mission, a few miles from the city, is interesting, as is also the Mission itself. It was built in 1776, and is constructed of adobe in the old Spanish style. The hotels of San Francisco are excellent, and two of these, the Lick House and Oceideital Hotel, are among the finest and best manag,ed houses in the Unlion. The principal houses are the Grand Lick, Occidental, luss, Cosmopolitan, and Continental. 64 1047

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1048 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The places of amusement are numerous.

There are 3 firstclass theatres. The distant points of the city are connected by a street railway. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water from Mountain Lake, which lies about 31 miles west of the corporate limits. It possesses an efficient police force, and a reliable and well managed fire department, consisting of hand and steam engines. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 149,482, making it the tenth city of the Republic. San Francisco contains a large population of Chinese. These number at present about 15,000, and inhabit a distinct quarter-the dirtiest and most disorderly-of the city.

They are principally men, but few women of their own race being among them. A recent writer thus sketches the ” Chinese Quarter:” “We could hardly realize that we were still in the United States, the whole surroundings were so unfamiliar. Chests of tea covered with hieroglyphics, piles of curious shaped and colored garments, formed a fitting background for the noiseless movements of the attendants as they went about their work. The atmosphere was heavy with opium smoke, rising in curling clouds from the tiny pipes held by two impassive figures seated on either side of the little table, which held the inevitable lamp and the tiny transparent cups to be found in every Chinese domicile. Mr. Choy Chew, himself, a courteous, agreeable gentleman, seemed a vision, the creature of Dreamland, as he sat perched upon a high stool opposite our party. His smooth face, shaven head and pigtail, the dark blue color and curious fashioning of his broad cloth’ blouse,’ and, above all, his restless, gleaming black eyes, were in marked contrast to the familiar appearance of the gentlemnen of our party, with their bearded faces, closely cut hair, and Anmerican style of dress. “It was hard to shake off the feeling that this was but a vision of Shadow-land. We looked out of the windows, but gained no help there, for the street was full of quickly moving figures, clad in the samne odd attire, with their boat-shaped shoes, walking noiselessly up and down, intent on their own affairs. “At a few words-all tang and chang and yang, except those that were ski and chi-an oldish Chinaman handed to us, on a tea-box lid, some curious, dried, brown objects, not unlike black walnuts in appearanice. Following Mr. ChoyChew’s example, and crushing them between our fingers, there developed an inner kernel, resembling a dried prune

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CALIFORNIA. in looks and taste. These we were informed were a species of Chinese fruit. Our host then wrote for us, on Chinese paper, his name and address in Englislh and Chinese, using a camel’s-hair brush and India ink, and writing (or painting would be a more applicable term) with as great rapidity as though the best Gillott pen and writing fluid were his implements. “The evening previous to this visit, while prowling around Sacramento street, and watching the curious Celestials in their every-day life, our attention was attracted by a singular arrangement on a doorstep, and we stopped for a nearer view. Nine tiny lights were arranged after this fashion upon the two ends and in the middle of the door-stone. While pon dering and commenting, the door suddenly opened, disclosing a China man with a bowl containing ashes and fire in one hand, in the other a huge wisp of burning scented paper. This he waved over the tiny lights, performed some rapid hocus pocus, bumped his head on the door sill, and vanished, the door closing with the same quiet celerity which marked its opening. The lights burned brighter, and save for that no token remained of this performance. We looked at each other more bewildered than before, and took up our line of progress in a dazed manner, mentally querying whether we had not been unconsciously dropped into some strange land, and not quite recovering our equanimity until some distance lay between us and the scene which so puzzled us. “With this occurrence vividly before us, we queried of Mr. Choy Chew as to what it might mean. He told us that their people worship the moon; that once a year, when the moon is’at its bigness and roundest,’ they’make holiday;’ and that evening had been the fulness of the harvest moon; so their people had celebrated it, and the performance we had witnessed was a burning of incense in honor of pale Cynthia. We then inquired if strangers would be allowed to visit the Chinese temples, and were told they had no temples in America, but only miserable little’josshouses,’ where we would find not much to interest.

If, however, we would take the trouble to go, there was one up a court, just above Stockton street. And so we made our adieux, exchanging shakes of the hand with one after another who came forward smiling effusively, and departed to find the’josshouse.’ On the way we meet How Yang, an acquaintance made the day before, and under his guidance we proceeded to the court, into a 1049

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1050 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. little house, up stairs to a back-room, entering through a small anteroom; and here we found’Joss.’ So far as we could learn,‘Joss’is a corruption of the Spanish’Dios,’ and stands as a generic term for gods. The worship we saw, and that which is generally performed, sems to be of an appeasing nature. The evil spirits are those who are worshipped-those who will do harm if not conciliated by offerings and incense-burnings and genuflections. The room was a small one: an oldish and exceedingly dirty’Chinee’ (California vernacular) was clearing up generally, making the toilet of the exceedingly ugly and saturnine-looking idolship that sat in the centre of a long, low table covered with cloths stiff with quaint embroideries. A large china bowl, very similar to a mammoth punch bowl, was filled with ashes, in which were’joss-sticks’ burning slowly, and filling the air with their heavy, incense-like perfume. Round the room, in every possible place, hung strips of paper, of that red color so well known to us all on the outside of packs of fire-crackers, and covered with apparently identical characters.

These are the prayers, written out and pinned up in quantities. In one corner stood an uncouth representation of a tiger, the jaws widely distended and stuffed full of comnestibles; rats and raw meat seeming to hold the chief place. This is to provide against probable hunger on the part of Mr. Tiger, and possible devouring of humanity. But for the all-pervading perfumtned smoke from the burning’joss-sticks,’ the air of the room would have been unbearable. Outside the door, in the little anteroom, was another bowl, also stuck full of burning sticks. “We were told that at certain seasons this room is filled to overflowing with the articles of food brought and offered to their idols. “All the intelligent Chinamen we met deprecated our intention of going to see the’josshouse,’

saying it was not worth while; that they had no place of worship in this country; that what were here were only temporary substitutes. The men do not seem reverent. How Yang, we noticed, looked round the place with even more carelessness than we did, and seemed to feel utterly indifferent, and certainly was or pretended to be entirely ignorant as to the name and title of the presiding deity, and could not or would not answer any of our nlumerous questions. “We have since seen it stated that the women-among the Chinese, as in most communities, are the devout worshippers; and we have also heard that they are impelled to extra exertion in the matter by the fond belief that in the future condition the most religious will be

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CALIFORNIA. elevated from feminine inferiority to masculine superiority-a belief, which, as the Chinese have very little respect for women, and treat them with neglect and contumely, gives great comforta comfort that possibly some of our strong-minded sisters might like to share, for, doubtless, it would afford huge satisfaction to those who struggle and strive after unattainable masculine prerogatives here to know that in a future state these will all be theirs of right and title. “We inquired closely of various residents of San Francisco who employ’ Chinee’ servants as to their qualifications and the satisfac tion they give. In all cases the answers were favorable. They are docile, quick, honest, and reliable.

O Biddy-ridden housekeepers! can it be that a day of deliverance is dawning? Did ever Norah or Biddy prove at once quick to learn and docile, honest and thoroughly reliable? Chinamen, however, are not remarkably cleanly, though they can be made so, but of themselves do not care for cleanliness. Neither godliness nor its next virtue has had any power over them. A friend told us that for delicious cooking she would put a Chinese cook foremost. One peculiarity is, that owing to the national low estimate of women, it promotes comfort to have many of the necessary orders promulgated directly from the gentleman of the household. A rather amusing incident came to our notice, illustrative of the difference it makes how one looks at a thing. One lady remarked, in a most enmphatic way, that one thing she would not permit, and that was to allow her Chinese cook to wear his queue dowun his back while about her premises. She had, after much difficulty, succeeded in obliging ‘John’ to keep his queue bound around his head, and was triumphant. Another lady, apropos to the same subject, remarked that there was one thing persons employing Chinese servants ought to be most particular about: that it was a sign of intense disrespect and contempt when a Chinaman wore his pigtail wrapped round his head, and never should this be allowed by a mistress!‘Where ignorance is bliss,’

probably applied in the first case; but the lady’s self-gratulation on her success was extremely comical to us when we had the’cue’ to the arrangement of the queue. “In laundry-work these people excel; we watched them quite frequently, and saw that ill this worrisome portion of domestic labor they were most competent. They do most of the washing and ironing for San Francisco-do them cheaply (according to California rates) and well. To be sure their mlode of sprinkling is unique, and not quite pleasant to think about, but it is thoroughly successful as t4 1051

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1052 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. results. We stopped one morning at Ho Sun’s establishment. Witl the uniform good humor that greeted all our pryings, the busy ironera looked up, nodded, and smiled,’ How do?’ Walk in,’ and went on assiduously with the piece in hand, evidently appreciating that we were’ lookers on in Vienna.’ A large bowl of water stood beside the iron; the ironer stooped his face down into it, taking up a mouthful of water, and by the action of the tongue against the teeth, ejected it in a fine spray like mist equally over the article to be sprinkled. Two mouthfuls thoroughly and uniformly dampened the piece, and then he commnenced to iron. “On Sundays this portion of the city is alive; the barber shops are crowded with customers waiting their turn to be freely shaven, and to have their queues rebraided. The gambling houses, whose name is legion, overflow, the dreary squeak of the so-called music resounds on every side. In many shops and workrooms labor is going on; shoemaking, cigar-rolling, and similar avocations are being pursued.” San Francisco being the principal city on the Pacific coast is one of the most important commercial centres on the coast. It is coInnected with Omaha, Nebraska, by the Pacific Railway, and by railway with the most important cities of the State. Lines of steamers ply between the city and the towns on the bay, and along the navigable rivers emptying into the bay. It has steamship communication with the principal ports on the Pacific coast, with New York, vm Panama, and with Japan and China. It is the centre of a large and growing commerce with all parts of the world. The statistics for the first six months of the year 1868, and for 1869, having been already presented in the section relating to the commerce of California, may be passed by here. In the same place the reader will find the returns of the shipment of treasure from this place. San Francisco was first settled in 1776, by the Spaniards, who built a mission and established a Presidio here. The place was called “Yerba Buena,” or “good herb,” from a plant of supposed medicinal virtue, which grew in great quantities in the neighborhood. In 1839, it was laid out as a town. In 1845, it contained 150 inhabitants. The attention of American settlers was drawn to it about this time, and by 1847, the population had increased to 500. The result of the war between the United States and Mexico made California an American Territory, and it was about this time that the town changed its name to San Francisco. In becember, 1847, gold was discovered

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CALIFORNIA. CAPE HORN. in California. The news was scattered over the civilized world the next spring, and emigrants began to pour in from every country. By the middle of 1849, the town contained a population of 5000, the larger portion being mere adventurers, who were of no permanent advantage to the place. In 1850, the city of San Francisco was incorporated. It has grown rapidly, and having passed successfully through the stormy (lays of its pioneer history, is now in the enjoyment of a solid prosperity which promises to make it one of the greatest cities of the world. SAN JOSE, In Santa Clara county, is the third city of the State. It lies in the lovely valley of Santa Clara, on the right bank of the Guadaloupe River, about 8 miles above the head of San Francisco Bay, and about 50 miles south-southeast of San Francisco. It is the most beautiful place on the Pacific coast, and lies in the “garden district” of the State, and is the centre of a large trade. It is laid off regularly, and is well built. It contains some fine public buildings, and a number of elegant private residences. The climate is one of almost perpetual spring, and the valley is noted for its great beauty. The city contains a handsome new Court House, the largest and 1053

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1054 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. finest in the State, 7 churches, 3
newspaper offices, several public and p)rivate schools, including the female College of Notre Dame, and a good hotel. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water by means of artesian wells. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, and in 1870, contained a population of 9089. The port of San Jose is at Alviso, on the bay, 7 miles distant. San Jos6 was founded in the early part of the present century. It was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was at one time the capital of California. MISCELLANIES.

SAN FRANCISCO IN 1848-9. In the early spring of this year (1848), occasional intelligence had been received of the finding of gold in large quantities among the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada. Small parcels of the precious metal had also been forwarded to San Francisco, while visitors firom the mines, and some actual diggers arrived, to tell the wonders of the region and the golden gains of those engaged in exploring and working it. In consequence of such representations, the inhatbitants began gradually, in bands and singly, to desert their previous occupations, and betake themselves to the American River and other auriferous parts of the great Sacramento Valley. Labor, from the deficiency of hands, rose rapidly in value, and soon all business and work, except the most urgent, was forced to be stopped. Seamen deserted from their ships in the bay, and soldiers from the barracks. Over all the country the excitement was the same. Neither threats, punishment, nor money could keep men to their most solemn engagements. Gold was the irresistible magnet that drew human souls to the place where it lay, rudely snapping asunder the feebler ties of affection and duty. Avarice and the overweening desire to be suddenly rich, from whence sprang the hope and moral certainty of being so, grew into a disease, and the infection spread on all sides, and led to a general migration of every class of the community to the golden quarters.

The daily laborer, who had worked for the good and at the command of another, for one or two dollars a day, could not be restrained trom flying to the happy spot where he could earn six or ten times the amnount, and might possibly gain a hundred or even a thousand times the sum in one lucky day’s chance. Then the life, at worst, promised to be one of continual adventure and excitement, and the miner was his own master.

While this was the case with thle common laborer, his employer, wanting his services, suddenly found his occupation at an end; while shopkeepers and the like, dependent on both, discovered themselves in the same predicament. The glowing tales of the successful miners all the while reached their ears, and threw their own steady and large gains comparatively in the shade. They therefore could do no better, in a pecuniary sense even, for themselves, than to hasten after their old servants, and share in their new labor and its extraordinary gains, or pack up their former business stock, and, travelling with it to the mines, open their new shlops, and stores, and stalls, and dispose of their old articles to the fortunate diggers, at a 4ise of 500 or 1000 per cent.

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CALIFORNIA. In the month of May, it was computed that at least 150 people had left San Francisco, and every day since’was adding to their number.

Some were occa sionally returning from the auriferous quarter; but they had little time to stop and expatiate upon what they had seen. They had hastily come back, as they had hastily gone away at first, leaving their household and business to waste and ruin, now to fasten more properly their houses, and remove goods, family and all, at once to the gold region. Their hurried movements, more even than the words they uttered, excited the curiosity and then the eager desire of others to accompany them. And so it was. Day after day the bay was covered with launches, filled with the inhabitants and their goods, hastening up the Sacramento.

This state of matters soon came to a head; and master and man alike hurried to the placeres, leaving San Francisco, like a place where the plague reigns, forsaken by its old inhabitants, a melancholy solitude. On the 29th of May, the Californian published a fly-sheet, apologizing for the future non-issue of the paper, until better days came, when they might expect to retain their servants for some amount of remuneration, which at present was impossible, as all, from the “subs” to the “devil,” had indignantly rejected every offer, and gone off to the diggings. “The whole country,” said the last editorial of the paper, “from San Francisco to Los Angeles, and from the sea shore to the base of the Sierra Nevada, resounds with the sordid cry of gold! GOLD!! GOLD!!!-while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and pick-axes, and the means of transportation to the spot where one man obtained $128 worth of the real stuff in one day’s washing, and the average for all concerned is twenty dollars per diem.”

Within the first eight weeks after the “diggings” had been fairly known, $250,000 had reached San Francisco in gold dust, and within the next eight weeks $600,000 more. These sums were all to purchase, at any price, additional supplies for the mines. Coin grew scarce, and all that was in the country was insufficient to satisly the increased wants of commerce in one town alone. Gold dust, therefore, soon became a circulating medium, and after some little demur at first, was readily received by all classes at $16 an ounce. The authorities, however, would only accept it in payment of duties at $10 per ounce, with the privilege of redemption, by payment of coin, within a limited time. When subsequently immigrants began to arrive in numerous bands, any amount of labor could be obtained, provided always a most unusually high price was paid for it. Returned diggers, and those who cautiously had never went to the mines, were then also glad enough to work for rates varying from $12 to $30 a day; at which terms capitalists were somewhat afraid to commence any heavy undertaking. The hesitation was only for an instant. Soon all the labor that could possibly be procured was in ample request at whatever rates were demanded. The population of a great State was suddenly flocking in upon them, and no preparations had hitherto been made for its reception. Building lots had to be surveyed, and streets graded and planked-hills levelled-hollows, lagoons, and the bay itselt’ piled, capped, filled up and planked-lumber, bricks, and all other building materials provided, at most extraordinarily high priceshouses built, finished, and furnished-great warehouses and stores erectedwharves run far out into the sea-numberless tons of goods removed from shipboard, and delivered and shipped anew everywhere-and ten thousand other things had all tow be done without a moment’s unnecessary delay. Long before .1055

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1056 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. these things were completed, the sandhills and barren ground around the town were overspread with a multitude of canvas, blanket, and bough-covered tents the bay was alive with shipping and small craft, carrying passengers and goods backward and forward-the unplanked, ungraded, unformed streets (at one time moving heaps of dry sand and dust; at another, miry abysses, whose treacherous depths sucked in horse and dray, and occasionally man himself) were crowded with human beings from every corner of the universe and of every tongue-all excited and busy, plotting, speaking, working, buying and selling town lots, and beach and water lots, shiploads of every kind of assorted merchandise, the ships themselves, if they could-though that was not often-gold dust in hundred weights, ranches square leagues in extent, with their thousands of cattle-allotments in hundreds of contemplated towns, already prettily designed and laid outon paper-and, in short, speculating and gambling in every branch of modern commerce, and in many strange things peculiar to the time and place. And everybody made money, and was suddenly growing }ich. The loud voices of the eager seller and as eager buyer-the laugh of reckless joy-the bold accents of successful speculation-the stir and hum of active, hurried labor, as man and brute, horse and bullock, and their guides, struggled and managed through heaps of loose rubbish, over hills of sand, and among deceiving deep mud pools and swamps, filled the amazed newly arrived immigrant with an almost appalling sense of the exuberant life, energy, and enterprise of the place. He breathed quick and faintly-his limbs grew weak as water-and his heart sunk within him as he thought of the dreadfill conflict, when he approached and mingled among that confused and terrible business battle.

Gambling saloons, glittering like fairy palaces, like them suddenly sprang into existence, studding nearly all sides of the plaza, and every street in its neighborhood. As if intoxicating drinks from the well plenished and splendid bar they each contained were insufficient to gild the scene, music added its loudest, if not its sweetest, charms; and all was mad, feverish mirth, where fortunes were lost and won, upon the green cloth, in the twinkling of an eye. All classes gambled in those days, from the starchiest white neck-clothed professor to the veriest black rascal that earned a dollar for blacking massa’s boots. Nobody had leisure to think, even for a moment, of his occupation, and how it was viewed in Christian lands. The heated brain was never allowed to get cool while a bit of coin or dust was left. These saloons, therefore, were crowded, night and day, by impatient revellers who never could satiate themselves with excitement, nor get rid too soon of their golden heaps. THE VIGILANCE COMMITTEE. By the beginning of 1851, San Francisco had become crowded with adventurers of all sorts and from every land. Many were professional criminals, and as the law failed to protect the respectable settlers against their outrages, the citizens were compelled, for their own preservation, to take the matter into their own hands. Around Clark’s Point and vicinity, in San Francisco, was the rendezvous of these villains. “Low drinking and dancing houses, lodging and gambling houses of the same mean class, the constant scenes of lewdness, drunkenness, and strife, abounded in the quarter mentioned. The daily and nightly occupants of these vile abodes had every one, more or less, been addicted to crime; and many of

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CALIFORNIA. them were at all times ready, for the most trifling consideration, to kill a man or fire a town. During the early hours of night, when the Alsatia was in revel, it was dangerous in the highest degree for a single person to venture within its bounds. Even the police hardly dared to enter there; and if they attempted to apprehend some known individuals, it was always in a numerous, strongly-armed company. Seldom, however, were arrests made. The lawless inhabitants of the place united to save their luckless brothers, and generally managed to drive the assailants away. When the different fires took place in San Francisco, bands of plunderers issued from this great haunt of dissipation, to help themselves to whatever money or valuables lay in their way, or which they could possibly secure. With these they retreated to their dens, and defied detection or appre hlension. Fire, however, was only one means of attaining their ends. The most daring burglaries were committed, and houses and persons rifled of their valuables. Where resistance was made, the bowie-knife or the revolver settled matters, and left the robber unmolested. Midnight assaults, ending in murder, were common. And not only were these deeds perpetrated under the shade of night; but even in daylight, in the highways and byways of the country, in the streets of the town, in crowded bars, gambling saloons and lodging houses, crimes of an equally glaring character were of constant occurrence. People at that period generally carried during all hours, and wherever they happened to be, loaded firearms about their persons; but these weapons availed nothing against the sudden stroke of the’slung-shot,’ the plunge and rip of the knife,-or the secret aiming of the pistol. No decent man was in safety to walk the streets after dark; while at all hours, both of night and day, his property was jeopardized by incendiarism and burglary. “All this while, the law, whose supposed’majesty’ is so awful in other countries, was here only a matter for ridicule. The police were few in number, and poorly as well as irregularly paid. Some of them were in league with the criminals themselves, and assisted these at all times to elude justice.

Subsequent confessions of criminals, on the eve of execution, implicated a considerable number of people in various high and low departments of the executive. Bail was readily accepted in the most serious cases, where the security tendered was absolutely worthless; and where, whenever necessary, both principal and cautioner quietly disappeared. The prisons likewise were small and insecure; and though filled to overflowing, could no longer contain the crowds of apprehlended offenders. When these were ultimately brought to trial, seldom could a conviction be obtained. From technical errors on the part of the prosecutors, laws ill understood and worse applied, false swearing of the witnesses for the prisoners, absence often of the chief evidence for the prosecution, dishonesty of jurors, incapacity, weakness, or venality of the judge, and from many other causes, the cases generally broke down, and the prisoners were freed. Not one crimninal h7ad yet been executed. Yet it was notorious that, at this period, at least 100 murders had been committed within the space of a few months; while innumerable were the instances of arson, and of theft, robbery, burglary, and assault with intent to kill. It was evident that the offenders defied and laughed at all the puny efforts of the authorities to control them. The tedious processes of legal tribunals had no terrors for them. As yet everything had been pleasant and safe, and they saw no reason why it should not always be so. San Francisco had just been destroyed, a fifth time, by conflagration. The cities of Stockton and Nevada had likewise shared the same fate. That part of it was the doing of 1057

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1058 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. incendiaries no one doubted; and, too, no one doubted but that this terrible state of things would continue, and grow worse until a new and very different executive from the legally constituted one should rise up in vengeance against those pests that worried and preyed upon the vitals of society. It was at this fearful time that the Vigilance Committee was organized.” This was in June, 1851, at which time the association organized “for the protection of the lives and property of the citizens and residents of the City of San Francisco.” They formed a constitution, and selected a room in which to hold their nmeetings, which were entirely secret. The first person they arrested was John Jenkins, a notorious “Sydney cove.” He was seized for stealing a safe on the 10th of June. About 10 o’clock that night, the signal for calling the members was given-the tolling of the bell of the Monumental Engine Company. Shortly afterward about 80 members of the Committee hurried to the appointed place, and giving the secret password were admitted. For two long hours the Committee closely examined the evidence and found him guilty. “At midnight the bell was tolled, as sentence of death by hanging was passed upon the wretched man. The solemn sounds at that unusual hour filled the anxious crowds with awe. The condemned at this time was asked if he had anything to say for himself, when he answered:’ No, I have nothing to say, only I wish to have a cigar.” This was handed to him, and afterward, at his request, a little brandy and water. He was perfectly cool, and seemingly careless, confidently expecting, it was believed, a rescue, up to the last moment. A little before one o’clock, Mr. S. Brannan came out of the Committee rooms, and, ascending a mound of sand to the east of the Rassette House, addressed the people. He had been deputed, he said, by the Committee, to inform them that the prisoner’s case had been fairly tried, that he had been proved guilty, and was condemned to be hanged; and that the sentence would be executed within one hour upon the plaza. He then asked the people if they approved of the action of the Committee, when great shouts of Ay! Ay! burst forth, mingled with a few cries of No! In the interval a clergyman had been sent for, who administered the last consolations of religion to the condemned. Shortly before 2 o’clock, the Committee issued from the building, bearing the prisoner (who had his arms tightly pinioned) along with them. The Committee were all armed, and closely clustered around the culprit, to prevent any possible chance of rescue. A procession was formed; and the whole party, followed by the crowd, proceeded to the plaza, to the south end of the adobe building, which then stood on the northwest corner. The opposite end of the rope which was already about the neck of the victim was hastily thrown over a projecting beam. Some of the authorities attempted at this stage of affairs to interfere, but their efforts were unavailing. They were civilly desired to stand back, and not delay what was still to be done. The crowd, which numbered upward of 1000, were perfectly quiescent, or only applauded by look, gesture, and subdued voice, the action of the Committee. Before the prisoner had reached the building, a score of persons seized the loose end of the rope and ran backward, dragging the wretch along the ground and raising him to the beam. Thus they held him till he was dead. Nor did they let the body go until some hours afterward, new volunteers relieving those who were tired holding the rope. Little noise or confusion took place. Muttered whispers among the spectators guided their movements or betrayed their feelings.

The prisoner had not spoken a word, either upon the march or during the rapid preparations for his execution. At the

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CALIFORNIA. end he was perhaps strung up almost before hlie was aware of what was so imme diately coming. He was a strong-built, healthy man, and his struggles, when hanging, were very violent for a few minutes. The next execution which took place was about a month later, that of James Stuart.

He was an Englishman, who had been transported to Australia for forgery.

On leaving it, hlie wandered in various parts of the Pacific until he reached California, where he was supposed to have committed more murders and other desperate crimes than any other villain in the country. Before his death he acknowledged the justice of his punishment. He was hung July 11th, from a derrick at the end of Market street wharf, in the presence of assembled thousands. One month more rolled round, and the Committee again exercised their duties upon the persons of Samuel Whittaker and Robert McKenzie, who were guilty of robbery, murder, and arson, and on trial confessed these crimes. The sheriff and his posse, with a writ of habeas corpus, took these men from the hands of the Committee and confined them in jail. The latter, fearful that the rascals would escape through the quibbles of the law, prepared for the rescue. “About half past 2 o’clock,”

says the “Annals of San Francisco,” “on the afternoon of Sunday, the 24th of August, an armed party, consisting of 36 members of the Vigilance Committee, forcibly broke into the jail, at a time when the Rev. Mr.

Williams happened to be engaged at devotional exercises with the prisoners, among whom were Whittaker and McKenzie. The slight defence of the jailors and guards was of no avail. The persons named were seized, and hurried to and placed within a coach, that had been kept in readiness a few steps from the prison. The carriage instantly was driven off at full speed, and nearly at the same moment the ominous bell of the Monumental Engine Company rapidly and loudly tolled for the immediate assemblage of the Committee and the knell itself of the doomed. The whole population leaped with excitement at the sound; and immense crowds from the remotest quarter hurried to Battery street. There blocks, with the necessary tackle, had been hastily I’astened to two beams which projected over the windows oft’ the great hall of the Committee. Within 17 minutes after the arrival of the prisoners, they were both dangling by the neck from these beams, the loose extremities of the halters being taken within the building itself and forcibly held by members of the Committee. Full 6000
people were present, who kept an awful silence during the short time these preparations lasted. But so soon as the wretches were swung off, one tremendous shout of satisfaction burst from the excited multitude; and then there was silence again. “This was the last time, for years, that the Committee took or found occasion to exercise their functions. Henceforward the administration of justice might be safely left in the hands of the usual officials. The city now was pretty well cleansed of crime. The fate of Jenkins, Stuart, Whittaker and McKenzie showed that rogues and rognery, of’ whatever kind, could no longer expect to find a safe lurking-place in San Francisco. Many of the suspected, andl such as were warned off by the Committee, had departed, and gone, some to other lands, and some into the mining regions and towns of the interior. Those, however, who still clnng to California found no refuge anywhere in the State. Previously, different cases of lynch law had occurred in the gold districts, but these were solitary instances which had been caused by the atrocity of particular crimes. When, however, the Vigilance Committee of San Francisco had started up, fully organ 1059

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1060 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ized, and began their great work, Sacramento, Stockton, San Jose, as well as other towns and the more thickly peopled mining quarters, likewise formed their committees of vigilance and safety, and pounced upon all the rascals within their bounds. These associations interchanged information with each other as to the movements of the suspected; and all, with the hundred eyes of an Argus and the hundred arms of a Briareus, watched, pursued, harassed, and finally caught the worst desperadoes of the country. Like Cain, a murderer and wanderer, as most of them were, they bore a mark on the brow, by which they were known. Some were hanged at various places, some were lashed and branded, but the greater number were simply ordered to leave the country, within a limited time, under penalty of immediate death if found after a stated period within its limits. Justice was no longer blind or leaden-heeled. With the perseverance and speed of a bloodhound, she tracked criminals to their lair, and smote them where they lay. For a long time afterward, the whole of California remained comparatively free from outrages against person and property. “From all the evidence that can be obtained, it is not supposed that a single instance occurred in which a really innocent man suffered the extreme penalty of death. Those who were executed generally confessed their guilt, and admitted the punishment to have been merited.”

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OREGON. Area,…………… Population in 1860…….. Population in 1870,……. THE State of Oregon is situated between 420 and 460 20’ N.

latitude, and between 116~ 31’ and 1240 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Washington Territory, on the east by Idaho Territory, on the south by Nevada and California, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It is about 395 miles long, from east to west, and about 295 miles wide, from north to south. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the eastern part of the State, lying between the Cascade Range and the Snake River, is mostly an elevated plateau, broken by mountain ranges. The western part, lying between the ocean and the Cascade Range, is mountainous. “The Coast Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, traversing California, continue northward through Oregon; the latter, after leaving California, are named the Cascades. Near the southern boundary the chain throws off a branch called the Blue Mountains, which extend niiortheastwardly through the State, passing into Washington and Idaho. The course of the Cascades through the State is generally parallel with the shore of the Pacific, and distant therefrom an average of 110 miles. In California, the direction of the Coast Mountains and coast valleys is that of general parallelism with the sea-shore; the mountains sometimes approaching close to the shore, and then receding miles from it, leaving belts of arable land between them and the ocean. In Oregon, the Coast Range consists ot a seies 1061 95,274 Square Mil-s.

52,465 90,923 !

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1062 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of high ]ands running at right angles with the shore, with valleys and rivers between the numerous spurs having the same general direction as the highlands.” * The western part of the State is the only inhabited and regularly organized portion. It is thus described by a writer thoroughly familiar with it: “Western Oregon, between the Cascades and the Pacific, is made up chiefly of three valleys, those of the Willamette (pronounced Willam’-ette), Umpqua, and Rogue rivers. The first named stream begins in the Cascade Mountains, runs west 60 miles, then turns northward, runs 140 miles, and empties into the Columbia. The last two begin in the Cascades, and run westward to the ocean. There are, perhaps, several thousand miners, including Chinamen, in the Rogue River Valley; but nearly the whole permanent farming population is in the Valley of the Willamette. This valley, taking the word in its more restricted sense of the low land, is from 30 to 40 mniles wide, and 120 miles long. This may be said to be the whole of agricultural Oregon.

It is a beautiful, fertile, well-watered plain, with a little timber along the streams, and a great deal in the mountains on each side. The soil is a gravelly clay, covered near the creeks and rivers with a rich sandy loam.

The vegetation of the valley is composed of several indigenous grasses, a number of flowering plants and ferns, the latter being very abundant, and exceedingly troublesome to the farmer on account of its extremely tough vitality. The tributary streams of the Willamette are very numerous, and their course in the valley is usually crooked, as the main stream itself is, having many’sloughs,”bayous,’ or’arms,’ as they are differently called. In some places the land is marshy, and everywhere moist. Drouth will never be known in western Oregon; its climate is very wet, both summer and winter, the latter season being one long rain, and the former consisting of many short ones, with a little sunshine intervening. The winters are warm, and the summers rather cooltoo cool for growing melons, maize, and sweet potatoes. Wheat, oats, barley potatoes, and domestic animals thrive well. The climate, take it all in all, is much like that of England, and all plants and animals which do well in Britain will prosper in Oregon. The Oregon fruit is excellent, particularly the apples and plums; the peaches and pears are not quite so good as those of California.

All along the coast of * Report of the General Land-Office.

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OREGON. Oregon, there is a range of mountains about 40 miles wide, and they are so densely timbered with cedar, pine, spruce, and fir, that the density of the wood alone would render them worthless for an age, if they were not rugged. But they are very rugged, and the Unmpqua and Rogue rivers, in making their way through them, have not been able to get any bottom lands, and are limited to narrow, high-walled canlons. The only tillable lands on the banks of those rivers are about 50 miles from the sea, each having a valley which, in general terms, may be described as 12
miles wide by 30 long. Rogue River Valley is separated from California by the Siskiyou Mountains, about 5000 feet hig,h, and from Umpqua Valley by the.Canion Mountains, about 3000 feet high; and the Umpqua again is separated from the Willamette Valley by the Calapooya Mountains, also about 3000 feet high. All Oregon-that is, its western division, except the low lands of the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue valleys-is covered with dense timnber, chiefly of coarse grained wood such as fir, spruce, and hem lock. Iii the southwestern corner of the State, however, there are consideralble forests of white cedar-a large and beautiful tree, pro ducing, a soft, fine-grained lumber, and very fragrant with a perfume, which might be imitated by mixing otto of roses with turpentine. Oak andl ash are rare. Nearly all the trees are coniferous. In Rogue Valley and along the beach of the Pacific, there are extensive gold diggings. There are also large seams of tertiary coal at Coose Bay. These are the only valuable minerals in the State. The scenery on the Columbia is grand, from Wallawalla, where it first touches Oregon, to the oceanI. There are five mountain peaks in the State, rising( to the region of perpetual snow: IMoulnt Hood, 13,700 feet high; Mount Jefferson, 11,900 feet lligl; the Three Sisters, Mount Scott, and Mount MIcLaughlin, all about 9000 feet high.” The Coltmbia River, already described, forms the principal part of the northern boundary of the State. It receives the waters of the ~AVallawalla, Umlatilla, John Day, and Falls rivers, east of the Cascade Range, and those of the Willalmette, west of it. The Rogue an(l Umpqua rivers empty into the Pacific Ocean. The lower part of the Columbia forms a fine bay, and affords an excellent harbor. It is navigable to the falls for large vessels, and above themi for a considerable distance for steamers. The Willamette is navigable to Portland for ships, and for 80
miles above the falls for small steamers. The Umjpqua is navigable for 25
miles for small steamers, and its nmouth forms a harbor fqr vessels drawing 12 feet of water. There are several small lakes in the State. 1063
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1064 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. AN OREGON VALLEY. MINERALS. Oregon is principally an agricultural State, buit mining is growing in importance.

Gold exists in the State. The deposits of copper are almost inexhaustible, and there are considerable deposits of coal in the Valley of the Williamette. CLIMATE. The climate is mild along the coast, but increases in severity as one proceeds eastward. The winters are very irregular, but are usually short and mild. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the eastern part of the State, much of the land is unfit for cultivation. In Western Oregon, the lands in the valleys are among the most fertile in America, and produce large crops. In 1869, thle agricultural resources of the State were as follows: Acres of improved land (estimated),…. Bushels of wheat,………….. ” rye,……………. OatS…………..***..

buckwheat,……… ” Indian corn,………… ” barley,………. Irish potatoes……….. 1,000,000 1,750,000 5,200 500,000 8,000 200,000

200,000 500,000

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OREGON. Tons of hay……. Number of horses,…. ~’ asses and mules, “; milch cows,.. ” slheep,…. “ swine,…. ” young cattle,. Value of domestic animals, ……. …… ……. asses~~~~~~~ a~i mues………….1,~ much~~~~~~~ cos……… 79 31 ……. ………

COMtMERCE. Oregon has some direct trade with Europe, South Amrerica, and the Sandwvich Islands, but her principal tranlsactions are with San Francisco, between which city and Portland (Oregon), a line of fine steatmslips plies regularly. The exports are lumber, stock, hogs, beef, butter, eggs, chickens, pork, flour, and fish. Cattle raising forms an important part of the industry of the State, and large droves are annually driven into California for sale. Manufactures arc still unimportant. The annual product is about $6,877,387. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The internal improvements of this State consist of the works that have been erected by a private corporation for the improvement of the navigation of the Columbia River, and the railroads built around the falls of that stream, and connecting the successive stages of navigation. There are 159 miles of railroad within the State. The princip)al i.s that of the Oregon Central Railroad, evhicli is to extend from Portland to the C?ilifornia border, where it will ultimately connect with a road from San Francisco. It has been completed fromi Portland to Salem. EDUCATION. There are three colleges in the State. The principal of these is the Willamette University, at Salem, which is uinder the charge of the Methodist Church.

It is an excellent institution, and has an endowment of $3,000(. The common school system is similar to that of the Eastern States. The Superintendent of Pub)lic Instruction has the general supervision of the schools. The counties have each a Local Superintendent, and each district is governed by its Board of Trustees. A school fund has been established, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. Measures are o’ foot for the establishment of a State University. 1065 75,000 49,800 1,560

79,312 101,960 112,700 140,500 $7.946,255

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1066 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1870, there were 594 public schools in the State, with 29,822 pupils. Ill thile same year, there were 2361
libraries in Oregon, containing 334,959 volumes. The number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows: 4 daily, 26 weekly, and 5 monthly, making a total of 35, with a total annual circulation of 3,657,300 copies. PUBLIC

INSTITUTIONS. The Penitentiary is located at Portland, and is a flourishing institutionI. The convicts are confined in temporary quarters, due regard being had to their safe keeping, and are required to labor on the public buildings. Measures are being taken for the erection of buildings for charitable and benevolent purposes by the State, and as soon as the pecuniary condition of the Comnmonwealth will permit it, these institutions will be provided(. At present the insane and idiotic are cared for by private persons at the expense of the State. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 135 churches in Oregon. Tile value of church property was $471,100. FINANCES. In September, 1874, the total State debt was $596,256. During the two fiscal years extending from September 5th, 1872, to September 5th, 1874, the receipts of the Treasury were $628,775, and the expenditures for the same period $663,193.

GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States who has resided in the State six months, and every male foreigner who has lawfully declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, who is twentyone years old, and has resided in the State one year, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate.(of 16
members), and a House of Representatives (of 34 members), all

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OREGON. chosen by the people. The State officers and Senators are elected for four years, and Representatives for two years. The general election is held in June, and the Legislature meets biennially in September. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court and five Circuit Courts. The judges of the Supreme Court are five in number, and are also judges of the Circuit Courts. They are elected by the people for six years. The seat of Government is located at Salem. The State is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. Oregon was known to various navigators during the 17th and 18th centuries, but the first white man who entered it was Captain Robert Gray, of the ship Columbia, of Boston, who on the 7tl-h of May, 1792, entered and explored the lower part of its principal river, to which he gave the name of his ship. On his return home he published a (description of the river and its valley, which aroused so much interest on the part of the Government, that in 1804 an exploring expedition was sent out across the Continent, under Captains Lewis and Clark, of the United States army. The explorations of this party extended through the years 1804 and 1805, and made known for the first time the vast region watered by the Columbia. In 1811, the Amierican Fur Company, of which John Jacob Astor was the leading nmember, established a post for trading purposes at the mouthll of the Columibia River, and called it Astoria. It was the design of the Company to make this place an important city, in course of time, but this part of their project failed, and they sold the post to the Northwest Company (of England), to save it fionom capture during the war of 1812-15. Having thus secured a lodgement on the Columbia, the British claimed the whole country. The United States, on the other hand, claimed the region now known as British Columbia, and a serious controversy set in between the two powers. In 1846, however, a treaty between the United States and Great Britain adjusted the lifficulty. The United States weakly surrendered the greater part of our claim, and the present northern boundary of Washington Territory was fixed as the northern boundary of Oregon. Emigration to the Territory began in 1839. In 1850, there 1067

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1068 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. were about 3000 settlers. The gold excitement in California drew off many, but Congress by a liberal offer of lands induced a sufficient number to remain, to prevent the country from relapsing into its wild state. From this time the Territory grew slowly but steadily. On the 14t11 of August, 1848, Oregon was organized as a Territory, and on the 2nd of Marclh, 1843, the northern half was erected into a separate establishment, and called Washington Territory. In Novembl)er, 1857, a State Constitution was adopted by the people, and on the 14th of February, 1859, Oregon was admitted into the Union as a sovereig,l State. The Indians for a long time caused great trouble to the people of Oregon, and greatly hindered its growth. They have now ceased their depradations, and the State is growing in population and in material prosperity. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal places in the State are, Portland, Oregon City, Albany, Corvallis, and Eugene City.

SALEM, The capital of the State, is situated in Marion county, on the right or eastern bank of the Willamette River, 50 miles south-southwest of Portland, and 710 miles north of San Francisco. Latitude 44~ 56’ N., longitude 123~ 1’ WV. The city lies in a rich prairie country, in the midst of some of the most beautiful scenery of the State. It contains the State buildings, 6 or 7 churches, 4 hotels, a theatre, 2 newspaper offices, and several schools. It is the seat of the Willamette University.

It has 1 woollen mill, 1 flour mill, 3 saw mills, 2 machine shops, and 1
foundry, in successful operation. Travellers who have seen it, describe it as one of the prettiest and most enterprisinig towns on the Pacific coast.

The Willamette is navigable to Salem for small steamers during the season of high water, or for about 9 months in the year. In 1870, the population was 2842. PORTLAND, The largest and most important city of the State, is situated in Multiiomah county, on the left or west bank of the Willamette River, 15 miles from its mouth, 50 miles north-by-east of Salem, and 120
miles

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OREGON. from the mouth of the Columbia River. The city is beautifully situated in a lovely country, and is well built, the houses being mostly of wcod. It stands on a plateau, which gradually increases ill height as it recedes from the river, until it forms a range of hills at the western extremity of the city. From the summit of this range a magnificent view is obtained of Mounts HTood, Jefferson, and St. Hielen, of the Cascade Range, and the windings of the Willamette anrd Columbia rivers. Portland contains 4 or 5 churches, several schools, 3 newspaper offices and a public library. It is the seat of the State Penitentiary and the Insane Asylum.

The Oregon Iron Works and 2 assay offices are located here. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, and in 1870, it contained a population of 8293.

Portland lies at the head of ship navigation on the Willamette, and is the centre of a large and growing trade, with the miagnificent region to the north and northwest of it. It has telegraphic coimmunication with San Francisco, and is connected with Sacranmento by a line of daily stages.

Upwards of 20 river steamers ply betweeil Portland and the various towns on the Columbia and Willamette rivers. A line of steamships connects the city with San Francisco. Says MAIr. Samuel Bowles, in his “New West:”

“Ships and ocean steamers of the highest class come readily hither; from it spreads out a wide navigation by steamboat of the Columbia and its branches, below and above; here centres a large and increasing trade, not only for the Willamette Valley, but for the mining regions of Eastern Oregon and Idaho, Washington Territory on the north, and parts even of British Columbia beyond. Even Salt Lake and Montana, too, have taken groceries and dry goods through this channel, such are the attained and the attainable water communications throulgh the far-extending Columbia.

“Tlle population of Portland is now from eight to ten thousand, who keep Sunday with as much strictness almost as Puritanic New England does, which can be said of no other population this side of the Rocky Mountains, at least. Whether this fact has anything to do with it or not, real estate we found to be very high in Portland, $400 a front foot for the best lots, 100 feet deep on the main business street, without the buildings. In religion, the Methodists have the lead, and control an academic school in the town, and a professed State University at Salem; the Presbyterians are next, with a beautiful church and the most fashionable congregation. 1069

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COLORADO. Area,……….. 104,500 square miles. Population in 1870,……. 39,864 THE State of Colorado lies between 37~ and 41~ N.

latitude, and between 102~ and 109~ W. longitude. It is about 375 miles long, from east to west, and 275 miles wide, from north to south.

TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is mountainous. Here are to be found some of the highest peaks of the Rocky Mountain range, which passes, firom the north to the south, through the middle of the State. “The average height of these mountains is 12,000 feet, though many of the peaks rise from 2000 to 5000 feet higher. The foot hills flank the range on either hand to a distance of fifty miles; to the eastward subsiding into the plains; to the westward sloping to the base of other and continuous ranges of lesser height, which fill the spaces thence to the Pacific. This majestic range holds within its folds the North, South, Middle and San Luis Parks, immense areas of level land-surrounded by snowy mnountains-each having a soil, climate and geological formation peculiar and distinctive. The plains imperceptibly slope fro’n the base of the mountains, which rise abruptly from them to the Missouri river; presenting a smooth, undulating, surface, destitute of timber, save in the valleys of the watercourses, and upon the high land, which near the mountains divides the waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers.” The Platte and Arkansas rivers rise near the centre of the State, and drain the eastern part. From the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains flow the Tampa, or Bear river, the Bunkara and Gunison rivers. The Bunkara and Gunison unite in the western part and form the Grand river, which is a branch of the Colorado.

The Rio Grande rises in the southern part of the State, and flows southward. 1070

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COLORADO MINERALS. Colorado is very rich in mineral deposits. Gold and silver are abundant in the central part among the mountains. Copper, iron, coal, salt, limestone, and gypsum also exist in large quantities. The gold mines have thus far almost monopolized the attention of capitalists. There is a branch of the United States Mint at Denver, at which large quantities of the precious metals are assayed. “The mountain region,” says a pamphlet, published by the Denver Board of Trade, “contains mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead, which are destined, under the influence of capital and cheap labor, to give to the American people for all time the monetary supremacy of the commercial world. The mineral belt extends the whole length of the range, and includes thirty miles of each of its flanks, making an aggregate of 14,000 square miles of mineral land. Iin the two counties of Gilpin and Clear Creek, alone, not less than 12,000
distinct lodes have been discovered and recorded, and it is safe to say that of this number there are not less than 100 capable of annually yielding, under favorable circumstances, such as the completion of projected railroads will secure, $500,000 each, a total of $50,000,000.”

The State is deficient in timber. In the eastern portion are extensive sandy plains, covered with a thick growth of the wild sage and prickly pear. Large herds of the buffalo, elkl, antelope, and deer roam over the unsettled portions of the State. The bear is also found in the mountains, and along the lakes and marshes arc to be found wild ducks and geese.

CLIMATE. “The climate of Colorado varies with its height, both as to temperature and the amount of rain and snow. The climate of that portion lying at the base and east of the mountains is not only delightful but remarkably healthy. The frosts come, generally, early in the autumn, and continue far into the spring months; but they are not severe. On the plains the snows of winter are never sufficient to prevent cattle of all kinds from thriving and fattening on the nutritious grass dried up and thus cured by nature in July and August. Throughout the winter months, with rare exceptions, the sun blazes down with an almost tropic glow, little or no snow falls, and although the nights are sometimes sharp and frosty, there is no steady intensity of cold. With such a climate Colorado could not well be otherwise 1071

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1072 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. than healthy. The sanitary condition of the State is good, and the number of deaths, considering the labor and exposure to whichl the great majority of its inhabitants are subl)jected, remarkably smlall.” SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. “In a country so remote fronm the agricultural districts of the States, and where the expense of transporting supplies is so heavy, the need of home productions is necessarily very great. The rather scanty opportunities which Colorado presents as a field for agriculture have been, however, improved to the utmost. An extensive system of irrigation has been introduced, which, it is thought, will relieve the settlers from lack of rain, and other difficulties which have hitherto limited agricultural progress. As regards the production of grain, the crops on the various branches of the South Platte, Arkansas, Fontaine que Bruille, afiord encouraging prospects. “In the southern part of the State, considerable attention has been paid to the raising of wheat, corn, barley, and other cereals; but the continuance of dry weather presents a foirmidable obstacle to great success in this direction. The bottom lands of the Platte river, and other mountain streams, have a rich alluvial deposit, which only requires water at long intervals to promote an astonishing vegetable growth. All the succulent varieties of plants, such as potatoes, cabbages, onions, squashes, etc., attain an enormous size, retaining the tenderness, juiciness, and sweetness which almost everywhere else belong, only to the smaller varieties. The wild fruits of the State are also numerous and abundant. It is believed that Colorado will, in a few years, be able to supply her own home demand for the necessaries of life. As a grazing and stockraising region, Colorado possesses great advantages. Near the base of the Rocky ranges, and along the valleys of the streams which have their origin in the mountains, vegetation is prolific. The grasses are not only abundant, but they contain more nutriment than the cultivated species of the most prosperous agricultural districts of the Mississippi valley. These grasses cure standing, and cattle have been known to feed and thrive upon them throughout the entire winter months.” In 1870, Colorado produced 860,000
bushels of wheat, 575,000 bushels of corn, 825,000 bushels of oats and barley, and 800,000 bushels of potatoes. The entire wealth of the State has been stated at $50,000,000. During the year 1870, gold and silver were shipped

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COLORADO. from the Territory to the amount of $5,454,000. A School of Mines has been established at Golden City. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. The manufactures of Colorado are in their infancy. In 1870, the capital invested in them amounted to $2,835,605, and yielded an annual product of $2,852,820. The commerce of the State consists in the export of its mining products and of cattle, sheep and wool. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The Kansas Pacific and the Denver Pacific railways connect Colo rado with Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco. The railway system of the State is being rapidly developed. In 1874 there were 642 miles of railway witlhin the limits of Colorado. EDUCATION. Although so young a State, Colorado has an efficient system of public schools. The Superintendent of Public Education is appointed by the Governor for two years, and receives a salary of $1200
per aniium. There are 25 county superintendents. In 1874 there were 243
school districts, 180 schools, and 125 school houses, with an attendance of 7546. The State has also an agricultural college. RELIGIOUS

DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 47 churches in Colorado. In the same year the value of church property was $207,230. FINANCES. The finances of the State are in a prosperous condition. The annual expenses of the State government are fillly covered by the receipts of the Treasury. GOVERNMENT.

The government of the State consists of a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor and Adjuttant-General, elected by the people of the State. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 13 mnembers, and a House of Representatives of 26 members. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate 1073’. 10

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1074 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Courts, and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two Associates, appointed by the Governor of the ,State for a term of four years. For District Court purposes the State is divided into three districts, ill each of which a Justice of the Su preme Court holds the sessions. The Supreme and District Courts have chancery as well as common law jurisdiction. HISTORY. In 1859, gold was discovered in Colorado, in the vicinity of Pike’s Peak, and emigrants flocked to the Territory, and by 1860 it contained 34,277
inhabitants. In March, 1861, the Territory of Colorado was organized, being constructed of portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah. The Territory several times applied for admission into the Union as a State, but without success. At length Congress, oil the 4th of March, 1875, passed a bill, which received the executive approval, admitting Colorado into the Union as a State, making the thirty-eighth member of the confederacy. DENVER.

The capital of the State is thus described in the publication of the Denver Board of Trade, from which we have quoted: “Denver is beautifully situated on a plain, at the junction of Cherry Creek with thle South Platte, 12 miles from the foot of the mountains, with an altitude of 5000
feet above tide level. The population is about 6000. Men from the East gaze with astonishment on this compactly built, busy settlement, with the peculiarities to the full of a large city, standing in the’Great American Desert,’ 700 miles from what has hitherto been supposed the ultinma thule of inhabitable land on the Atlantic slope of the United States. “Among the public buildings there are six churches, several of them imposing brick structures, belonging to the Episcopal, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Congregational and Catholic societies respectively; two free and several select schools. It is connected with the East, with Central City and Georgetown, by telegraph lines, and is shortly to have the same communication with Santa Fe, New Mexico. “There are two firstclass flouring mills, run by water, capable of making several hundred sacks of flour per day; two planing mills, sash and door factories, gunsmiths’ and jewelry shops, cabinet manufacturers, upholsterers, etc.

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THE TERRITORIES. ALASKA. Area,………… 577,390 Square Miles.

Population,……….. 75,000 (including 65,000 lndians). THE Territory of Alaska comprises that portion of North Amerioa lying north of the parallel of 54~ 40’ N. latitude, and west of the meridian of 141~ W. longitude.

Within these limits are included many islands lying along the coast, and extending west from the main land. The boundaries are as follows: Commencing at 54~ 40r N. latitude, ascending Portland Channel to the mountains, following their summits to the 141~ west longitude; thence north, on this line, to the Arctic Ocean, forming the eastern boundary.

Starting from the Arctic Ocean west, the line descends Behrinig’s Strait, between the two islands of Krusenstern and Ratmanoff, to the parallel of 65~ 30’, and proceeds due north without limitation, into the same Arctic Ocean. Beginning again at the same initial point, on the parallel of 65~

30’, thence in a course southwest through Behring’s Strait, between the island of St. Lawrence and Cape Choukotski to the 172~ west longitude; and thence southwesterly, through Behring’s sea, between the islands of Attot and Copper, to the meridian of 193~ west longitude; leaving the prolonged group of the Aleutian islands in the possessions now transferred to the United States, and making the western boundary of our country the dividing line between Asia and America. “With the exception of the narrow strip extending in a southeast direction along the coast nearly 400 miles, and the remarkable peninsula of Alaska, it forms a tolerably compact mass, with an average length and breadth of about 600 miles each. Its greatest length, north and soutth, from the southern extremity of Alaska to Point Bar 1075 … so

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1076 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. row, is about 1100 miles; its greatest breadth, measured on the Arctic Circle, which passes throu,lgh Cape Prince of Wales, is about 800 miles; the longest line that can be drawn across the country is from Cape Prince of Wales to its southern extremity, latitude 54~ 40’, a distance of about 1603 miles. Estimated area, 394,000
square miles. The part of the mainland south of Mount St. Elias consists of a narrow belt, vlwhicll is continued along a mountain ridge parallel to the coast, and has nowhere a greater widthl than about 33 miles. ThIe interior of the country is very little known; but from several expeditions, it appears that throughout its western part it is elevated and uneven, while the p)art extending along the Arctic Ocean is invariably flat, with the exception of a small portion lying between 141~ and 152~ W.

longitude. Thie coasts of the mainland and the islands have almost all been carefully explored. The northern coast was first discovered in the course of the present century. Captain Cook, in 1778, during his last voyage, reached Icy Cape, latitude 700 20’ N., and 161~ 46’ W.; and it was supposed, from the large masses of ice there met with, even in summer, that further progress was impossible. In 1826, however, Captain Beechy proceeded east as far as North Cape, or Point Barrow, latitude 71~ 23’ 31”

N., longitude 156~ 21’ 32” W.; while at the same time the lamented Sir John Franklin, then Captain Franklin, traced the coast west fromn the mouth of the Mackenzie to Return Reef, latitude 70~ 26’ N., longitude 148~

52’ W. i’he intervening space between Point Barrow and Return Reef was first explored in 1837, by Dease and Simpson, officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company. “The whole of the northern coast of Russian America, from Demarcation Point west to Point Barrow, its northernmost extremity, stretches withl tolerable regularity in a w-est-nortlhwest direction, and is, with the exception of a small part in the east, a dead flat, often nearly on a level with the sea, and never more than from 10 to 20 feet above it. From Point Barrow the coast takes a uniform direction, from northeast to southwest, rising gradually towards Cape Lisburn, which is 850 feet high. It here turns south, forming, between the two large inlets of Kotzebue Sound and Norton Sound, the remarkable p)eninsula of Prince of Wales, which projects into Behring’s Strait, and terminates in an elevated promontory, forming the northwestern part of North America. From Norton Sound it turns first southwest, then south-southeast, becoming indented by several large bays, including those of Bristol Bay and Cook’s Inlet, on the opposite of the long and narrow peninsula of Alaska; and is lined almost throughout by

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ICEBERGS AS SEEN OFF THE NORTHERN SHORES OF ALASKA.

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ALASKA. several groups of large islands, of which the most important belong to the Aleutian, Kodiak, and King George III. Archipelagoes. The greater part of the coast last descrit)e(l is very bold, presenting a suc cession of lofty volcanic peaks.” The interior has been very little explored. The latest discoveries were nmade 1)y tlhe party engaged in surveying the route for the overland telegrapll to Russia. The coast line of the Territory is about 4000 miles in extent. Ineludi(Ing h bays and rivers it exceed(s 11,000 miles. The peninsula of Alaslka is 300 lniles in len,tlh, with all average breadth of 50 miles. The Altlrutiah Islands are tlhec strummits of a mountain range, which (xtends nortlhward( on the American coast, around thle head of Prince William and Cookl’s Inlet, and downi the peninsula of Alaska. They fornm a perfect curve soutliward, westwvar(l, and northward, firom the extremity of the p)eninsula to Behring’s Island, a distance of 1075 miles, and constitute the most wondverftll range of volcanic islands in the A’estern AVorldl. The six largest are all inhlabited. The southern sides of these islands are generally steep and wnithlout indentation, consequently the inhabitants dwvell on the north side, where tlle harbors are good. The islands have an area of fromn 350 to 1500 square miles. They are Ounimakl, Ounalasla, Oumlnak, Atklha,,, Amhllitlka, and AttoI. Ounalaska lhas 700 inhabitants; tl-he others each about half that numb-c-r. In Behlring’s Sea arc the islands of St. Lawrence and N-oumblak, each possessing an area of more than 2000 square miles. There are several rivers in tlhe Territory. The prin(ii)al streamin is the Yukon, whichl flows into lehring’s Sea., southl of Norton’s Sound. The Russians gave the name of KwIiclhpalc to the lowver part of this river. Lilke tlhe Mtississipp)i it discharges its waters throughl a tnlrll)crt of moutlhs, and its “delta” embraces nearly two degrees of latitule. It is 2000 mniles long, is navigal)le for nearly 1500
liles, and is fiee from ice l)etween thle m-iddle of AIay and( the middle of October. The mouLntains are highA and imposing. The hlei,ght of i Mount St. Elias is estimated at from 15i,000 to 18,000 feet. Althouglh situated 4() miles from the coast, it is seen at sea, at a distance of 100 miles ftioL tlhe land. Mount Fairweathler is 100 miiles to the southeast of it, and is almost as high. Several active volcanoes, some of which are 10,000
feet high, lie withlin thle Territory. The climate is variable, hnut is miilder thanl that of the same latitudes on tlhe Atlantic coast. ” The investigations vlwhich have attended and t(llowod the change in the political relations of the country, have 1079

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1080 0 T COUN` ND I RESOUR -— mw -~ - ~ A ~

?JAIVGAP,..,~>~-;;#:~~~?~~~ MOUNT ST. ELIAS. developed some new fitets with regard to it. The great extent of the Territory gives it a corresponding w~riety of climate, but the mean temperature is but little colder than that of Thine and New l3runswick, owing to the thermal cnrnnt f\~orn the shores of -~sia; the atmosphere is very h{imid, and a larc#-e quantity of rain falls in wii~ter The interior has been but Jitle explored, and is an aln~ost nI~hnon~n wilderness, the haunt of the In~lian~ and of the fur-bearing animals Along many of the streams there is an abundance of timber, mostly of pine. The ag~eulturaI resources of tfie country form a very inconsiderahle item in an account of its value as an acquisition to the United States, yet the districts along the eoast are capable of yielding, iii modcnite quantities, the cereal ~~`iii~5 and the more valuable vegetables of the temperate zone. The precious metals are known to exist there, but it is a fact of more i;nportanee that iron and coal are found ii coiisiden~ble abundance, and ~~n be obtained at no very great cxpease. Two mines have for some time been si~eeessfully worked on the leutian Islands, and, witi the iron works which they supply, are of great importance to vessels needing repair and in want of fliel. The principal value of the Tei~ritory of Al~ska, for tl)e pr~sent, wilt

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ALASKA. depend on its fisheries and its fuir productions. The sup)ply of furs is on thle (lecrease, owing to the active traffic whllich lhad been carried on in that comnmodity, but thle fisheries arc inexhaustible.

Salmon abound in the rivers, a(nd cod( and halibut onl the coasts. Whales and walrus are plentifill in thle seas to the south of Beliri,ng’s Strait.” There nre al)out 10,000 persons, besides I(ndians, in the Territory, including the military force stationed there. These consist of Amneri cans, wlho’have gone thlere silclee tlle purchase, Russians, Creoles, Kodlials, an(d Aleoots. The native or Indian inhabitants, some 65,000 in number, (dwell principally along the coast and rivers, where fish and game are plentifill. They learn qutickly, and exhibit a de cided aptitude for commerce and the mnechanic arts. They show great sklill in fis.Iiioning, their rude instruments of warfare and(l domes tic utensils.

aIny of them, however, are vagabondish, and bear an unenviable reputation.

There is as yet no organized civil government for the Territory. The Government of the United States mnaintains and exercises its authlority tlhrough the military force stationed at Sitka and other places. During, the last session of Congress, an unsuccessful effort was made to org,aIize Alaskla as a county of Washington Territory. Tlhis extensive Territory, formerly klnown as Russian America, was granted l)y the l,i)eror Pttul VIII., of Russia, in July, 1799, to a RuLssian-American Futr Company. In 1867, it was purchased by the United States from the Elmperor of Russia, for the sum of $7,200,000. In July, 1868, CongTress extended over tlhe Territory the laws of the United States relating to customs, commerce, and navigation, and establislhed a collection district. In August, 1868, the military district of Alaskla was established, an(d attached to thie Department of California. SITKA, or, NEv APCHANGEL, on the island of Sitka, is the seat of Governmenet. It contains a population of about 500

Russians, Cossacks, ind( Creoles, besides the garrison, and there are about 1000 Indiians in the vicinity. It has but one street, with straggling log houses. it contains the “Governor’s Hlouse,” now the headquarters of tl,e militarv commaiider, a Greek church(l, a Lutheran chapel, and tlhe b)iildings of the Russian-American Fur Cotmpany. The townI is situated on a low strip of land, the Governor’s THouse rising on a rolcky height 100 feet or so above the general level. S,ilow-(capp)ie(l aid peaked mountains, and thi(ckly wooded hills sur 66 11)81

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1082 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SITKA. round it, and Mount Edgecumbe, on Crooze Island, immediately opposite the town, an extinct volcano, 8000
feet in height, is the great landmark of this port-the most northern harbor on the Pacific shores of America. The coloring of the town is gay, and the surroundings picturesque. The houses yellow, with sheet iron roofs painted red; the bright green spire and dome of the Greek churci, and the old battered hulks, roofed in and used as magazines, lying propped up on the rocks at the water’s edge, with the antiquated buildings of the Russian Fur Company, give Sitka an original, foreign, and fossilized kind of appearance.”

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AR I Z ONA. Area,. *………. 113,916 square miles. Population in 1870,……. 9,658 THE Territory of Arizona lies between 31~ 20’ and 37~

N. latitude, and between 109~ and 114~ W. longitude. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 400 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, about 330 miles. It is bounded on the north by Utah Territory and Nevada; on the east by the Territory of New Mexico; on the south by the Republic of Mexico; and on the west by California and Nevada. A large part of the Territory is mountainous. Numerous ranges traverse it in a generally northwest and southeast direction. The principal ranges are the Sierra del Carrizo, in the northern part; the Mogollon Mountains, in the eastern part; the Pinaleno, or Pinon Llano mountains, in the southeastern part; Mt. San Francisco, in the northern part of the central portion, and the Aztec Mountains, in the west. As a general rule, the surface of the Territory is elevated and mountainous, and a large portion is believed to be of volcanic origin. It also contains a number of extensive plains without trees. The principal rivers are the Colorado, which forms a part of the northern and western boundaries, the Little Colorado, the Gila, which flows westward across the southern part of the Territory, the Santa Cruz, the Bill Williams Fork of the Colorado, the Rio Verde, the Rio San Pedr)o, and the Rio Salinas. The Colorado is navigable for steamers for about 600 miles within the limits of Arizona. Its navigation is difficult and dangerous, however, in consequence of the force of the current, and the frequent shifting of the channel. In spite of these obstacles the water communication which it furnishes from por 1083

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1084 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tionis of New MAexico, Arizona, Nevada, an(d Utah, to the sea, is of the greatest valne to those regions.

Gold, silver, copper, mercury, and lead, are found in the Territory.

Valuable silver mintes are worhed in the central and southern portioins of Arizona, especially along the Colorado and Gila rivers. The great drawl)aclks to the success of mining enterprises in this Territory are the scarcity of water in the vicinity of the mines, and the ]hostility of the Indians. It is believed that the mineral wealth of Arzona very largely exceeds the discoveries tlhat have tlhus far been made. A very large part of the land is utterly barren. The b)asin of tho Colorado consists of elevated table-landcs, broken by mountain rangies. The valleys of these rang,es are fertile. Southl of the Gila, and west of the 112th meridian, the countrD is sandy, and not generally fertile, except along the river.

In other portions, there are n)any rich valleys and febrtile prairies, containing millions of acres, and( prolucing wheat, l)arley, oats, tol)acco, vegetal)les, an(d fruits. Cotton and sugar grow well in the south, and grazi(ng lands, of the finest quality, re abundanlt. W7ood is scarce thlroi,ghoLt the Territory, and(l, in many parts, i;; e’tirely absent. In the northl-central portion is a large forest of yellow pinie, intersperse(l with oakl. Cottonwood grows along the sl,,ores of the streams. In tie southeast part growvs a low, stunLted tree, called tlle MIezqoit. It is of no use for building, but is sa(id to be valuable for mining, purposes. AZTEC.IOUNTAINS.

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Ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ‘II (i0 n I I;p~” .1 allies,, , il i

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A _ _ 1\ A REST ON THE PRAIRIt, J

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ARITZON’A. A Thle climate is mild. In southlern iArizonia, and along a portionI of tie Colorado, the stummiers are too warm to allowv the perfolrmance of’ w-)ork in the ol)pen air. In the central portion the sun is rarely so (o)l)rcssiv\e. In tlhe Imountain re(gions the 1iglhts are always cool. Snuo, falls iIl the central and nortlhern portion, buut does not remain long ul)on the,round. The Territory is sparsely illnhabitedl, the settlements being confined to the southern )ortion. Its p,opulati()n in 1870 is no latgIer than t1lat of 18S50 The inhlabit,ants consist of Anicrican settlers, miners, Sp%anisli, half-bree(ls, and Ii(l’lans. Tlh(e to-wns are built chlefly of e, or suLni-drie(l blicks, and bearI) a close resembl)ance to thie Ilexican towns, lhaving l)btt few marks of Amnerican civilizationl about t llem. The greate(st ob)stacle to thle settlenmelnt of the Territory has l)een thle merciless depredations of the Apleaclee Indians. The military fo)rce of the United States stationed in the Territory is small, and the l)eople are obliged to pI)rotect thlemselves by volunteer companies. Tlhe (Covernoi, in his last mnessage, urg,es the people to formi miilitary comnpanies in all the settlements, and to exterminate the Apachecs as fnr as possible. ‘Thlere are no railways or telegraphs, and no pulilic schlools in the Territory. The Governor aind Secretary are appointed by tile Presilent. Thle Legislature and other officials are all elected by the people. The principal towns iare Tucson, containing 3000 inhabitants, Prescott, with 1200 inhabitants, and Arizona City, with a population of 600. They are all wretchled places, built of adobe, and filled( with dirt and half civilized people. Ross Browne thus describes Tucson: “A city of miud boxes, dingy and dilapidated, crackled and bakled into a composite of dust and filth; littered about with broken corrals sheds, bake-ovens, carcasses of dead animals, and broken pottery; barren of verdure, parched, naked, and grimly desolate in the glare of a southern sun. Adobe walls without whitewash inside or outt, hard earthen floors, baked and dried Mexicans, sore-backed( burros, Coyote dogs, and terra-cotta children; soldiers, teamsters, and honest miners lounging about the meseal shops, soaked with thle fiery poison; a noisy band of Sonoranian buiffoons, dressed in theatrical costume, outting their antics in the public places to the most diabolical din of fiddles and guitars ever heard; a long train of Government wagons preparing to start for Fort Yuma or the Rio Grande-these are what the traveller sees, and a great many things mnore, but in vain he lools f(r a hotel or lodging house. 1097

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D A K OT A. Area,………………. 152,000 Square Miles Population in 1870…….. 14,181 THE Territory of Dakota lies between 43~ and 49~ N.

latitude, and between 96~ 25’ and 104~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by Nebraska and Colorado Territory, and on the west by Montana and Wyoming Territories. It is about 400 miles long, from north to south, and nearly as broad. A recent Report of a Committee of the Legislature of Dakota, thus speaks of the Territory: “The Territory occupies the most elevated section of country between the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; forming, to a great extent, the watershed of the two great basins of North America-the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers, and the tributaries of Hudson Bay. Thus within the limits of Dakota are found the sources of rivers running diametrically opposite; those flowing northward reach a region of eternal ice, while those flowing southward pass fromn the haunts of the grizzly bear and the region of wild rice through the cotton-fields and the sugar plantations of the Southerner, until their waters are mingled with the blue waves of the Gulf. “The general surface of the country east and north of the Missouri is a beautiful, rich, undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, or slough; traversed by many streams and dotted over with innumerable lakes of various sizes, whose wooded margins, and rocky shores, and gravelly bottoms afford the settler the purest water, and give to the scenery of the Territory much of its interest and fascination. West of the Missouri the country is more rolling, and generally becomes 1088

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DAKOTA. broken, hilly, and finally mountainous, as the western limits are reached and terminated by the Rocky Mountains. “The mlighty Missouri runs through the very heart of our Territoly, and gives us more than 1000 miles of navigable watercourse, thus giving Lus the facility of cheap water transportation, by means of which we can bear away the surplus products of our rich, luxuriant lands to Southern markets, and receive in exchange the trade and commerce of all climes and lands. “We have, located on the Missouri, Big Sioux, Red River of the North, Vermilion, Dakota, and Niobrara, millions and millions of acres of the richest and most productive of lands to be found anywhere within the bounds of the National Government. “We have, combined, the pleasant, salubrious climate of Southern Minnesota, and the fertility of Central Illinois.” The principal rivers are the Missouri, the Red River of the North, the Big Sioux, Big Cheyenne, and the White Earth. Concerning these streams, the Report quoted above proceeds as follows: “The Missouri River extends a thousand miles through the Territory, and is navigable for steamboats the entire distance, and hundreds of miles above. The country along the river is of unsurpassed fertility. The Big Sioux River is 200 miles long, a clear running stream of clear water, and cannot be surpassed for fertility of soil and the variety and luxuriance of its vegetation. The bottom lands on this stream are from a half to three miles wide, and bear an enormous growth of bluejoint grass, which makes hay of an excellent quality. The Big Cheyenne is a most important river, and has its extreme source west of the Black Hills, which its two main branches enclose. These forks are supplied by numerous streams from the mountains, and they unite in about longitude 102~ 20’, the river flowing into the Missouri in latitude 44~

48’. In its lower course there is fertile land on its banks, and there are considerable areas in and around the Black Hills. The Cheyenne River can be rafted, and the stream that comes from the hills could be used to drive the logs down the river, and thus a way is opened to this fine supply of timber. White Earth River has generally an open well-wooded valley, with fine soil and luxuriant grass. Any one who travels in Nebraska will always feel rejoiced when he reaches the banks of this beautiful stream. It is much resorted to by the Brul6s. It has numerous branches, the largest of which is called the South Fork. The pine on White River and its tributaries is nearly equal in extent to that on the Niobrara. This 1089 l

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DAKOTA. onimnittee of a yield of 104 bushels of potatoes from one and one fourtll bushels of seed, and corn at 100 busllels per acre. “Dakota is the finest field in the world for stock-growNing. It stands proiininent above all other countries as the best for the produc tionI of grass.‘Thel grasses,’ says Farrey,‘are proverb)ially iii p)erfec tion only in northern and cold regions. It is in the north aloine that we raise animials fi’rom meadows, and are enabled to keep themr ifat aid in good condition without grain.’ In none of the prairie districts of Nortlh Amierica are the native grasses so abundant and nutritious as on the plains and in the valleys of Dakota. This is sufficiently proved by the countless herds of buffalo that pasture thlrotlghouit the year, upon its plains, even north of the 49th parallel of latitude; a fact whlich suggests an equivalent capacity for the herding of domestie cattle. Horses and cattle roam (lduring summer and winlter over the prairies and through the woods, and( keep fat without housing or hlay. The wild grasses of Dakota are of miany varieties. The bluejoint of the valleys makes the best of llhay, and generally yields about three tons per acre. The gramnmia or )bufLflo grass of the upland prairies is so nutritious that horses will work all the time they are fed(l on it, witlhout any grain, and keep fat. All the wild grasses of Dakota are more nutritious than any of the tamne grasses; cattle becomie flitter by pasturing on it. When cut it shrinkls much less in curing for liay. It sel(lomi heats. There is no dust in the hay. Horses that eat it never have the heaves. The hay in appearance is green, and it smells much sweeter than tame hay. On the whole, it is superior either for pasturage or hay for horses, cattle, or sheep. Owing to the hlealthiness and the dryness of the climate of Dakota, sheep must do extremely well in Dakota.

We have no cold sleet-stormns here, that are so fatal to sheep in many countries. The Indians have always kept thousands of horses in this country, but never feed them hay in winter.” Among the animals found in and native to the Territory are the biuffalo or bison, the elk, antelope, deer, grizzly bear, black bear, wolf, raccoon, and muskrat. It is believed that the Territory is very rich in minerals. Valuable deposits of gold, silver, iron, and copper have been discovered. Coal also exists in considerable quantities, and the salt lakes in the northern part of the Territory furnish an abundant supply of salt. The Government is similar to that of the other Territories; it was organized by Congress in March, 1861. 1091

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DAKOTA. eonimittee of a yield of 104 bushels of potatoes from one and one tourtll bushels of seed, and corn at 100 bushels per acre. “Daklota is the finest field in tile world for stocl-growving. It stands prominenlt above all other countries as the best for the produc tion of grass.‘The grasses,’ says Farrey,‘are proverb)ially ill perfec tion only ill northern and cold regions. It is ill the north aloile that we raise animals froim meadows, and are enabled to keel) them fat and in good condition without grain.’ In none of the prairie districts of Nortl America are the native grasses so abundant and nutritious as on the plains and in the valleys of Dakota. This is sufficiently proved by thile countless herds of buffllo that pasture thlrotlghouit tilhe year, upon its plains, even north of the 49thl parallel of latitude; a fact which sugg,,ests an equivalent capacity for the herding of domestic cattle. Horses and cattle roaml during summer and winter over tihe prairies and through the woods, and keep fat without housing or hay. The wild grasses of Dakota are of’ many varieties. The bluejoint of the valleys mnakes the best of hay, and generally yields about three tons per acre. The gramma or b)uff’lo grass of the upland prairies is so nutritious that horses will work all the time they are fed(
oi it, witllout any grain, and keep fat. All the wild grasses of Dakota are mlore nutritious than any of the tame grasses; cattle becoime fatter by pasturing on it. \NThen cut it shrinkls mnuchl less in curing for lhay.

It sel(]omt heats. There is no dust in the hay. Horses that eat it never have the heaves. The hay in appearance is green, and it smells much sweeter than tamle hay. On the whole, it is superior either for pasturage or hay for horses, cattle, or sheep. Owing to the hlealthinless and the dryness of the climate of Dakota, sheep must do extremely well in Dakota.

We have no cold sleet-stormis here, that are so fatal to sheep in many countries. The Indians have always kept thousands of horses in this country, but never feed theni hay in winter.” Amtong the animals found in and native to the Territory are the buffalo or bison, the elk, antelope, deer, grizzly bear, black bear, wolf; raccoon, and muskrat. It is believed that the Territory is very rich in minerals. Valuable deposits of gold, silver, iron, and copper have been discovered. Coal also exists in considerable quantities, and the salt lakes in the northern part of the Territory furnish an abundant supply of salt. The Government is similar to that of the other Territories; it was organized by Congress in March, 1861. 1091

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1092 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. YANCTON, the capital, is situated on the left bank of the Missouri River, about 7 miles above the mouth of the Dakota or James River, and in the southeastern corner of the Territory. It is 60 miles northwest of Sioux City, in Iowa, the present terminus of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. It contains about 1500 inhabitants, 2
churches, 2 schools, 1 seminary (conducted by the Episcopal Church), and a newspaper office. IDAHO. Area,…… Population in 1870,. THE Territory of Idaho lies between 420 and 49~ N. latitude, and 1100 and 117~ W.

longitude. It is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by Montana and Wyoming Territories, on the south by Utah Territory and Nevada, and on the west by Oregon and Washington Territory. Its greatest length, from north to southl, is 480 nmiles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, is about 340 miles. The widest portion is below the southern boundary of MIontana. North of that the Territory varies in width from 40 to 60 miles. The surface is mountainous. The Rocky Mountains extend for 250 miles along the eastern and northeastern borders, and a curvilinear range, called the Bitter Root Mountains, continues the eastern border from the Rocky Mountain range to the northern part of the Territory. Freinont’s Peak is the highest point of the Rocky Mountain range in the United States, and has an altitude of 13,570 feet. It lies on the border between Idaho and Dakota. “The Snake River and its branches drain the whole Territory, except a portion, of about 120 miles long and 45 wide, in the extreme 96,000 Square Miles. 14,998 *…… …….

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IDAHO. A CANON IN THlE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. northern part, which is drained by Clark’s Fork of the Columbia an( its branches, and an irregularly-shlaped portion in the southeastern corner, which is drained by Green and Bear rivers. Bear River falls into Salt Lake, and Green River empties into the Colorado. This portion of the Territory has some farming and a large amount of good grazing lands, and is very scantily supplied with wood. No mines have been discovered in it. The principal branches of the Snake River in Idaho are the Clearwater, Salmon, Payette, Boise, and many small rivers and creeks, which, uniting, form a large river, with many falls and rapids and a current of great swiftness.” There are three lakes of considerable size in Idaho, the Coeur d’Aline, about 24 miles long and two or three wide, very irregular in forml; the Pen d’Oreille, a crescent-shaped lake, about 30 miles long and 5 broad; and the Boatman, about the same length and 6 miles wide. The Pen d’Oreille and Clark’s Fork are navigable for steamers for 80 miles. The Surveyor-General of Idaho, in his Report for 1867, thus speaks of the Territory: “The altitude of Idaho Territory, with its mountains and tablelands, renders the winters cold compared with the country lying west, but dry and healthy. The Boise, Payette, and Weiser valleys are sheltered and mild. The soil of the valleys is highly favorable to the growth of cereals and vegetation.

Extensive crops are raised whicre 1093

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1094 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. irrigation is practicable. The alkali land, lostly covered with sage brush, has proved well adapted to the raising of grain. Thle soil, reported seconld-rate, being decomposed granite, yields the heaviest crops. The extensive tablelands are covered witlh wild grasses and wild rye, and are valuable for grazing. Thle mountains are clothe(l with pine and fir timiber. The valleys are destitute of timber except a species of cotton\wood growing along the banks of the rivers. The valleys are depending upon the mountains at a hleavv cost for lumber and filel. “Gold is found on the headwaters of all the rivers. Richl placer mines have been profitably worked for years on the Clearwater and Salmton rivers. Extensive placer and quartz mines are found on the Boise River and its branches, emlbracing several districts.

MLany rich quartz lodes of gold and silver have been discovered and partially worked; their future development dependiing, upon the reduced cost of transportation and other expenses, vwhich thus flir have retarded the growtlh alnd prosperity of the country. The quartz and placer mines of O-wyhllee county, situated in the southwvest part of the Territory, have proved to b)e eminenitly rich so far as developed. Solie of the ledges are being workle(l with valuable machlinery, repaying the capital investe(d, thloughl at an enormous outlay. The quantity and quality of tlhe ore already abstracted are favorable indications of their future wiealthl.

Several thousands of gold and silver quartz claimrs have been taken up aind recorded, more or less prospected, but the hleavy expenses under whichl the miniers of this Territory have labored, has, in general, prevented their successful development. Tlhe near approacli of the Pacific Railroad(l to tlhe southern b)ordlers of the Territor) will materially reduee the cost of wvorking the mines, when the resources of the country will be more favorably brought into notice.” There are no railwvays in the Territory. The Northern Pacifi, Railway will cross Idaho from east to wvest when completed. The Levwis or Snakle Forkl of the Columbia River is navigable to Lewiston, ,Vn the western border, just above the northern boutndary of Oreg(on. This river furnishes the usual and most convenient route for persons and good(s entering L(lahlo. The public school systemrn has been in operatiotn for several years. There are about 20 schools in the Territory. These are limited to 8 or 9 counties. Thle.Government is similar to that of the other Territories. The Territorial prison is situated at Boise City. It does not pay expenses.

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INDIANS HUNTING BISON. I I ,;1,,,,, l(F

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~~~<; ____ 1’ GRITEAT SHOSHONIE FALLS.

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IDAHO. Tile Territory of Idaho was organized by Congress in Marell), 1863, out of portions of Oregon, Washington, \ebraska, and Utah Territories. In Mlay, 1864, tlhe Territory of Montana \vwas formed out of tlie eastern portion. The discovery of gold was the ilmmediate cane of tlle settlement of the Territory. The rich deposits of the preiouts metal drev large numtbers of settlers from Californiai, Oregon, a(l tlhe eastern settlements. In a short time the pop)ulation of I(allo llnum)ere(l 20,000.

This soon fell ofT, however, as the mining excitement l(l thle luore a(dventurou3 portion to other places. At present tlle p)o)pulationi consists larg,ly of settlers, who have comle into the Territory withl the intention of remaining there. The Territory is grolwingi ral)i(lly, and its permanent prosperity seems now placed on an assured ba si s. BOISE

CITY, or BOISf CITY, the capitad, is situated on tle east side of tlhe Boise Riiver, at the head of the fertile valley of the same .name, about 393 miles from Salt Lake City, in Utah. It has a beautifil location, is wNell lai( olit, and is one of the best built of the frontier towns.

Nearly all thle travellers and supplies for the Boise )Basin pass tlhroghl it; ileni(C it is a great staging centre. It is the principal commercial town in the southern part of the Territory, l)eiig situated between the Ovwyhee and Boise M\Iines. It contains about 2o00 or 3000 inlabitants, several churches and schools, and 3 -ew-spilapl)er offices. THllE INDIAN

TEPRIrTOlY. Area,…………… 68,991 Square M iles. Po)ulation in 1lS70,…. a…bout 17,00()0. TIE Indian Teriitorv consists of a tract of country set apart by tile United States as a pellrmaneit home for tlhe Indian tribes rem.oved thlther froanl eOft oft tle Mississippi’s w-ell as tlhose native to tlle Territory. it lies betwveea 33~ 3‘0’ and 370 N.

latitu(de; and between 9)~ O3’ and( 10(3~ M’. longitude. It is botunded on tlie Ino’thl by ‘ansss, on tlhe east 1y Missouri and Arkansas, onl tl(e sot,tli by Texas, o()II tlhe weSIt h). Tx (.. land New Mexico. 1097

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1098 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Territory is drained by the Arkansas and Red rivers and their tributaries. The Arkansas and Red are navigable for steamers for a part of their course, but the tributaries are too shallow for navigation. The greater part of the Territory is still in a wild state, and abounds in game. Vast herds of buffaloes and wild horses roam over its prairies. The antelope, deer, prairie dog, wild turkeys, and grouse are found. The United States Government has military stations at Fort Gibsor, on the Arkansas, Fort Townson, on the Red, and Fort Washita, on the Red River, but the Federal Government exercises no authority over the Indians except for the punishment of certain crimes commnitted by them against the whites. For this purpose, the Indian Territory is annexed to the Judicial Districts of the States of Missouri and Arkansas, that the offending Indians may be brought to trial before the United States Circuit and District Courts when sitting in those districts. The Indians are allowed to live under their own laws, and to follow their own customs and modes of life. Each tribe has its lands assigned and secured to it by the United States. Several efforts have been made to organize the Territory.

In the latter part of 1870, a general council of the tribes was held at OckmInulgee, at which a Constitution for the Territory, similar in its provisions and requirements to the Constitution of the United States, was adopted by an almost unanimous vote, subject to ratification by the people. This Constitution provides for a government and political system similar to our own, and confines its privileges to the Indian tribes of the Territory. In the new system the various Indian nations correspond with the States of our own Confederation. The principal tribes now occupying the Territory are the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creekls, Seminoles, Cherokees, and Osages. Some of these tribes-the Cherokees being the most improved-have made great advances in civilization, and have their towns, farms, schools, and churches, whilst others are fast falling into vagrancy. The United States Government holds in trust for these Indians the sum of $1,600,000, yielding an annual income of over $100,000. The tribes have ceded nearly 40,000,000 acres of their lands to the United States, and the organization of the Territory would open these to settlement. The chiefs oppose the movement.

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MONTANA. Area,………… 14.3,766 Square Miles. ‘Population in 1870,…… 20,594 TfIE Territory of Montana, with the exception of a small portion in the southwest, lies between 45~ and 49~ N. latitude, and 104~ and 116~ W. longitude. Its extreme length, fiorn east to west, is about 560 miles, and its extreme breadth, from north to south, about 320
miles. This is at the projection in the southeast portion. In other parts its average breadth is about 275 miles. It is bounded on the nortlh l)y British America, on the east by Daklota Territory, on the soutli by Wyoming and Idaho Territories, and on the west by Idaho. “Tlhe surface is generally mountainous. The great Rocky Mountain range extends across the Territory. Commencing at thle northern boundary tlhis ra.nge extends for a distance of about 200 miles in a soutlh-southeast directionl, and then describes a great curve towards the west until it touches the border of Idaho. From this point it extends along thle southwestern boundary of Montana for a distance of nearly 200 miles. The Bitter Root Mountains also formn a part of the western boundary. Minor chains of mountains occur in different parts of the Territory. The long valley of the Yellow Stone River, in the eastern p)art of \Montana, is reported to be fertile, and to be bordere(d on one or two sides )by grand walls of mountain. The valleys of t!ei extensive region, between the Yellowstone and the AMissouri, re si(l to )C le il)erally su)I)lie(d withl running water and forest trees, ailoli,g wicllh the p)ine anld cedlar are to be found. The pine, fir, and cedlar also abound on the Rocky Mountains an(] Bitter Root Mountains.‘The country bordering on the Jefferson Fork, the Gallatin Fork, and the Madison Fork of the Missouri,’ says Captain Mullan, 1099

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1100() OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ‘is among the most beautiful to be found west of thle Missisii)pi. Tle coutintry is a gently undulating prairie, dotted here and tlhere wNitli clumps of timhber. All the streanms are beautifiully firinged witlh forest grow-tl, tile soil is ricli, climate iiil(l and invig,orating, and all tlle elements for ill)p)y lhoies are here to be fotiund(.’ Thlle 1)rineii)al rivers are the Mtissouri, the Tellowstone, and Clark’s Fork of tlle Columbia ii vler. The Miss(Ourli rises near thle soiuthl\estern (orner of tlle Territory, and purstues a circuitous cou’rse thlrougIlout its whlole extent to the eastern h)or(ie,, A-where it passes into I)Dalota. About 5090 miles firom the source of the river, and( in the western part of thle central p)ortioll of tlhe Territory, are tlhe Great Falls of thie MAissoutiri, wlich ranlk next to those of Nia,gara in grandeur. Thley are described in the earlier pag,es of tlhis work. Thle climate is healthfull, and, witli an atmosphere devoid of htlmildity, is aldmirably calculated for those afflicted with diseases of the lungs, or any manner of rhleumLatic affections. The purity of the water, and the entire absence of all malarious influences, also render it well adapted to the invalid suffering fromt any causes lwhatsoever.

Professor G. C. SwA-allow, in 1867, thus siummned up the results of his investigations of the agricultural and mnineral resources of Montana: ” It certainly is one of the finest stock countries on the Continent. All the more important domestic animals and fownls do remiarlabl)ly well; horses, ltmules, and neat cattle are more hardy, and kleep in better condition on the native grasses than they do in the States on hly and grain. As a general rule thley winter well on the grass of the valleys and foot-lhills witlhout lhay or grain. The valleys fiurnislh a large area of natuiral meadows, 7whose products are equal to those of the cultivate(] meadows of the Mid(dle States. Beef fattened on th.e native pastures is equal to the best produced in the country. “Tlle small grains, wheat, rye, l)arley, and oats, produce as large an average yiel(l as in the most favored grain-producing States; 50 and( t) l) uslels to the acre are not uncommon vields fir Montana. Of tlhe llative fi.uits Nie have st b rr,ties lrs)l)erries, blueberries, servicel)erries, cllolCe-cherries, haws, cur’raints, and gooseberries, and tlhere is every reason to b)elieve that ap)les, pears, chieriries, plumis, quinces, blackb)erries, raspberries, straw)berries, currants, and gooseberries can be cultivated in our broad valleyvs as successfullly as in any of the mrother States. “All the more important root crops, such as potatoes, ruta-bagas,

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beets, carrots, turnips, radishes, and onions, and all the more import ant garden vegetables, are cultivated with great success. “Timber is abundant oni the mountain slopes and in some of the valleys. Five varieties of pine, two of fir, one of spruce, two of cedar, grow on the mountains and in the mountain valleys and canons; balsams, poplars, aspens, alders, and wvillowvs on the streams. The pines, firs, spruce, and cedars furnish an abundance of good timber for building, mining, and farming purposes. “The purest waters abound everywhere, in cool springs, mountain streams, meadow brooks, and clear, rapid rivers. Hot and mineral springs also occur.

Beautiful lakes, and magnificent waterfalls and cascades are numerous in the mountains. “Veins of gold, silver, copper, lead, and ironii are found in great numbers in nearly all the mountainous portions of the Territory.

So far as discovered, they usually come to the surface on the foothills and sides of the valleys and canons. A large portion of these lodes are true veins, cutting through granite, syenite, porphyry, trap, gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, talcose slate, argillaceous slates, sand stone, and limestone. These veins vary in thickness, from a few inches to 50 or 60 feet. The gangue or vein rock, called quartz by the miners here, is very variable in character. In the gold-bearing veins it is usually a whitish quartz, more or less ferruginous-often nearly all iron. In some veins it resembles a stratified quartzite; in others it is syenitic; pyrites, hornblende, calc-spar, arsenic, antimony, copper and tellurium, are found in these veins. In the silver veins the iron, so abundant in the gold veins, is usually replaced by oxide of manganese. This mineral is sometimes so abundant as to constitute the larger portion of the gangue.

The gangue in many of the copper mines is usually quartz, heavy spar, talc-spar, and brown spar, more or less commingled. “Many thousand lodes of gold, silver, and copper have already been discovered and recorded, and a large number of them somewhat developed. It is true, as well as in all other mining regions, that a large part of the lodes discovered cannot be worked with profit by the method usually adopted in new mining countries; but many of those which cannot now be profitably worked will become valuable wheil experience has shown the best methods, and when labor and materials can be had at ordinary prices. But there is a very large number of large and rich lodes, which will yield large profits even at the present prices of labor and material; and there is quite a number of lodes of 110L MONTANA. 67

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1102 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. A FRONTIER CITY. both go(l and silver already discovered which will rank among the largest and richest in the annals of mining. “This, like all new miniing districts, presents serious obstacles and difficulties in the-way of immediate success. These are obvious to all experienced men, and are expected in all such undertakings.

But all this and other hindrances to the filll success of our quartz-mining operations will soon be removed. They are evils which will naturally cure themselves. Better mills are now going into operation, better lodes are bought in larger quantities, good men are employed to manag,e, and owners of quartz property are offering better facilities for developing their lodes; capital is turned toward this source of wealth, and our best financiers are operating in Montana mining property. “The placer mines, though very extensive, and in some instances vastly rich, have not yielded so much as in former years. But many new and rich discoveries have been made, and large sums of money spent in conducting water to favorite localities, and we have every reason to believe that the placers will yield as many millions as in former years to those hardy toilers who have labored so faithfully and successfillly in securing this’golden harvest.’ “In conclusion, it may be stated with safety that Montana has the agricultural capacity for sustaining any population which her mines.

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NEW MEXICO. salubrious climate, and glorious scenery may attract to her fair land. Her mines are more numerous and more diffused than any other equal area on the globe, and they will prove as rich and yield as large profits as the most productive in this or any other country.” VIRGINIA CITY, the capital of the Territory, is situated on Alder Creek, a tributary of Jefferson’s Fork of the Missouri. It is tolerably well built for a frontier city, and contained a population of 867, in 1870. It contains a school, several churches, a newspaper office, and a theatre.

Stages connect it with the principal towns of the Territory. EMEXICO.

….. 121,201 Square Miles. ….. 91,874 Area, 1…… Population in 1870,. THE Territory of New Mexico lies between 31~ 20’ and 37~ N.

latitude, and between 103~ and 109~ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Colorado, on the east by Texas and the Indian Territory, on the south by Texas and the Republic of Mexico, and on the west by Arizona Territory. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 400 miles, and its breadth, from east to west, about 350 miles. The greater part of the Territory consists of high table lands broken by several ranges of mountains. The Rocky Mountains pass through the central portion from north to south. The Sierra Madre range passes through the western portion, and the southern and eastern parts contain several minor ranges, which diverge from the main chain of the Rocky Mountains and pass off into Texas. The principal river of New Mexico is the Rio Granlde del Norte, which, rising in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, flows from north to south across the Territory, between the Rocky and Sierra Madre, Mountains, draining an extensive valley. 1103 N E AV

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1104 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The habitable portion of the Territory is the Valley of the Rio Grande. Here the climate, owing to the great elevation of the valley, is temperate and constant. In the hotter portions of the day the mercury somnetimes reaches 100~, but the nights are always cool. Some of the highest mountains are covered wvithl perpetual snow.

Between July and October there are heavy falls of rain, but the atmosphere is in spite of this very dry. Thle ground is parched and hard during the greater part of the year. In consequence of thlis, the greater portion of the Territory is sterile. Except in a few regions notlhing can be done in the way of agriculture, and in almost every portion artificial irrigation is nesessary to produce the simplest crops. Many parts of the Valley of the Rio Grande, and the valleys of some of the other streams produce good crops of Indian corn, wheat, melons, grapes, apples, peaches, and apricots. The Indianis on the Gila cultivate cotton, wheat, corn, melons, and vegetables by means of irrigation. Irrigation, however, cannot always be depended on, as the water source is frequently destroyed by the evaporation of the streams. The valleys of the northeast portion of the Territory afford excellent pasturage, and the table lands, though unfit for agricultural purposes, are excellent for stock raising. They produce a peculiar grass, which the dry season cures instead of rendering it worthless. Cattle, sheep, mules, and horses find this excellent winter food. The Territory will probably never attain even a respectable position as an agricultural region, but it is destined to become & prominent place for stock raising. Only a small portion of the surface is wooded. Such hard woods as are found are of an inferior quality, and are limited in quantity. Animals are not as prolific here as in the other Territories.

Those found here are the deer, mountain sheep, wild hog, antelope, cougar, ocelot, lynx, brown bear, black bear, grizzly bear, coyote, wolf, mnarmnot, skunk, weasel, hare, rabbit, squirrel, beaver, and elk. Wild turkeys, geese, ducks and swans, are found. The Territory also contains a venomous species of the scorpion and lizard. It is probable that New Mexico will owe its future prosperity to its mines more than to any other source. It is said to be very rich in mineral deposits, especially in gold and silver, though very little has been done as yet towards the development of these resources. A great drawback to mining enterprises is the hostility of the Apachees, who infest a large part of the Territory.

Iron is found in abundance; also gypsum; coal is found in limited quantities, and there are salt lakes in the northeast portion.

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NEW MEXICO. SANTA FE’. The Government is similar to that of the other Territories, except that in New Mexico the power of the Government is but slight. The inhabitants are wild and lawless, as a rule, and are very low down in the scale of civilization. The condition of society is similar to that in Mexico. The Roman Catholic religion is the principal faith. SANTA Ft, the capital, is situated on the Rio Chicito, or Santa Fe River, about 20 miles from its confluence with the Rio Grande. It is the seat of an extensive overland trade with the Missouri River. It is wretchedly built.

The houses are constructed of adobe and are rarely more than one story in height. The inhabitants, with the exception of the few Americans residing or sojourning ill the place, are ignorant and degraded. The place bears an evil reputation as one of the most reckless and miserable towns on the globe. In 1870, the population was 4600. 1105

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U TAH. Area,…………….. 88,056 square miles. Population in 1870,……. 86,786 THE Territory of Utah lies between 370 and 42~ N.

latitude, and between 109~ and 114~ W. longitude. Its greatest length, front north to south, is 345 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 270 miles. It is bounded on the north by Wyoming and Idaho Territories, on the east by Wyoming and Colorado, on the southl by Arizona, and on the west by Nevada. “The Wasatch range of mountains divides the Territory diagonally northeast and southwest into two parts, the northwestern being much lager than that lying to the southward. The Wasatch range is high and rugged. Its lofty summits, covered with perpetual snow, probably have an altitude of 11,000 or 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. In a broad and elevated range, surrounded by countries rich in gold and silver, we should expect to find those metals.

But, so far as is known, no range of mountains on the western coast has been found rich in precious metals that has a trend to the northeast and southwest, and it may be considered problematical whether any mines of those metals will be found of great richness in the Wasatch Mountains. On the western side of the Territory are a number of small ranges, on the Goshoat and a number of others, that contain mines of gold and silver.

“The largest river is the Colorado, one of the longest in the United States. Of its capabilities for navigation, comparatively little is known, though, so far as explored, the reports are unfavorable. Its principal branches are the Green, Grand, San Juan, and Virgin rivers. These drain the southeastern portion of the Territory. On 1106

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UTAH. the north, Goose and Holmes’s creeks run into Snake River, but all the interior streams empty into lakes that have no outlet to the sea. Bear River and the Jordan empty into Salt Lake, besides many large creeks arid numerous smaller ones. “Salt Lake is about 120 miles long, north and south, and 40 miles wide, and contains several islands of considerable size, some of which are partially covered with timber. A steamer is now being built for the purpose of shipping the timber from these islands for the use of Salt Lake City. The lake is subject to sudden storms, and boat navigation is sometimes dangerous. Until the present time, no serious effort has been made to test its capabilities for navigation, but there is no doubt that the trade on this lake will, at some future period, be of considerable magnitude. The water is extremely salt. An analysis shows that it contains over 22 per cent. of solid matter. It is probable the lake once had an outlet to the ocean; and from the freshwater tertiary fossils found at Bear River, and at other points, it is almost certain that it then contained fresh water. Then, also, it doubtless contained many varieties of fish, but as the water grew salt, they gradually perished; and, so far as has been observed, it has no animal life in it at present. The cause of the extreme aridity of this country lies in the fact that it is surrounded by high mountains. The Sierra Nevada on the west, the Wasatch range on the south and east, and the Rocky Mountains on the north, completely encircle it. The wind coming from any quarter has its moisture absorbed in passing over the mountains. The absence of vegetation, the effect of this extreme aridity, also aggravates the droughts. The cultivation of these valleys, by covering them with crops and trees, may cause some change in the amount of rain-fall, and it is not unlikely that in the course of years the water in Salt Lake will be permanently higher than it is now. As the small rain-fall at present is due to the envirolninent of mountains, the inference is, that in former times they did not exist, and that this lake is older than the mountains; this conclusion appears to be warranted by our present knowledge of the facts. “Utah Lake, the source of the Jordan, is almost in the shape of a right-angled triangle, about 30 miles long, and 20 wide. The water is fresh. There are several other lakes, as Little Salt, Sevier Lake, and Goshoat.” The Territory is generally an elevated, mountainous, and barren region. The waters of the Great Basin have no apparent outlet, and either discharge themselves into the lakes already mentioned, or sink into the sands of the desert. 1107

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1108 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Agricultural pursuits are extensively carried on by means of the best system of irrigation on the Continent.

“Farmers in the Eastern States might learn much here that would be valuable to them. From a report of the Deseret Agricultural Society of January 11th, 1866, it appears that’there have been constructed 277 miain canals, in length amnounting to 1043 miles, 102 rods, at a mean width of 5
feet, 6 inches, and a mean depth of 2 feet, 2 inches, which water 153,949
acres of land, at a cost of $1,766,939, and there is in course of construction canals at an estimated cost of $900,000.”’ The efforts of the MIormon farmers have been well repaid, and their fruits, vegetables, etc., will compare favorably with those of any portion of the coun trv. Iron is found in large quantities in Iron and Beaver counties. Gold, silver, copper, zinc, and lead also exist, but it is believed that the deposits are small. Coal, both anthracite and bitumlinous, is found in limited quantities. Salt is yielded from the waters of Salt Lalke in unlimited quantities. It is becoming an article of export. Sod(la exists in vast beds in many parts of the Territory. The animals native to the Territory are the elk, deer, antelope, grizzly bear, mountain sheep, fox, and wolf.

The lakes abound in water fowl, and the mountain streams in excellent trout and salmon. The people of the Territory have gradually built up a system of manufactures which does imuch to supply their immediate wants.

They make their owvn cloth, grind their own flour, and provide many articles of domestic use. Besides its local commerce, Utah carries on an active trade with the settlemelnts in Colorado, Nevada, Idahlio, and Montana, off the line of the Pacific Railway. The Pacific Railway crosses the northern portion of the Territory from east to west. Ogrden, a few miles north of Salt Lake City, is the eastern terminus of the Central Pacific, and the western terminus of the Union Pacific Railways. There is a system of pub)lic schools, and the Mormons have established a University of Deseret. The education provided by the Mormon schools, however, is said to be arranged with a view to keeping the children within the fol(l of the Mormon faith. Utah was originally a part of Upper California. In 1848, it was ceded to the United States by Mexico, and, in 1847, was settled by the Mormons, who had been expelled from Nauvoo, in Illinois. They settled on the borders of Salt Lake, and founded Great Salt Lake City. They set up a Provisional form of Government, and gave to

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UTAH. THE TABERNACLE, SALT LAKE CITY. the Territory the name of the State of Deseret. In 1850, this form of government was abandoned, and the Territory of Utah was organized. The Territorial Government is similar to that of other Territories; but, besides this, the Mormon Church has a complete establishment of its own, of which Brigham Young, the Prophet, is the head or President. The Mormons, as a rule, pay little heed to the Territorial Government, but look to Young and the Twelve Apostles, as the chief dignitaries of the Church are called, in all things. The laws of the United States are executed with difficulty, and a vast amount of trouble has been given the Federal Government by the hostility and mutinous conduct of the Mormons. Just before the civil war, it became necessary to send an army into the Territory to compel obedienc(e to the laws.* It is believed, however, that the completion of the Pacific Railway will render the task of enforcing obedience to the laws comparatively easy for the General Government. * The reader is referred to the numerous works on Utahl and the Mormons, for an account of the history, religious belief, and political system of the Mormons. The limits of this work forbid such a narrative here. 1109

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1110 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GREAT SALT LAKE CITY, the capital of the Territory, is situated in Salt Lake County, on the east bank of the river Jordan, which connects Utahll ILake with the Great Salt Lake, about 22 miles east of the latter lake, and 4200 feet above the level of the sea. It was laid out in July, 1847. In 1870, it contained a population of about 17,000. William Hepworth Dixon tl)us sketches the city: “The site of the new city was laid between the two great lakes, Utah Lake and Salt Lake,-like the town of Interlachen, between Brienz and Thun,-though the distances are here much greater, the two inland seas of Utah being real seas when compared against the two charming lakelets in the Bernese Alps.

A river, now called the Jordan, flows from Utah into Salt Lake; but it skirts the town only, and, lying low down in the valley, is useless, as yet, for irrigation. Young has a plan for constructing a canal from Utah Lake to the city, by way of the lower benches of the Wasatch chain; a plan which will cost much money, and fertilize enormous sweeps of barren soil.

If Salt Lake City is left to extend itself in peace, the canal will soon be dug; and the bench, now covered with stones, with sand, and a little wild sage, will be changed into vineyards and gardens. The city, which covers, we are told, three thousand acres of land, between the mountains and the river, is laid out in blocks of ten acres each. Each block is divided into lots of one acre and a quarter; this quantity of land being considered enough for an ordinary cottage and( garden. “As yet, the temple is unbuilt; the foundations are well laid, of nmassive granite; and the work is of a kind that bids fair to last; but the Temple block is covered with temporary buildings and erectionsthe old tabernacle, the great bowery, the new tabernacle, the temple foundations. A high wall encloses these edifices; a poor wall, without art, without strength; more like a mud wall than the great work which surrounds the temple platform on Moriah. When the works are finished, the enclosure will be trimmed and planted, so as to offer shady walks and a garden of flowers. “The Temple block gives form to the whole city. From each side of it starts a street, a hundred feet in width, going out on the level plain, and in straight lines into space. Streets of the same width, and parallel to these, run north and south, east and west; each planted with locust and ailantus trees, cooled by two running streams of water from the hillside. These streets go utip north, towards the bench, and nothing but the lack of people prevents them from travelling onward,

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MAIN STREET, SALT LAKE CITY.

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UTAH. south and west, to the lakes, which they already reach on paper, and in the imagination of the more fervid saints. Main street runs along the temple front; a street of offices, of residences, and of trade.

Originally, it was meant for a street of the highest rank, and bore the name of East Temple street; upon it stood, besides the temple itself, the Council house, the Tithing office, the dwellings of Young, Kimball, Wells, the three chief officers of the Mormon Church. It was once amply watered and nobly planted; but commerce has invaded the precincts of the modern temple, as it invaded those of the old; and the power of Brigham Young has broken and retreated before that of the mloney-dealers and the venders of meat and raimnent. Bankls, stores, offices, hotels,-all the conveniences of modern life,-are springing iup in Maii street; trees have, in many parts, been cut down for the sake of loading and unloading goods; the trim little gardens, full of peach trees and apple trees, bowering the adobe cottages in their midst, hlove given way to shop-fronts and to hucksters’

stalls. In the business ortion, Main street is wide, dusty, unpaved, unbuilt; a street showing e three stages through which every American city has to pass: the log shanty, the adobe cot (in places where clay and fuel can be easily obtained, this stage is one of brick), and the stone house.

Many of the best houses are still of wood; more are of adobe, the sun-dried bricks once used in Babylonia and Egypt, and still used everywhere in Mexico and California; a few are of red stone, and even granite. The temple is being built of granite from a neighboring hill. The Council house is of red stone, as are many of the great magazines, such as Godbe’s, Jennings’, Gilbert’s, Clawvson’s; magazines in which you fin(l everything for sale, as in a Turkish bazaar, from candles and champagne, down to gold dust, cotton prints, tea, pen-knives, canned meats, and mouse-traps. The smaller shops, the ice cream houses, the saddlers, the barbers, the restaurants, the hotels, and all the better class of dwellings, are of sun-dried bricks; a good material in this dry and sunny climate; bright to the eye, cosy in winter, cool in summer; though such houses are apt to crumble away in a shower of rain. A few shanties, remnants of the first emigation, still remain in sight. Lower down, towards the south, where the street runs off into infinite space, the locust and ailantus trees reappear. “In its busy, central portion, nothing hints the difference between Main street in Salt Lake City, and the chief thoroughfare, say, of Kansas, Leavenworth, and Denver, except the absence of grog-shops, lager beer saloons, and bars. The hotels have no bars, the streets 1113

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1114 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. have no betting-houses no gaming-tables, no brothels, no drinking places. In my hotel-‘ The Salt Lake’-kept by Colonel Little, one of the Mornioni elders, I cannot buy a glass of beer, a flask of wineNo house is nlow open for the sale of drink (though the Gentiles swear they will have one open in a few weeks), and the table of the hotel is served at morning, noon, and night, with tea. In this absence of public solicitation to sip either claret-cobbler, whlliskey-bourbon, Toni and Jerry; mint-julep, eye-opener, fix-up, or any other Yankee deceptionI ill the shape of liquor-the city is certainly very much unlike Leaveinworth and the River towns, where every third house in a street appears to be a drinking den. Going past the business quarter, we return to the first ideas of Young in planting his new homte; the familiar lines of acacias grow by the becks; the cottages stand back from the road-side twenty or thirty feet; the peachl trees, apple trees, and vines, tricked out with roses and sunflowers, smother up the roofs. ” Pight and left from Main street, crossing it, parallel to it, lie a multitude of streets, each like its fellow; a hard, dusty road, wili tiny becks, and rows of locust, cottonwood, and philarea, and the buil(ling-land laid down in blocks. In each block stands a cottage, in the midst of fruit trees. Some of these houses are of goodly appearance as to size and style, and would let for high rentals in the Isle of Wight. Others are mere cots of four or five rooms, in which the polygamous families, should they ever quarrel, would find it difficult to form a ring and fight. In some of these orchards you see two, three houses; pretty Swiss cottages, like many in St. John’s Wood, as to gable, roof, and paint: these are the dwellings of different wives.‘Whose houses are these?’ we ask a lad in East Temple street, pointing to some pretty-looking villas.‘They belong,’ said he, ‘to l)rother Kimball’s family.’ Here, on the bench, in the highest part of the city, is Elder Hiram Clawson’s garden; a lovely gard(len, red with delicious peaches, plums, and apples, on which, through the kindness of his youngest wife, we have been hospitably fed during our sojourn with the Saints; a large house stands in front, in which live his first and second wives, with their nurseries of twenty children. But what is yon dainty white bower in the corner, with its little gate and its smother of roses and creepers? That is the house of the youngest wife, Alice, a daughter of Brigham Young. She has a nest of her own, apart from the other women,-a nest in which she lives with her four little boys, and where she is supposed to have as much of her own way with her lord as the daughter of a Sultan enjoys in the

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UTAH. harem of a Pasha. Elder Naisbit, one of the Mormon poets, an English convert to the faith, as it is in Joseph, lives with his two wives and their brood of young children, on the high ground opposite to Elder Clawson, in a very pretty mansion, something like a cottage on the Under Cliff. Much of the city is only green glade and orcllard waiting for the people who are yet to come and fill it with the pride of life. “In First South street stand the theatre and the City Hall, both fine structures, and for Western America remarkable in style. The City Hall is used as headquarters of police, and as a court of justice. The Mormon police are swift and silent, with their eyes in every corner, their grip on every rogue. No fact, however slight, appears to escape their notice. A Gentile friend of mine, going through the dlark streets at night towards the theatre, spoke to a Mormnon lady of his acquaintance whom he overtook; next day a gentleman called at his hotel, and warned him not to speak with a Mormnon woman in the dark streets unless her father should be with her.

In the winter months there are usually 700 or 800 mniners in Salt Lake City, young Norse gods of the Denver stamp; every man with a bowie-knife in his belt, a revolver in his hand, clamoring for beer and whiskey, for gaming-tables and lewd women, comforts which are strictly denied to them by these Saints. The police have all these violent spirits to repress; that they hold them in decent order with so little bloodshled is the wonder of every Western Governor and Judge. William Gilpin, Governor elect of Colorado, and Robert Wilson, sheriff of Denver and justice of the peace, have nothing but praise to give these stern and secret, but most al)le and effective, ministers of police. “With this court of justice we have scarcely made acquaintance. A few nights ago we met the judge, who kindly asked us to come and see his court; but while we were chatting in his anteroom, before the cases were called, some one whispered in his ear that we were members of the English bar, on which he slipped out of sighlt, and adjourned his court. This judge, when he is not sitting on the bench, is engaged in vending drugs across a counter in Main street; and as we know where to find him in his store, we sometimes drop in for soda-water and a cigar; but we have not yet been able to fix a time for seeing his method of administering justice at Salt Lake. “The city has two sulphur springs, over which Brigham Young has built wooden shanties. One bath is free. The water is refreshing and relaxing, the heat 92 degrees.

“:No beggar is’ seen in the streets; scarcely ever a tipsy man; and 1115

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1116 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the drunken fellow, when you see one, is always either a miner or a soldier-of course a Gentile. No one seems poor. The people are quiet and civil, far more so than is usual in these western parts. From the presence of trees, of water, and of cattle, the streets have a pastoral character, seen in no other city of the mountains and the plains. Here, standing under the green locust trees, is an ox come home for the nighllt; yonder is a cow at the gate, being milked by a child. Light mountain wagons stand about, and the sun-burnt emigrants, who have just comne in from the prairies, thankfill for shade and water, sit under the acacias, and dabble their feet in the running creeks. “More than all other streets, perhaps, Main street, as the business quarter, offers picture after picture to an artist’s eye; most of all when an emigrant train is coming in from the plains. Such a scene is before me now; for the train which we passed in the gorge above Bear River, has just arrived, with sixty wagons, 400 bullocks, 600 men, women, and children, all English and Welsh. The wagoins fill the street; some of the cattle are lying down in the hot sun; the men are eager and excited, having finished their long journey across the sea, across the States, across the prairies, across the mountains; the women and little folks are scorched and wan; dirt, fatigue, privationI, give them a wild, unearthly look; and you would hardly recognize in this picturesque and ragged group the sober Monmouth farmer, the clean Woolwich artisan, the smart London smith. Mule teamns are being unloaded at the stores. Miners from Montana and Idaho, in huge boots and belts, are loafing about. A gang of Snake Indians, with their long hair, their scant drapery, and their proud reserve, are cheapening the dirtiest and cheapest lots. Yon fellow in the broad sombrero, dashing up the dust with his wiry little horse, is a Nevw MIexican; here comes a heavy Californian swell; and there, in the blue uniform, go two officers from the camp. “The air is wonderfully pure and bright. Raini seldom falls in the valley, though storms occur in the mountains almost daily; a cloud coming utip in the western hills, rolling along the crests, and threatening the city with a deluge; but, when breaking into wind and shlowers, it seems to run along the hill-tops into the Wasatch chain, and sail away eastward into the snowy range.” Three newspapers are published in the city, one of which is the organ of the Mormon Church. Besides the capital, the principal towns of Utah are, Provo, Ogden, Brownsville, Franklin, Springville, Nephi, Stockton, and Payson,

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W A S HI NGT O N. Area………….. Population in 1870………

WrASHINGTON TERRITORY embraces the extreme northwestern portion of the Great Republic. It lies between 45~ 33’ and 49~ N. latitude, and between 117~ and 124~ 43’ W. longitude. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 360 miles, and its extreme breadth, from north to south, about 235
miles. It is bounded on the north by British Columbia and the Strait of San Juan de Fuca (by the latter of whichl it is separated from Vancotiver’s Island), on the east by Idaho, on the south by Oregon, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The western half and parts of the southeastern portion of the Territory are mountainous. These mountains being continuations of the ranges whichl have been described in Oregon.

The Cascade Range extends entirely across the Territory, fi’om north to south, dividing it into two unequal portions; the larger and less rugged being the eastern portion. In this range occur, within the limits of the Territory, the lofty peaks of Mount Rainier, 12,300 feet high, Mount St.

Helen and Mount Adams, each about 9500 feet high, an(l Mount Baker, 10,700
feet high. These are all covered with perpetual snow. West of the Cascade Range are the Coast Mountains, running parallel with and but a short distance from the Pacific Ocean. They extend firom the Strait of San Juan de Fuca across the Territory into Oregon. Mount Olymlpus, 8150 feet high, is the principal peak. The Strait of San Juan de Fuca forms a part of the northern boundary, and separates VWTashington from Vancouver’s Island. It also affords water communication between the Pacific Ocean and Admiralty Inlet and Puget Sound, a large bay extending southward into 1!!7 69,994

Square Miles. 23,925

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1118 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the Territory for 70 miles from the Gulf of Georgia. These are navigable for ships of the largest size. Gray’s Harbor, on the Pacific, at the mouth of the Chehalis River, is about 20
miles long, and has about 20 feet of water on the bar at low tide. Cape Flattery, at the entrance of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, an(-l Cape Disappointment, at the mouth of the Columbia River, are the principal capes. There are no important islands on the coast. The Isle of Grief, 40
miles south of Cape Flattery, is the largest. Whlidby’s Island, in Admiiralty Inlet, is noted for its deer. It is well tini.bered(l, but water is scarce. The Arroo Islands, north of it, possess valuable fisheries. Lake Chelan, in the northcentral part of the Territory, is the largest lake. It is 33 miles long. Tile principal rivers are the Columbia, and its two branches, the Clark’s and ILewis’s Forks, the Spokane, the Okanagan, the Yakima, the Chehalis, the Skogit, and the Cowlitz. The Columbia enters the northeastern part of the Territory from British Columbia, and at first florvs southwest. Just below the 48th parallel of latitude, it turns westward and pursues a generally westward course to the 120thl meridian of longitude, where it abruptly turns to the southeast, and flowvs in this general direction to the 46th degree of latitude, when it turns once more to the westward, and flows in that general direction to the Pacific Ocean. From the last turn mentioned it divides Washington from Oregon. It is navigated by a daily line of steamers. The Lewis’s Fork formns a part of the eastern boundary of the Territory, separating it from Idaho. At Lewiston it turns to the southwest, and flows to the Columbia.

The Chehalis flows into Gray’s Harbor; the Skogit into Puget Sound; and the others into the Columbia. These rivers all rise on the summit of the snowy moantains, and are subject to sudden freshets. Their rapids afford first class waterpower. The climate of Washington resembles that of Oregon. In the western portion of the Territory it is mild, there being scarcely any winter at all in this region. ” Properly speaking, there are but two seasons, the dry and] the rainy. The grades of temperature, and the accompaniments which in other countries of the same latitude ascribe the features and title to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, are here in great measure obliterated, or at least so dimly marked that the seasons imperceptibly run into each other, and lose their distinctive line of division. It is not unusual for the three winter months to be mild, without snow or ice, the grass growing meanwhile.

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WAS11ING’TON. Inl February, the weather may occur mild and genial as Mayi, to be succeeded in Mlarci or April withl our coldest weather. In July and .Au(ust, dvs in some portions of wliich the maximraun teu’l)eratire will reachl 90~ or 100~, are sometimes follow\ved lby cold nighlts, occasionally accompanie(l I)v heavy frost. The rainy season pIropcr begins late in October or early in November, and may be said to continue till the ensuilig April. It firequently happens that after the first rains weeks of weathler silmilar to Indian suninter occur, and it is seldloml that one or other of’ tlle olliths of’ Janu ary, Fel)ruary, or March does not prove continuuously inild an( clear. The suimimers of this Territory are unsurpassed in thle worl(l. TWlile many d(ays are exceedingly warni, the nighlits are always cool and refreshing, as if specially intended for wholesome sleeping. In the winter monthls, six in number, rains prevail.

No disappointment shotild be felt if falling wAeathler occurred some part of each 24 hours, and yet niany l)ri,ght sunshiny days relieve the long-(ontinued rainy season of WVasllington Territory.” “The soil of all the prairie lands, with the exception of those directly around Puget Sound, is exceedingly fertile. Those of the Sound are of a sandy, gravelly nature, not readily cultivated, but producitig enormous fir and cedar trees. The soil on the mountains is generally very rich; but the (dense growth of forest dleters the emigrant from attempting clearings on a large extent, as the fine, fertile plains and prairie offer far greater inducements. Fruits of various kinds, particularly apples, can be cultivated very readily, and in the greatest perfection. Indian corn does not thrive well, as the seasons are not hot enough; but wheat, barley, oats, and(l potatoes yield the most abun.dant crops, of the finest quality. The potatoes, in particular, are surpassingly fine. The wheat grown on the Columl)ia, called ()regon wheat, is known for its superior excellence. Although the Territory is a very moullntainous country, yet there are many immense plains and prairies; and, I)y reference to the map, it will be seen that innumerahle streams, like veins, permeate the whole region, and each of themr, from the largest to the smallest, flows in its course throulgh rich and fertile plains, of various sizes, lying l)etween the mountains. Governor Stevens, in January, 18,54, writing of’ tle Terr,itory, says of the waters of Puget Sound, and the adjacent ones of Hood’s Canal, Admiralty Inlet, and Fuca Straits,’ that their maritime advantages are very great, ini affording a series of harbors 68 1119

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1120 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. almost unequalled in the world for capacity, safety, and facility of access, and they are in the immediate neighborhood to what are now the best whaling grounds of the Pacific. That portion of Washington Territory, lying between the Cascade Mountains and the ocean, although equalling, in richness of soil and ease of transportation, the best lands of Oregon, is heavily timbered, and time and labor are required for clearing its forests and opening the earth to the produ(tion of its fruits. The great body of the country, on the other hand, stretching eastward from that range to the Rocky Mountains, while it contains many fertile valleys and much land suitable to the farmer, is yet more especially a grazing country-one which, as its population increases, promises, in its cattle, its horses, and, above all, its wool, to open a vast field to American enterprise. But, in the meantime, the staple of the land must continue to be the one which Nature herself has planted, in the inexhaustilb)le forests of fir, of spruce, and of cedar. Either in filrnishig manufactured timber, or spars of the first deseription for vessels, Washington Territory is unsurpassed by any portion of the Pacific coast.’ The timner of the Territory is like that found in California and Oregon. The giant fir grows here, often attaining a height of 300() feet, and a thickness of from 8 to 12 feet. The other trees are tlhe spruce, maple, hemlock, cedar, oak, ash, alder, and willow. Tlhese are all of the finest and most useful species. The forests of the Territory are plentifiully stocked wvithi game. The animals, native to this region, are the elk, deer, bear, fox, ott(er, beaver, muskrat, and rabbit. The native birds are the swan, wil(l goose, brant, gull, duck, eagle, grouse, pheasant, partridge, wood(cock, hawk, raven, and robin. The waters of the Territory swarm with fish, among which are the cod, mnacklerel, halibut, herring, floun(der, oyster, crab, lobster, and clam. The Columbia and its tributaries are famous for their fine salmon fisheries, which are among the most extensive in the world. The commerce of the Territory consists principally in the export of lunmber, particularly of masts and ship timber. The masts an(i spars produced in this Territory are said to be the best in the world. The amount of timber exported from Puget Sound is estimated at nearly 52,000,000 annually. Numerous saw mills are engaged in preparing, lumber for domestic use and for exportation. The assessed value of property in the Territory, in 1869, was $7,843,239. The mineral resources of the Territory have hardly been satisfac

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WASHINGTON. STREET IN OLYMPIA. torily as(ertained yet. Gold has been found on the Columbia River, and in the northeastern part of the Territory. Coal is found in apparently inexhaustible quantities west of the Cascade Range, along the Columbia and the rivers emptying into the Pacific, and near the Strait of San Juan de Ftuca. It is believed that there is coal enotugh in Washington to supply the wants of the Pacific coast for generations to come. The public school system is the best of any of the Territories. The schools have been ill operation a number of years, and are doing a noblle work for the children of the Territory. There are between 50 and 60 public schools in thie Territory, besides several private school.. All are well attended. The University of Washington is located at Seattle, in King county. It was established in 1862. The general Government has endowed it with 46,080 acres of unoccupied lan(d, which it is believed, will create a fund of at least $75,000. There are about 10 public libraries in the Territory, and 9 newspapers are published there. Tile Territory of Washington was organized in March, 1853, up to which time it formed a part of Oregon. 1121

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1122 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. OLYMAI’IA, the capital of the Territory, is situated in Thurston couinty, on the east side of Tenalquct’s River, at its entrance into Ptlget Sound. It lies at the head of ship navigation on Puget Sound, 150 liles from the Pacific Ocean. It contains the State Hlouse, Territorial library, several churches and schools, and 5 newspatper offices. W Y 0 M ING Area,………. about 88,000 Square Miles. Population in 1870…….. 9.118 THE Territory of Wyoming lies between 41~ and 45~ N. latitude, an(l between 104~ and 112~

W. longitude. Its extreme length, from (east to west, is about 390 miles, and its breadth, fromI north to south, about 275 miles. It is bounded oil the north by Montana, on the east by Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado and Utah, and oni the west by Utah, Idaho, and Montana. A large part of the Territory is mountainous. The Rocky Mlountains cross the western part from northwest to southeast. The Rattlesnake and Big Horn Mountains occul)v a considerable part of the northern and western parts, and the Black Hills lie along the eastern border and extend into Dakota.

The principal river is the North Fork of the Platte, which rises on the eastern slol)es of the Rocky Mountains and pursues a generally eastward course into Nebraska. The Gallatin Fork of the Missouri, the Yellowstone and its tributaries, and(] the Little Missouri, take their rise in the northern part of the Territory, and the northeastern portion is drained by the headwaters of the Shvenne and its branches. tlMuch of the land of Wyoming, is suited to cultivation. Other seetions, however, suffer from a scarcity of water. The whole Territory is well supplied with timber, and in the southern portion the supply is inexhaustible. The pine, spruce, hemlock, and cedar, are the principal trees. The Territory offers superior advantages for stock raisinig, the prairies being covered with a spontaneous growth of an excellent and nutritious grass. The climate is healthful and delightful. The winters are mild and

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WYOMING. PRAIRIE DOG CITY. open, and in many parts, from November to April, the eattle can be kept withlout shelter, and find excellent food in the standing grass of the prairies. Gold has been found in considerable quantities within 25 miles ol the Pacific Railwavy. Immense beds of iron and coal have been discovered within a short distance of the same road.

Lead and copper are also found in some portions of the Territory, and others contain valuable oil wells, while lime and gypsum are abundant. It is b)elieved( that in the course of a few years Wyoming will be one of tile principal mining regions of the country. Tilhe Pacific Railwiay ofers unusual facilities for prompt communication with tlhe Eastern markets.

Thie country south of the North Fork of the Platte is the only part settled as yet. The Pacific Railway passes almost through the centre of this portion, and is doing much towards improving and settling it. The government is similar to that of the other Territories. Il Wyooming women possess the right of suffrage, and the right to sit oil juries. A grand jury, consisting of men and women, was em)anelled at Laianmie City-onl the 7thl of Aarchl, 1870. Mromrnen also have thle righlt to hold offi(e.

At the Territorial election of Septem ber 7, 18S70, the wonlen’very generally voted. WTomen were nomi 1 1 22

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1124 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Rated by the Republican party at Cheyenne for the offices of county clerk and school superintendent, but were defeated with the rest of the local ticket. Tlle Territory of Wyoming was organized on the 25th of July, 1868, out of portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah, the larger part consisting of the western portion of Dakota.

CHEYENNE, the capital, and largest and most important town in the Territory, has now a population of from 3000 to 5000. Much of it is “floating,” and the population of the place varies more than that of most mining towns. It is situated on the Union Pacific Railway, 516 miles fromn Omaha, and is a place of considerable trade. Two newspapers are published here. “The first stake was driven tt Cheyenne on the 13th of July, 1867, and in one month there was a town of 8000 inhabitants on the spot. These were, however, made tip in a large measure of adventurers and disreputable characters. No siooner was a new station of the Pacific Railway established at Laramie than a large part of this population departed from Cheyenne, but tile more respectable portion remained, and a permanent city has been founded.”

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE PUBLIC SCHIIOOLS OF TIlE UNITED STATES. One of the most important achievements of the American nation is its system of fiee public education, by which the precious gift of knowledge is brought within the reach of all classes of the people, and by means of which the humblest citizen may obtain for his children the advantages which in other countries are enjoyed only by the richer and aristocratic classes. This system has been the object of much discussion of late years, and is commonly regarded in this country as the basis of our prosperity. It will be interesting, therefore, to glance at its history and examine some of its results. The free education of every child in the community at the cost of the public at large is an American idea. In no ancient country was there any provision for the education of all classes. The nearest approach to this was in Sparta under the system established by Lycurgus. The education of the Spartan youth was furnished at the expense of the State, it is true, but it was chiefly physical; the object being to render the men of the country invincible in battle. Even this system was confined to the aristocratic class. The great mass of the people were serfs, and were designedly kept in ignorance and poverty in order that they might be the more easily ruled by the nobles. In Rome schools were abundant, but they also were restricted to the patricians and the wealthier plebeians. In none of the ancient States were the (ommon people regarded as of sufficient importance to be entitled to the benefits of education. They were simply hewers of wood and drawers of water for their aristo cratic masters, and were looked upon as little better than the beasts of the field. It was not until Christianity became the controlling power of the world that the duty of educating the people as a whole was recognized or taught. The Church of Christ has always been a foe to ignorance, and has at all times branded it as the prolific mother of vice and crime. As soon, therefore, as they were in a position to do so, the bishops and priests began to impress upon their people the duitty of teaching the young of all classes. The great and the rich would always find the means of education open to them, but the poor and humble had no such advantages, and the church at once constituted herself their instructor. In the year 529 the Council of Vaison recommended the founding of public schools in every Christian land, in which all persons might receive instruction. It is true that the recommendation of the Council was not generally observed, and that the clergy as a whole did not carry out the designs of the church with respect to education; but it is also true that the only schools in existence during those dark ages, in which the poor scholar could find the means of slaking his thirst for knowledge, were those kept open by the church. When Charlemagne came to the throne, at the end of the eighth century, the world was sunk in ignorance. In spite of his love of war and power, his sensual pleasures, and great ambition, his vigorous and comprehensive mind readily appreciated the importance of knowledge to a people, and he resolved that his own should possess it. At the age of forty-five hlie began to atone for the deficiencies in his own neglected education by commencing a regular course of study under the learned monk Alcuin. “lie established,” says Russell, “schools in the cathedrals and principal abbeys, for teaching writing, arithmetic, grammar, and church music; certainly no very elevated sciences, yet considerable at a time when many dignified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils in which they sat as members, and when it was deemed a sufficient qualification for a priest to be able to read the Gospels and understand the Lord’s Prayer.” The clergy being the most appropriate teachers, 112b

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1126 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Charlemagne endeavored to make them more careful in the discharge of their duties. He embraced all classes of the clergy in his vigilant circumspection, and was especially anxious that the lower clergy, who were most immediately in contact with the comimoni people, should qualify themuselves to be their instructors. In one of his edicts upon this subject he ordained that, “if, after the repeated admonitions of their bishop to improve the poverty of their understandings by study, they should still show no traces of amendment, their ignoratnce should not only be punished with the loss of their office, but of whatever ecclesiastical preferment they held.” By a capitular of a89, and bv several successive ordinances, the bishops were ordered to establish. two sorts of schools in their respective dioceses. Infant schools were to be established, in wvliiclih ireading iand writing were to be taught. Others of a higher grade wAre to be opened in the cathedrals and monasteries, in which the arts of music, graimmari, logic, atd rhetoric were to be taught.

The instruction aflorded in these schools was to be grattuitous. ill A. ).

800 the Synod of Mentz ordered that schools shotld be established by the parochial priests in every town and village, that “the little chilldren of all the fitithliful should learn letters from them. Let them receive and tc:h these withl tile utmiost charity, that they themselves may sllime as stars forevgo. L1et themi receive no remuneration from their scholars, unless what the pareil5 ithrolugh h rity-, unay vw)luntarily offer.” “t):r tlie )ogrc,:,s of thice yorulg schlolrs Clharlemagne watched with a degree of attentioll’()ot to 1)b expecteldl t’ou the multip)licity of his public concerns; and lie took great delight in examlining, with the masters, their different compositions. Ilaviing discovered, upon some remarkable occasion, that the children of the poorer classes of the peopie, lwhom lie had caused to be educated among those of the nobles, left the latter far behlind in their studies, he atpplauded their proficiency, and declared that his favors should be exclusively bestowed on them. Then turning to their highl-hornl fellow-students, he addressed them in words which evinced his fixed determination to stimulate and reward talents, even if they should be deduced from the lowest origin. ‘It is evident,’ says hlie,‘that you rest your claims to promotion solely upon the merits of your ancestors. Know, therefore, that they have received their recompense, and that the State renounces all obligations, except to those who are capable of promoting her interests and honor by their abilities.’ But Chlarlemuagne died, and when his strong hand was removed there was no one to guide the cause of popular education in the way he had meant it to proceed. The mIonks became careless; the great schools survived, but the majority of the smaller ones disappeared. In 1179 the Council of Lateran endeavored to revive the zeal of the clhurch, and ordered that grammar schools should be established in every cathe(lral for the free instruction of the poor. In 1245 the Council of Lyons enlarged this ordinance and made it more binding. It was easy, however, for councils to enact decrees, but difficult to enforce thenm. In some countries they were entirely neglected; in others they were obeyed in the larger towns, where excellent schools existed and flourished, always under the control of the clergy. In the smaller towns and country districts the decrees of the councils were neglected. The priests were idle and careless, and the people poor and ignoranlt. The common school, it will thus be seen, was the outgrowth of the Christian Church. It was designed at the outset to afbford a mingled religious and secular instruction. As time passed on the more important establishments developed into the great universities and colleges of Europe. These were capable of extending their benefits but to a siimall tnumber of the whole people, and while they did noble service to the cause of learniing, were not able to carry out the original design of the church in

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. educating the masses of the people. That was left to the clergy ill the common schools. Many of these schools perished, as we have stated. The instruction received at the hands of the clergy by the common people became limited to religious instruction. The priesthood came to the conclusion that so they instructed thile people in the doctrines of the church, in the legends of the saints, and trained them to reverence and obey the clergy as the lawful adminiistrators of ” I-Ioly Church,” it was not necessary to teachli them reading, writing, or any of the scholastic arts. Thus the object wvithl which the church had started out was defeated by its own appointed instruments, and the very meaIns it had designed for raising the common people out of the depths of ignorance was made the engine of sinking them lower into that abyss. The reason is well known. TIhe church was becoming corrupt, was neglecting its spiritual ends, and was seeking after temporal power. It was easier to fasten its yoke uponi an ignorant than upon an educated people, and so it becalie the settled policy of the church and the priesthood to discourage and prevent the spread of knowledge amonlg the people. So far was this policy carried that the church became the cllict’ foe of knowledge. Its haltred of it was fianatical. The clergy, who were meant to be the teaclhers of the niasses, becaiiie the most ignoraniit-withli few exceptions of the colmmunity.

They purstued with a bitter hatred every friend of leariiniig. Only tie universities were safe 1froi themi. Even 1’ope Sylvester the Second was pursued to his grive 1) the fitniticil hostility of the imiolks becatuse of lii zieal for learningi. “The genius of this faiitiols ponitifl;” says Mosheiim, ” was extensive and sublime, emiboracinig all the branches of literature; but its more peculiar bent was turned toward ilathetiatical studies. MNechanics, geometry, astronolimy, arithmetic, and every other kind of knowledge that had the least affinity to these important sciences, were cultivated by this restorer of learning with the imost ardent zeal, and not without success, as his writings abundantly testify. Nor did hlie stop here, but eciployed every method that was proper to encourage and aiinimate others to the culture of the liberal arts andl sciences……Hence it was that the geomietrical figures described by this niatliematical pontiff were regarded by the moniks as magical operations, and the pontil’ himself was treated as a magician and a disciple of Satan.” The monlks zealously spread the story that Sylvester did not die, but was carried off by the devil, to whom he had sold himself for a number of years. The cause of popular education languished until the dawnii of the Reformatioln. That great movemnent gave it new life.‘Tlhe Reformiers well understood that a people to be virtuous and pure must be intelligent, and tlihey exerted themselves from the first to spread among the masses at least a plain common school education. Luther was especially active in this respect. The ignorance of the people was to him a terrible evil, and ought to be ameliorated at almost any cost. In 1526 hlie wrote to the Elector of Saxony: “Government, as the natural guardian of all the younig, has the right to compel the people to support schools. What is necessary to tlhe well being of a State, that should be supplied by those who enjoy the privileges of such State. Now nothing is more necessary than the traiiinig of those who are to coime after us to bear rule. If the people are too poor to pay the expense, and are already burdened with taxes, then the mnonastic fundls, which were originally given for such pur’poses, are to be employed in that way to relieve the people.” Melanetlhon gave Luther his earnest support and cooperation in his nimeasures, and in 1l527
assisted him in drawing up the plan for a coiimmon school systemi in Saxony. Tlhis systeni was soon put in operation in that country, and thus Luthler had the pleasure of seeing the inauguration of one of his dearest hopes-the free education (iof the young of all classes. The system was destined to be short lived, however. The i 1-97

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1128 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. breaking out of the Thirty Years’ War, in 1618, involved all Germany in the most terrible conflict in which it had ever engaged, and which brought general ruin to the whole country. The Saxon schools were neglected in the struggle and fell into decay. Still, the good effects of Luther’s work were not lost. Ilis schools perished, but his system was the germ fiom which sprang the great modern system of German public education. We have neither the time nor space to describe here the growth of the German schools. We have traced, imperfectly, the progress of free education up to the time when Protestant Germany took up the cause which she has since rendered triumphant. We can do no more at present than ask the reader’s attention to the following brief notice of the German system of to-day, which we take from the “American Edutcational Encyclopsedia” for 1875: “The Prussian system of education, which likewise prevails in most of the German States, is the most complete and thorough of any in the old world. It assumes that it is the right and duty of the State to provide schools, and compels the attendance of all wll children between seven and fourteen years of age. It furthermore looks to the special preparation of teachers, as far as practicable, for every grade of school, with opportunities for professional improvement and promotion, and guaranty of pecuniary aid when sick, infirm, or aged, and for their families in case of death. The State exercises supervision over all schools, public and private. Formerly the clergy possessed this supervising power to a large extent. The new school law of 1872, however, aimed at the entire separation of school and church, and the withdrawal Qf school management from the clergy as such. The Minister of Instruction, appointed by the crown, exercises supreme authority in educational matters. Local supervision rests in the provisional authorities, who have the general control of secondary education, including the gymnasia,‘Realschule,’ and primary normal schools. The schools of Prussia are divided by Professor Drove into five general classes: 1st. Primary.

2d. Burgher. 3d. Realschule. 4thl. Gymnasium. 5th. University. “In nearly all the German States, as well as in Denmark and Sweden, persons are p)rohibited from opening schools or seminaries without undergoing examinations before boards constituted for that purpose. If found qualified, the candidate receives a teacher’s license, but in this license the grade of the school he is found capable of teaching is clearly defined, and he renders himself liable to prosecution as an impostor if he represents his school in his announcements as of any higher grade than that which his license declares him qualified to teach. The following studies are obligatory for all children in Prussia: religion, the mother tongue, including writing and grammar, arithmetic, practical elementary geometry, realien (comnprising geography, history, the elements of natural history, and the rudiments of physics), drawing, singing, gymnastics, and for girls, needlework. To each of the last four branches the pupils of the uipper classes are required to give two hours weekly. In giving the gymnastic exercises the teachers must follow the course laid down in the official manual prepared for the purpose. Prussia was the first country in the world to establish normal schools, the earliest of these dating back as far as 1701. In 1819 it was decreed that ten should be established, one in each province. Now there are eightyeight. In the whole German Empire there are one hundred and forty-three. The course of training in these professional schools varies from three to six years. In 1873 there were twentyone universities in the German Empire, with 1734 professors and 18,588 students.” Scotland was, next to Germany, the country in Europe which after the Reformation gave most care to the education of the masses.

Its free schools were the work of the

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Reformation, and were among the most potent allies of that great movement. As they grew out of a religious movement, they naturally remained under the control of the clergy. In 1560 John Knox urged upon the Government the necessity of estab lishing free public schools in every parish, and advised that they should be supported by the Kirk and conducted by its ministers. The suggestions of the Reformer were discussed with true Scotchl caution, but no action was taken upon them for a number of years. In 1696 the free school system was given a national existence by an Act of the Scottish Parliament, which established a common school in each parish, to be supported in part by the parish and in part by rate bills. These schools were placed under the charge of the clergy.

It was not in Europe, but in America, however, that the free public school system was to receive its widest development. The emigrants to the new world were chiefly of English birth and training, and came to America to found a State. They were convinced that such a task could be accomplished only by an intelligent people, and one of their first measures was to make provisions for schools which should afford their children the means of fitting themselves for the discharge of the duties of free citizens of a free State. As early as 1621 a “Free Grammar School,” as it was called, was established in Charles City, Virginia. In 1636 the General Court of Massachusetts made provision for the establishment of a similar school at Boston, appropriating to this object the sum of 400, which was equal to a year’s rate of the whole colony. In 1637 an order was passed locating the school at Newtown, the name of which place was changed to Cambridge, in memory of the university in England where most of the leading men of the colony had received their education. In 1638 regular academic studies were begun, and in 1639 it was ordered that the name of the school be changed to Harvard College, in honor of the Rev. John Harvard, its great benefactor, who bequeathed to it the sum of 779 17s. 2d. “Free grammar schools” were also founded in New Haven in 1638, in Salem in 1641, and in Roxbury prior to 1645. All these schools were supported in part by donations of money or real estate, either by towns or individnals, and in part by tuition fees. They were not free schools in the truest sense, as they were free only to the contributors to their support, and to them only in part. Still they were a beginning, and from the foundation thus laid sprang the free public school, which is of New England origin. It was the determination of the fathers of New England that knowledge should be restricted to no favored class, but should be accessible to every child, without other payment than the tax imposed upon the parent. Every citizen was to be taxed for the support of the free schools, and was thus to be given a direct interest in their proper conduct. The first free public school was established by the town of Hartford, in Connecticut, prior to the year 1642. The funds for its foundation and support were supplied by the town treasury. In 1643 the authorities of Hartford passed a resolution providing “that the town shall pay for the schooling of the poor and for all deficiencies.” In 1647 the colony of Massachusetts Bay enacted the first general law upon the subject to be found on our statute books. It was in the following words: “It is therefore ordered yt every towneship in this jurisdiction, after ye Lord hath increased you to ye number of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within the town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and reade, whose wages shall be paid either by ye parents or masters of such children, or by ye inhabitants in generall by way of supply, as ye maior part of those yt order ye prudentials of ye town shall appoint, provided those yt send their children be not oppressed by paying much more yn they can have ym taught for in other towns.” 1129

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1130 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The example of Massachusetts and Connecticut was followed by New Hampshire and Vermont, and free schools were established in every colony in which there were children enough.

These old-time common schools were largely religious in their character.

Dr. Rigg says of them: “At first the common school was a strictly church school, a school under the special charge and oversight of the clergyman of the parish or township, and where the children were carefully instructed in the orthodox faith. In the early Puritan settlements the schoolmaster, if at all competent, was very highly thought of. …. Thie highly educated schoolmaster ranked next to the minister. It is not unlikely, indeed, that the great respect which, coupled often with very inadequate pay, is found still to attach throughout the States to the office of public school teacher, is derived in part from the old Puritan and Presbyterian feeling in regard to the schoolmaster as a sort of church officer, ranking often, if he were but learned, not far behind the minister in the consideration of the parishioners. Be this, however, as it may, it is certain that ill all the earlier period of the history of the States the school was a strictly religious institution. The schoolmaster in the Presbyterian settlements taught not only the Scriptures, but the Assembly’s Catechism; in the Episcopal settle nments he taught the Bible and the Churchl Cateclhism; among the Independents and the Qua.lkers lie, at least, closely instructed the children out of the Scriptures for genieritio.is after tihe Eastern States were settled.” This will be readily understood when it is remembered that for several generations after the States were settled the clergy represented the best culture to be found among the people of America. Our people have always yielded a willing homage to intellectual ability, and when ithe clergy were their most capable guides foll(hwed( them in matters of education as they did in most things else. As the country increased in prosperity and population, and in intelligence, the people began more and more to take their matters into their own hands, and finally, profiting by the lessons of other lands, assumed the control of their schools, and made them in the strictest sense of the word non-sectarian. The records of the New England colonies show that the public schools were faithfilly and liberally supported. In 1670 the Government of Connecticut could say, in answver to anl official inquiry: “One-fourth of the annual revenue of the colony is laid out in imaintaining the free (common) schools for the education of our children.” The Middle and Southern colonies were not so careful of this great cause, and as a consequence fatiled to reap the benefits derived by their Eastern sisters from their fostering care of their schools. The records show that New England never murmured at the burdens necessary to the support of these schools. The colonies were heavily taxed for the ordinary purposes of government and for the costly wars against the French and the Indians; but however great their burdens they never forgot the public schools or failed to provide liberally for them. We have seen that the Thirty Years’ War broke up the German schools founded by Luther. The New England schools grew uip in the midst of constant war, and grew stronger and more prosperous every year in spite of their daily exposure to the dangers by which they were surrounded. Throughout the Revolution, when the whole country was staggering under its load of debt, the public schools were maintained, and the taxes necessary to their support paid promptly. At the close of the Revolution the rich western lands of Connecticut came into the market. The sale of these lands by the State would have placed large sums of money in the treasury. Connecticut had suffered heavily during the war. She had maintained a larger number of troops in the field, in proportion to her populaltion, than any other State, and the return of peace found her poor and with a heavy debt. The

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. sale of her western lands offered her a ready means of relief and would have greatly lightened the load of taxation borne by her people. In this hour of her sorest tinancial distress she gave a noble proof of her wise care for her children. By a soleimn vote of the State Legislature the western lands of Connecticut were dedicated to the cause of education, and a law was enacted providing that the proceeds of the sales of these lands should constitute a permanent school fund; thus securing a liberal provision for the free schools in the future. The fund now amounts to $2,044,190. The interest on this amount is annlually devoted to educational purposes. The example of Connecticut was followed by Massachusetts, which State set apart for educational purposes a part of her wild lands in Maine, which then formed a portion of her territory. At the opening of the nineteenth century the New England school system was arranged as follows: The leading principle was the instruction of all the children in the State in the rudiments of anl English education, namiely, reading, writing, elementary arithmetic, elementary geography, and grammar. It was sought to accomplish this bv the establishment of one or more common schools in every precinct or district containing fifty householders, or even a smaller number. Each district was made independent of the others in the maniagement of its financial affairs, in the hiring of a teacher, the provision of schoolhouses, textbooks, etc. The schools of each town or district were placed under the charge of a superintendent or board of visitors, generally consisting of professional men, and almost invariably including the clergy. These examined the teachers, engaged them, inspected the schools, and selected the textbookls. The schools were supported by a general taxation and by rate bills. The poor were expressly exempted from the payment of rate bills, the system being based lupon the Connecticut miaximn, that ” the town shall pay for the schooling of the poor.” The town authorities had power to compel the attendance of children of a school age, and to prevent and putnish truancy. This system gradually spread into New York and Pennsylvania, and was established in Ohio and the other Western States settled principally by New England emigrants. It was very defective, and failed entirely to make provision for the wants of those pupils who wished to advance beyond the simpler studies of the common school. The charters of the colonies had left their boundaries vague and undefined. I-Previous to 1781 only six of the original States could determine their boundaries with accuracy. The limits allowed them by their charters extended far beyond the mountains, and embraced large regions which offered many inducements to emigrants from the older communities. One after another the States ceded these lands to the General Government, establishing exactly defined borders for their own territory.

It was resolved by the General Government, upon its first acceptance of these lands, that they should “be disposed of for the common benefit of the United States.” It was the general desire of the country that the Government should use these lands to assist the cause of education, and in accordance with this feeling the General Government began a generous and liberal policy of assistance to the schools, which it has since steadily carried out. Thle ordinance of 1785 for the government of the Northwest Territory, and the second ordinance for the same purpose, passed in 1787, set apart “section 16 of every townshlip” for the express purpose of maintaining the public schools. The latter act contained this memorable clause, setting forth the purpose of the General Government in making this donation: “Religion, morotlity, arnd kJ-owledgle beiny necessary to good govera,ment and the heappiness of m7ankind, schools and the ieans of education shall be foi’ever encour?aged.” Under this law the States of Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, 1131

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1132 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, and Wisconsin have each received the 16th section of each township of the lands within their limits. The ordinance was renewed in 1789, after the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. In 1848 the General Government decided to increase the amount of assistance extended by it to the schools, and the 36th section of every township was set apart, i?a addition to the 16th section, for school purposes. The States which have received these two sections-the 16th and 36th-are Cali fornia, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado. Every Territory organized since 1848 has also received these sections. In addition to the grants of these sections to the States, sixteen States have receive(l, in accord(lance with an Act passed in 1841, 500,000 acres of land each, whichl sonme have added to their school fiund.

These lands were not specially dedicated to educational purposes. The States receiving them were Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon, Wisconsin. By the Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860 the General Government donated to fourteen States certaiu lands, generally known as “swanmp lands,” embracing an aggregate of 62,428,4i3
acres. A considerable portion of this grant has been used by some of the recipients rol scliooi purposes. The States receiving it were Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. The total amount of lands granted by the General Government to the public schools reaches the enormous extent of about 140,000,000 acres. The permanent school fiund of the States that have received lands from this source amounts to the sum of $43,866,787, an average of over $2,000,000 apiece.

“Nor was the fostering care of the Government restricted to the common schools. The men who laid the foundations of our institutions were not guilty of the absurdity of supposing that any system of elementary education, however excellent, could long thrive unless there were vitally joined with it, as a part of the same system, provisions for a broad and generous higher education. They believed and acted upon the belief; that a Government established’to promote the public welfare,’ and so constructed as to reflect public opinion, might as wisely and legitimately bestow attention upon advanced education as upon primary; and they would have observed with incredulity, if with no stronger feeling, the painful efforts of those philosophers in our own day who labor to show that Government surely ought to promote instruction in the three R’s, and just as surely ought not to go a step firther. They regarded higher and lower education as equally important, each in its own place, and equally worthy of the patronage and assistance of the General Government. “Accordingly the ordinance of 1787, which has been already referred to, besides its provisions for schools, set apart’not more than two complete townships of land, to be given perpetually for the purposes of a university.’ The two townships thuls designated for the support of a university have accordingly been given to every State that has been organized since the beginning of the present century, and Ohio was fortunate enough to receive three-one while a Territory, and two on being admitted into the Union.

Florida and Wisconsin appear to have received four each. This was the extent of the aid rendered by the Government to higher education previous to 1862. The’university’ lands thus donated amount to only $1,119,440
acres, and the benefit derived from them has been exceedingly small. In three or four States the fiund has been so administered as to produce good results, but in most cases it has profited a small number of individuals rather than the entire community. The State of Ohio,

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. for example, so disposed of her three townships that they now contribute only $10,000 annually to the support of two’universities,’ while the lands themselves have been rendered forever tax free to the fortunate lessees. “It is a noteworthy circumstance, and, as the result has proved, a grave oversight, that the United States Government, until 1862, attached no conditions to its liberal grants. In that year the Government may be said to have made a distinct and important advance in its method of donating lands for the support of education, by attaching a condition to its gifts. By the Act then passed, as is well known, Congress appropriated to the several States 30,000 acres of the public lands for each Senator and Representative in Congress; the amount accruing from the sale of such lands to be invested as a perpetual firnd for the maintenance of at least one college in each State, where the principal object should be,‘without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such mnanner as the Legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.’ This grant has been extended by supplementary Acts, so as to apply to the States that were in rebellion when the original Act was passed; and on this basis have been established the institutions which have come to be generally, but not very correctly, known as ‘Agricultural Colleges.’ A few of the States have not completed the establishment of these institutions, and in some others they have not been long enough in operation to enable them to state results; but sufficient has been done to filrnislh the means of estimating their general working, and especially of answering the question how far they have fulfilled and are fulfilling the expectations of Congress in establishing them. “Some apprehension has arisen on this point, owing, apparently, to a failure to notice the terms of the law in which the design of the institutions is expressed. A moment’s observation will show that the words of the Act, as quoted in the preceding paragraph, are the statement of a comprehensive scheme for promoting the advanced education of the people. The broad purpose is to provide for the’liberal’ as well as the’practical education of the industrial classes,’ and that not in any single direction, but’in the several pursuits and professions in life.’

The’leading object’ is to be the promotion of’agriculture and the mechanic arts,’ not necessarily by training a body of apprentices in manual practice, which experience generally shows to be attended with too many drawbacks in an educational institution, but by teaching’such branches of education as are related to’ those subjects; that is, in short, the whole range of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, with special reference to their applications in those great branches of human industry.

“The whole amiount of land liable to issue under the Act of 1862 and the Acts supplementary to it is 9,600,000 acres. This land, so far as it has been disposed of, has been sold for an average price of seventy cents per acre, and if the entire amount be reckoned at the same price, the total proceeds will be $6,720,000. This grant of less than $7,000,000 is the sum total of what the Government has done for the institutions referred to. On this basis thlirty-five of the States have located institutions, and as four of them have divided the fund, the number of institutions thus established is thlirty-nine. Of these thirty-six have been opened, but some of them only a few months. The returns from them are necessarily imperfect, both in respect to material values and internal working. The average value of the Congressional endowment of the institutions, as 1133

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1134 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. fitr as ascertained, is $179,645. The maximum endowment is $630,000, and the minimum $50,000.” * Such is the history of the aid rendered by the General Governmnent to the common schools and to the higher institutions of learning. We have deemed it best to present this portion of our narrative entire here, and must now return to the point at which we left the coimmion schools ill the earlier years of this century. The defects of the common school system, as it existed at the opening of the century, were evident to all interested in it. But a limited amount of instruction was filrnished, and this deteriorated in character, as the routine systemni of teaching had the effect, in the course of time, of lowering the standard of the schools. In consequence of this they began to sutiffer in the public estimation. It was evident to the earnest men engaged in the cause that the common school system must end in an ignominious failure unless the evils from which it was suffering could be checked and removed. In 1817 these persons inaugurated a reform movement, which was carried cn with great vigor, and which may be said to be still in progress. Between 1821 and 1828 the school systems of most of the New England States were subjected to a careful revision. From 1826 to 1830 conventions were held in nearly all the principal towns of New England, at which the evils from which the common schools were suffering were elaborately discussed and measures proposed for the remedying of them. The interest of the people was thoroughly aroused and was kept alive by these meetings, and the press gave its aid and encouragement to the good work of reform. Horace Mann, Henry Barnard and others labored actively to bring about a reform; teachers’ institutes were established, normal schools were founded, and at length a beneficent and sweeping change was efifected. A better and mnore vigorous system took the place of the old one, and the good work embraced not only New England, but all the Northern and most of the Western States. The work of improvement has gone on steadily since then, and scarcely a year has rolled by but has witnessed some gain in this respect. There is no national system of firee public education in the Union, each State reserving to itself the management of its free schools. However they may differ as to details, the systems of the various States are founded upon a series of fiundamental principles common to all, and which may be briefly stated as follows: There is a system of graded schools for each town or district, embracing, 1st. Primary schools for the younger pupils. 2d. Grammar schools for those of more advanced age, in whichl are taught, in addition to the ordinary branches, philosophy, chemistry, history, and frequently drawing, vocal music, algebra, geometry, and French. 3(1. High schools for the still more advanced, in which are taught the studies n-cessary for a business education, and in most cases the languages and higher mathematics. These schools are placed under the supervision of one or miore efficient visitors, who are paid for their services. They ascertain by a thorough examination the qualifications of the teachers, who are employed or dismissed upon their recommendation. In each town or district these visitors, or “Boards of Education,” have power to enforce uniformity of textbooks, aund in miost of the States are forbidden by law to change the textbooks in use under a giveln period. Some of the States enforce uniformity of textbooks in ,ill the schools within their limits. The local boards have also authority to compel regularity aid pulictuality of attendance. Provision is made for the establishment of school libraries in connection with the free schools. The local boards select blackboards, maps, chlarts, globes and other apparatus for instruction, a liberal sum being * “Amcricani Educational Encycloptedia” for 1S7-, pp. 15, 17.

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TIIE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. allowed for the purchlase of these. They are also reqlliired( to secure the erection of suitable schoolhouses, arranged in such a mainner as to receive proper warmth and ventilation, and constructed so as to promote convenience of instruction. Normal schools are established in every State for the instruction and training of teachers. Teachers’ institutes are also held at stated times and places for the exercise and drill of those already engaged in the work of their profession. Teachers’ State associations are organized for the comparison of methods of teaching and the establishment of periodicals devoted to education. In some of the States the schools are absolutely free to all, and are supported entirely by taxation and the interest upon their permanent educational funds; in others they are supported in part by taxation and in part by small rate bills, which are abated where the parents of the child are unable to pay. In such cases the textbooks needed, as well as instruction, are furnishled to the pupil without cost; so that the schools are practically free even in the States where rate bills exist. This practice, however, is rapidly disappearing. The schools are now absolutely free in most of the States and will soon be in all. One great defect of the system is the isolation of the local Boards of Education. Except in Massachusetts and New York there is hardly a shadow of a State system, so called. Even in lIassachusetts the State has no power to enforce any regulation concerning the management of the schools in the towns. It can only advise. Ini some of the States attendance upon school is compulsory. The compulsory education law of New York, which went into effect on the 1st of January, 1875, is a fair specimen of the legislation on this subject. Its leading provisions are as followvs: “All parents anil guiardians are required to instruct children in their charge, or cause tlhemn to be instrtucted, in spelling, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithnmetic. All children not physically or mentally incapacitated, between the ages of eight and fourteen years, must attend some public or private day school at least fourteen weeks each year, eilght of which shall be consecutive, or they must be taught at home fully fourteen weeks each year in the branches named above. “No person shall employ any child under fourteen years of age during the established school hours of the locality, unless such child shall have attended some public or private day school fourteen weeks of the fifty-two weeks next preceding ally and every year in which suchl child shall be employed, or shall have been instructed at home during the tilu? above lnentioned, and in the branches above specified. Tilhe child must deliver to his employer a certificate to this effect in the handwriting of his teacher. The penalty for disobeying this provision of the bill is fifty dollars, to be paid into the school fuinl by the employer for each ofi’nce. “Trustees are required to inspect the situiation of all children employed in the manufacturing establi.hli’ients, in February and September of each year, and tD report all violations. Manufacturers are compelled to filrniili correct lists of the children in their emp)loy between the ages of eighlt and fourteen years. For violating any provisions of this bill one dollar fine s,hall be paid. For each succeeding violation, after liaviug been properly notified, the offender shall pay five dollars for each and every week’s continuance, not exceediig tnlirtecn w e ces ilc any one year. All these pe)alties are to be devoted to school purposes. “Trustees are required to fulrnish textbooks for the children on the written statement of parents or guardians that they are unable to do so. “On the statement of any parent or guardian that lie or she cannot compel a child to conform to this Act, the latter shall be regarded as an habitual truant and so dealt with. “Boards of Trustees and Instruction are authorized and directed to make all needful 69 1135

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1136 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. provisions, arrangements, and regulations for the discipline, instruction, and confinement of habitual truant children found in the streets, subject to the approval of the Justice of the Supreme Court of the district. Two weeks’ attendance at a half-term or evening school shiall, for all purposes of this Act, which takes effect on the first day of January, be counted as one week at a day school.” Previous to the war the Southern States, as a rule, were careless of their public schools. In some of them a system of free common schools could scarcely be said to exist. Many of the larger towns and cities of the South supported excellent fi’ree schools, but no such provision was made for the children of the country districts. Apart from its apathy on this subject, the South had a great difficulty to contend with in its sparsely settled country, which rendered it impossible in some localities to conduct a school with success. At the close of the civil war, when the various State Governments of the South were undergoing the process of reconstruction, advantage was taken of the opportunity to establish in each State a system of free public education suited to its wants. The embarrassed financial condition of these States made it impossible to carry out the new laws respecting education as promptly or as thoroughlily as was desired, but a fair beginning was made, which gives promise of great results in the future. In Arkansas and Texas education is compulsory. The black population is not neglected. Some of the Southern States have made liberal provision for colored schools. Some of these are anmong the best schools in the South. There has been no effort to mingle the two races in the schools, but a generous and far-sighted policy has secured to the colored schools all the advantages enjoyedl by the white.

In 1874 an effort was made in Congress to secure the passage of a measure known as the Civil Rights Bill, which provided, among other things, for the mingling of the two races in the common schools. The bill passed the Senate, but could not command at sufficient vote in the HIouse, and so was lost. It was bitterly opposed byv the Southern people, whose sentiments were condensed as follows by the llIeenphis Al,p]eal: ‘It is evident the public school systems of the Southern States cannot survive the enactment of this bill.” It was declared by many of the best friends of the black race that an attempt to establish mixed slchools in the South would utterly defeat itself. The whites could not be compelled to send their children to such schools, and woul(d be rendered bitterly hostile to all schemes of free public education. Many of the most eariest members of the Republican party opposed the bill because of this conviction. The educational press of the iNorthli and WVest as a rule regarded the bill with extreme disfavor, and urc’cd its withldrawal. The Iowa School Jou,ral expressed the views of its fcllow-wcrkcrs ii the cause of free education, as well as its own, in the following: In our opiiion the bill, should it become a law, will greatly annoy the cause of education in certain parts of the Union. If the law shall be so worded or interpreted as to demandl that a school system supported by general taxation shall provide as good schools for the blacks as for the whites, leaving it with the boards and school officers, or the localities, to determine whethler or not the blacks shall be entitled to seats in the schlools pr:.vided for the whites, and vtice versa, it would meet every demand of justice and equality. In Keokuk, in our own State, the Board of Education hlas provided for a’colored school,’ withl suitable buildings and competent teachers. We can see that a law which v would step in and break up this distinction, under the plea that the Board has made a discrimination on account of color, would be absurd and foolish in the extreme.” The measure having failed, there is good reason to believe that it will not be attempted again. Race prejudices cannot be overcome by Congressional enactments, and the fairest and most friendly course to the blacks is to

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TIlE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. secure for them what the whites of the South are willing to concede-equal advwnii tages in separate schools. In the South at large there is a very decided willingness to give the negroes these advantages, for the whites are now convinced that the prosperity of their States depends upon the education of all their citizens. There will hardly be another effort made to array the race prejudice of the Southern people against the system of public education, and we may therefore hope that the progress of education among the negroes will be rapid and satisfactory in the filture. The general advance made by the common school system in the past eight or ten years has been very great. The extent and character of it cannot be shown better than by the following statistics of several of the principal States, which we take from the “American Educational Encyclopoedia” for 1875: ” In the State of California the number of school districts in 1864 was 684; in 1874 it was 1462. In 1864 the whole number of schools was 754; ill 1874 it had increased to!C868. The number of pupils in the public schools in 1864 was 29,416; in 18374 it was 97,681.

In the former year the sum of $328,338 was paid to teachers; in the latter year these salaries amounted to $1,434,366. In 1864 the sum of $2271 was spent for school libraries and apparatus; in 1874 the amount spent for this purpose was $29,245. In 1864 the total expenditure for school purposes was $483,407; in 1874 it was $2,113,356. “In the State of Illinois the progress of eight years is shown by the following figures: In 1865 the number of districts in the State was 10,062; in 1873 it was 11,231. In the former year the number of schools was 10,291; in the latter 11,396. In 1865 the total number of teachers was 17,015; in 1873 it was 20,924. In 1865 the number of pupils was 580,304; in 1873 it was 662,049.

The average monthly salaries of teachers in 1865 were as follows: males $38.09; females $24.96. In 1873 they had increased to the following monthly average: males $50; females $39. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1865 was $3,193,636; in 1873 it was $7,480,889. “In Iowa the number of schools in 1864 was 6237; in 1874 it was 8816. In the former year the total average attendance of pupils was 111,185; in the latter year it was 204,204. In 1864 the amount paid to teachers was $570,115; in 1874 it was $2,248,667. Thle total amount expended for school purposes in 1864 was $761,537; in 1874 it was $4,229,455. “In the State of Maryland the comparison extends over but eight years. In 1866 the number of schools in the State was 12-;9; in 1874 it was 1742. The number of teachers in 1866 was 1533; it had increased to 2555 in 1874. The total number of pupils in 1866-was 64,793; in 1874 it was 130,234. In 1866 the sum of $356,680 was paid for teachers’ salaries; in 1874 the sum of $889,486 was paid for the same purpose. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1866 was $477,425; in 1874 the amount expended for this purpose was $1,354,066. “In Massachusetts the numnber of schools an the State in 1863 was 4626; in 1873 it was 5305. The number of teachers in 1863 was 10,753; in 1873 it was 8449. The average attendance was 181,381
in 1863; and was 202,882 in 1873. In the former year the amount of money raised by taxation for the support of common schools was $1,434,015; in 1873 this amount was $3,889,053. “The State of Michigan shows a notable improvement in the past ten years. In 1864 there were 4426 school districts in the State. In 1874 the number had increased to 5521. In the former year the whole number of children attending school was 215,736; in the latter year it was 324,615. In 1864 the number of teachers was 8816 in 1874 it was 11,950. In 1864 the amount paid for teachers’ salaries was $591,335; 1137

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1138 OUI’ (CO)U-N~ LY ABLD ITS IRESO)lUTICES. II 1874 it was $1,765,068.

In 1864 the total amounot expended for purposes of education was $871,671; in 1874 it was $3,148,885. “The ten years’ progress of Nevada covers the whole period of her existence as at State, the date of her admission into the Union being 1864. In 1.864 there were 34 school districts in the State, ill which the estimated value of schoolhouses was $34,733; in 1874
the number of school districts was 62, the value of school-housce; $69,413. In 1864 there were 1524 pupils in attendance uponi the public schools, which employed the services of 37 teachers; in 1874 the number of pupils was 3372, the number of teachers 76. In 1864 the total school expenditures were $50,732; inll 1874 they were $98,468. “In the State of New York the number of school districts in 1864 was 11,717, the number of schoolhouses 11,712; in 1874 the number of school districts was 11,995, the number of schoolhouses 11,739. In the former year the number of children attending school was 881,184; in the latter year it was 1,030,779. In 1864 the number of teachers employed was 26,888; in 1874 it was 29,464. In 1864 the amount paid as teachers’ salaries was $3,093,460; in 1874 it was $7,415,181. In 1864 the State paid the sum of $30,468 for the support of colored schools; in 1874 the amount expended for this purpose was $74,611. The total expcnditures for school purposes in 1864
amounted to $5,069,250; in 1874 they were $12,088,762. “In the State of Ohio, in 1864, there were 11,810 public schools; in 1874 the number was 14,543. In the former year the number of teachers employed was 20,108; in the latter year it was 21,899. In 1864 the amount expended for tuition wld incidental expenses was $2,420,940; in 1874 it was $5,535,747. The total expen: ditures for educational purposes in 1864 were $2,738,124; in 1874
they amounted t(o $7,431,975. “In the State of Pennsylvania there were 1825 school districts and 12,566 schools iil 1864; in 1874 the number of school districts was 2050, th2 number of schools 16,305. The number of pupils in the former year was 637,785; in te’e latter year it was 834,020.

The number of teachlers in 1864 was 14,688; in 1874 it was 19,089. In t864
the total amount expended for school purposes was $2,218,355; in 1874 it was $8,345,836. “In the State of Vermont th re were 2682 school districts in 1864, and 2754 in 1874. In the former year there were 76,021 pupils enrolled in the schools; in the latter year 78,139. The number of teachers employed in 1864 was 4341; in 1874 it was 4406. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1864 was $327,249; in 1874 it was $622,227. The followiug fitgures show the progress of six years in the new State of West Virginia: In 1868 there were 1517 school districts and 1140 schools in that State; in 1874 the number of school districts was 2411, the number of schools 2857. In the former year there were 35,304 pupils attending the public schools; in the latter year the attendance was 81,100. In 1834 the total expenditures for school purposes were $167,130; in 1874 these expenditures amounted to $748,064.” The following table, which is taken from the same source as the above figures, will show the financial resources of the various States at the beginning of 1874, with respect to the common schools:

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THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. RECEIPTS OF SCHOOLS AND STATE SCHOOL FUNDS. Income from i taxation fur 1873. …….. $,67,3z78 1,423,719 1;J7,*,57 1,203,842

1631,284 75,000 10(8,992 6,675,097 1,482,279 3,898,702 931,958 838,000

493,845 849,775 1,09’:,721 3,889,0.:,3 2,561,133 814-,891 1,089,G$5

1,145,:8,S 111,018 …….. 434,1 I50 2,426,705 10,’)05,:,,97 212,‘363

6,739,“344 71,152 7,F548,149 556,25,0 449,!3G8 …… 1,)92,915 415,4:32

85f),0O0 693,059 1,810,096 Total income ‘roiii all sources. $490,60 1

405,46,4 2,551,279 257,557 1,442,667 192,397 116,219 260,432 9,259,441

3,(61,773 4,519,688 1,863,09S 963,121 67~,:,*73 1,179,712 ],:3!)8,607

4,206,054 3,939,528 1,09.,706 1,242,:.O08 1,,90()314 798,660 …….

502,527 2,947,068 11,25-,8,,95 408,794 7,705,6)03 2:,0,C,11 8,248,.119

601,G1 449,968 …….. 1,144,534 5 32,1 1 0 1,023,009 778,991 2,628,027

Alabamaa……………………………

Arkansas………………………….

Ga1ifornia………………………….

Col)rado…………………………..

Cornnecticut………………………..

Delaware………………………….

Florida……………………………

Georgia……………………………

Illinois……………………………

Indiana……………………………

Iowa……………………………..

Kansas…………………………..

Kentlucky…………………………. ,Nan.

lonisiaia………………………….

Maine……………………………. 3Iarylai

I………………………….

Massacl-hiusetts……………………… NwIf.,impsltire, iciOregon…………………………. Ie
inaresyltna…………………………

M1ississiPI)i…………………..

MiTennessoueei…………………………..

Nexraska………………………….. Veritiont.

Nevaigiia…………………………… Newv

I~tmpshlire……………………. New

Jorsey……………………….. Newv

Yorks………………………… orWest

Virginia……………………..

Wisconsin……………………………….

Oregon…………………………… Pennlsylv
ani~a…………………….. Rhodle Island
l………………………. Southl Carolina……………………..

Ten n essee………………………….

Te~xas……………………………..

~ermon)lt…………………………..

Virginlia………………………….. West

Virgrinia………………………

Wisconsin…………………………. School Fund. …… $55,0oo 1,41’,500 13l7,507 2,043,375 …… 281,785 …… 6,382,000 8,395,13.5

3,294,742 3,017,589 1,628,123 …… 312,975 315,370 2,127,653 3,124,471

2,9)07,6t24 1,9-0,i;00 7,273,882 …… 10 [,00,) 47.192 8059.0,33

3,029’:,5 3 2,187,-564 3,562,992 452,721 1,500,000 30.5),849 2,389,488

TERRITORIES. Arizona………………………….., Ilakot…………………………… 2 District of Coluihbia………………… Idaho……………………………..

Indlian……………………………..

Motaita………………………….. New
liexico……………………….

Utah……………………………..

W,ashlington………………………..

WVyominig…………………………. 4,942 22,000 220,514 20,1,29

31,350 …….. 12’,885 …… 12, 000 41,180 From what has been writtell the reader will be able to trsce the rise and progress of the free school system from its birth down to its grand development in the American schools of to-day. We have shown that the free school was the outgrowth of the Christian Church, and was for a long period entirely under the control of the clergy. We have pointed out the evils which arose from such a connection, and have shown. in an imnperfect way, it is true, the gradual secularization of the schools. As men have become advanced in wisdom and experience, they have become convinced( that the task of conducting the general education of thle masses of the people belongs properly to the State. In this coutntry this conviction has led to the withdrawal of the common schools from the hands of the chl]rch, and the experiment of making them strictly secular institutions h.as been tried and has demonstrated that upon no other basis can th e schools be properly or successfully conducted. In our own free land the State does not concern itself with the religious beliefs of 1139 S’RATES. 5,849 22,000 220,514 .,3,013 33,161

58,621 1‘27,447 . i,… 1 COO 69,474 …… …… …… …… ……

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1140 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. its citizens, except to secure to each and all full protection and equality under the law. It gathers together in the public schools children of every shade of religious belief. Its object is not to make religious converts-it leaves that task to the various churches and to the religious and home influences by which the child is surrounded in its private life-bhut to fit the young pupil for the exercise of the important duties of a free citizen of a free Republic. It aims simply to give him as good an education as the means at hand will permit, and to save him from the sorrow and degradation of ignorance. It aims to train up an intelligent comlnmunity as the only means of preserving its free institutions. It has no right to attempt the religious training of its children, and it would be a great wrong to them to do so.

Such training they must receive from the religious organizations to which they belong. It cannot undertake to teach all creeds in the public schools, and to attempt to enforce any particular religious tenets in those institutions would be a cruel wrong to the community. Therefore the American people have wisely determined that their public schools shall concern themselves only with the business of secular education. For some years past there has been a persistent effort in certain quarters to force upon the public schools a semi-religious or sectarian character. The sentiment of the nation has set so strongly against this that the advocates of the scheme have been forced to change their mode of attack.

It is now proposed that the State shall assume the support of the sectarian schools by appropriating to them the taxes levied uponI and collected fromnt the whole people, or by using for this purpose a part of the public school funds, which are the property of the people of each State without respect to religious belief. The American people have learned too well the lessons of the past to listen for a moment to such a demand. They will maintain their noble system of public education unimpaired, and will resist and defeat all attempts to give to it a sectarian character, or to divert its means of support to objects foreign to its design. They are convinced fliat it is the only means of training up an intelligent body of citizens, and that as such it is the very cornerstone and foundation of their liberties and prosperity, and must be maintained in all its vigor and purity, be the cost what it may.

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THE AMERICAN FLAG. WONDERS OF NATURE AND ART IN AMERIICA. OUR OLDEST

INIItABITANT. It is believed that the oldest man living within the territory of the Union is Mr. I,omer Griffin, of Lodi, Medina county, Ohio. He is nearly one hundred and seventee mtears old. He was born at Granby, Litchfield county, Connecticut, on the 22d of April, 1759. In spite of his advanced age hlie is hale and intelligent, and remembers the events of his early life with distinctness. Hle can recall with ease the incidents connected with the excitement produced in his native town by the breaking out of the American Revolution. Among these hle mentions the departure of his brothers from home to enlist in the army, while lie remained behind to take care of the firm. He crast his first vote for John Adams for President, having failed for some reason which he does not remember to vote for Washington. Since then he has voted at every Presidential election. His life has been simple and uneventful, having been passed in plain farmer style. He has never used tobacco in any shape, but until a short while ago has taken his ” bitters” regularly. About forty years ago lie lost his right arm by the fall of a tree, but is quite expert with his left. “He dislikes to be bothered by inquiries about his age,” says a writer in Harpers’ IVeekly, “and when a newspaper interviewer questioned him too closely a short time since about Noah’s Ark, and the Tower of Babel, the old gentleman quite testily resented the impertinence, and advised the interviewer to’go West and kill grasshoppers.’ But after a little persuasion and coaxing hlie became quite communicative, and talked without reserve of his early days and experiences, of the times when only a narrow strip of territory along our eastern seaboard was inhabited, and the greater part of our country was still in the hands of the dusky and savage aborigines. What wonderful changes have taken place all over the world in politics, science and the industrial arts since he was old enough to take an interest in the progress of public affairs! He has lived throtigh changes which we know only from books, and with his own eyes has witnessed the growth of America from its colonial state to its present commanding position among the nations of the world.” Mr. Griffin was alive at the close of the year 1875, and his friends were hopeful that he would be spared to witness the Centennial of the independence of his country.

THE AMERICAN FLAG. There has been much controversy as to the date of the adoption of the Stars and Stripes as the national ensign of the United States. The facts in the case are simply these: A number of flags had been used by the Americans previous to the Declaration of Independence, none of which could be called ational. On the 14thl of June, 1777, Congress ordered “that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.” The design is supposed to have been suggested by John Adams, who was then Chairman of the Board of War; and it is believed that he obtained the idea from the arms of the Washington family, the shield of which represents a white field traversed by two red bars, with three spur rowels or stars in the upper portion. The resolution of June 14thll was not made public until September 3d, 1777, and the Stars and Stripes were first displayed conspicuously at the surrender of Bur 1141

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1142 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. goyne in October of the same year. No attempt was made to alter the flag until 1794, when it was resolved by Congress that it should consist of fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. Tihe addition of a star and a stripe for each new State was found to be exeedingly inconvenient, as it would soon enlarge the flag to ridiculous proportions. In 1817, Captain Ieid of the navy, whlo had commanded the famous privateer General Armnstrong, during the second war with England, suggested that the number of stripes be fixed at thirteen, in conimemoration of the thirteen (oi;gilal colonies, and that a new star be added to the cluster in the Union on the 4th day of Jlily next succeeding, the admission of any new State. The suggestion was adopted by Congress, and on the 4th of April, 1818, became a law. The first flag made under this law was made by the wife of Captain Reid. This lady died in Baltimore, Maryland, about;thle year 1857. THE ASTOR LIPBRARY. On the east side of Lafayette Place, in the city of New York, stands one of the noblest institutions in Amierica-the Library given by the Astors to the city of 7,ew York. The library owes its existence to the late John Jacob Astor. For miany years he carefully considered the subject, and at his death bequeathed the sum of four hluidred thousand dollars “for the establishment of a public library in the city of New Yorkl.” The will provided that the management of the affairs of the institution should be confided to a board of eleven trustees. The bu’.lding was completed a few yeaLrs after Mr. Astor’s death, and the library was opened in J’n-uary, 1854. The edifice is in the Byzantine style of architecture, and is one of the liand,‘omest of its kind in the country. The library room is one hundred feet in length by sixty-four in width, and fifty in height, and is reached by a flight of thlirty-six marble steps leading from the front entrance. The lower rooms are used for the deposit of public documents and other purposes. The growth of the library was so rapid that in January, 1856, Mr. William B. Astor, perceiving that the original building was not large enough for the purpose contemplated by his father, made a donation of anll adjacent piece of land eighty feet wide and one hIundred feet deep, and upon this eriected at his own cost an additional building of the same size and in the same style as the original edifice. As early ias the year 1839 Mr. Astor, aided by Dr. Joseph G. Cogswell, afterwards the first Superintendent of the library, purchased a number of books as the basis of the collection hlie intended to establish. In May, 1848, Dr. Cogswell was appointed Superintendent of the library, ii, accordance with the known wishes of Mr. Astor. In the fall of the same year hlie visited Europe, authorized to purchase books to tihe amount of $20,000. Hlie was absent about four months, during which time hlie collected about 20,000 volumes.

These were placed in a building temporarily rented for tilhe purpose. By the time the present library building was opened the number of books had increased to 70,000. The full capacity of the buildings is over 200,000
volumes, and has been nearly reached at the present time. In the selection of books particular care was given to those which it was believed would be most usefuil to a young and growing country. The departments of technology and bibliography are unusually rich, and that of American history is desitgned to lbe one of the chief features of the collection. In linguistics, particulllarly Oriental, tile Astor Library is the most valuable in America. Great care has also been given t, natural science, the works on this branch numbering about 7000 volumes, and many of these are rare and costly. Every facility is offered to visitors who desire to avail themselves of the advantages . o c

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OPERATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES MINT. 1143 of the library. A systematic and excellent mnode of government has been adopted, whlichl-is satisfactory to both officers and visitors. The catalogue of the library will be, when completed, the most perfectly arranged catalogue ever published. It will consist of eight octavo volumes, numbering upward of 500 printed pages eachl. Thle first four volumes will be devoted to an alphabetical index of authors’ names, and the remaining four to a systematically arranged catalogue of subjects. A portion of the work has been printed. OPERATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES MINT. The process of coining money, as practised in the United States Mint at Philadel phlia, and its branches, is deeply interesting. Eaclh deposit of gold and silver is received and receipted for by the Treasurer of the Mint. It is weighed and numbered aInd sent to the melting room, whlere it is melted and cast into bars. The object of this process is to convert the mass; into a hliomogeneous state, so that by an assay piece talken from it the condition of t’lie whole may be ascertained. After the melting the deposit is returned to the Treasurer, and the assayer, taking a small but stated quantity, ascertained by weight, subjects it to aLi excee(lingly delicate chemical test, by which hlie ascertains the proportion of gold or i;ilver whichii it contains, and thus determines the fineness of the whole. TIle result is reported to the Treasurer and carefully registered. The fine gold is parted( from the m)ass by dissolving the silver which it contains by means of nitric acid, and precipitating it by a solution of common salt. This gives chloride of silver, which is reduced to fine silver by the action of sulphuric acid and granulated zinc. After the separation both the gold and the silver remain in the form of fine powders, and are entirely %inlike those metals as ordinarily seen. Upon being melted, however, they assume )heir proper form. The fine gold thus obtained is now mixed with a stated proportion of copper for alloy, and after being melted is cast into ingots of the sizes suitable for coins. These ingots are examined by the assayer, who certifies to such as are of the standard fineness, after which they are delivered by the melter and refiner to the Treasmurler. As the metals pass from hand to hand they are charged or credited to the official receiving or returning them, and these accounts are adjusted every year. The Treasurer delivers the certified ingots to the coiner. These ingots are flat metal bars about twelve inches long, one-third of an inch thickl, and firom threequarters to one and a half inches in width. The bars are passed throughl a powerftil steam press, which accurately flattens them into strips of the thickness required for the coins for which they are designed. After being brouglht to the p)roper condition the bars are cut by a vertical punch into planchets of the size wanted(l. The planchlets are carefully weighled before being coined. This is done by females, whose delicacy of touch renders them the best persons for this service. The women are seated at a long table, and each one is provided with a pair of balances and a flat file. If, upon weighing them, the planchlets are found to be too heavy, they are brought to the proper weight by drawing the file lightly around the edge, while those that are too light are thrown aside to be remelted. After being thus adjusted the planchets are placed in the milling machine, the effect of which is to crowd up the edge of each piece evenly into a border or rim. Upon being taken out they are annealed and cleaned or whitened. They are now readv for coining. The planchets are a little smaller than the space in which they .4

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1144 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. are placed in the coining press. The force of the die causes them to expand into the collar of the machine and take firom it a fluted edge. The completed coins are careflilly examined by the coiner for the purpose of detecting the imperfect pieces, after vlwhich they are counted, put into bags, and finally delivered to the Treasurer. The process of counting is very greatly simplified by means of a counting board invente(l )by an officer of the Mint. Nearly all the machinery used in the Mint is of Amlerican invention and manufacture. The steam engine in the coining room is noted as one of the most perfect and beautiful machines ever mrnade. The greatest care is taken to hold all the individuals connected with the Mint to a strict accountability for the metals and coins which pass through their hands, and it is highly gratifying to know that these officials have always been found faithful to their trust. Indeed, the wastage of the metals in melting and refining is generally, for gold, about one-thllirteenthl, anid for silver one-eighthl of the amount allowed by law for that purpose. D)uring the year 1874 the operations of the mint and its branches were as follows: (lold coinage, $50,442,690; silver coinage, $5,983,601; gold bars stamped, $31,485,818; silver bars stamped, $6,847,799.18. THE PINY WOODS. In the far Southern States of the Union there are large districts known by thi,s name. They extend generally fiom sixty to one hundred miles inland from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico through the States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and a part of Louisiana. The region occupied by them is but little cleared or cultivated. Til? surface is varied, but is barren and sandy throughout.

Almost the entire growth is pine. The woods are very dense and in many places majestic, though one sooln becomes tired of the samenless of the scene. The borders of the streams are fringe( with a thick growth of magnolia, bay, laurel, and other evergreens. The absence of undergrowthi allows the eye a wide range through the trees. The smaller swamps o”

thickets, which are numerous, are known by the inhabitants of the region as “Bay galls,” and these are often the sources of large streams. Here the deer and other game, wvhich desert the open woods, are found in large numbers. A singular feature of these woods consists of circles of trees, of an acre or less in extent, entirely dea(d, without any apparent cause.

This is variously attributed to the ravages of insects or the effects of lightning. The brooks and rivulets of the piny woods consist of the pnrest and most limpid water, and the atmosphere of the region is singularly healthful and exhilarating. The exhalations from the pine trees are believed to possess properties positively curative of incipient pulmonary disease. a THE INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE. America, and especially that portion of it included within the limits of the United States, has made the most extraordinary advance in the great work of civilization but there are still large portions of the continent as wild, and peopled by races as barbarous, as when Columbus first set foot upon our shores. On our own western frontier there are races of Indians who are still untamed and dangerous, and who hold the white man their greatest enemy, and prize his scalp as their proudest ornament. These people are not only distinct from the white race, but they are separated from each other by lines as strongly drawn and by customs as varied as those which divide the various nations of Europe. By these customs they can at a glance distinguish

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THE ICE TRADE. each other when a white man would fail to perceive any difference. For instance, ill order to enable parties roaming across the prairies to distinguish friends from enemies, they have adopted a general system of signs. When two parties of Indians meet on the prairie they halt and conmmence signalling. The signal to halt is given by raising the right hand with the palni-in front, and gradually moving it forward and back several times. When this command has been obeyed, one of the parties will raise the right hand again and move it slowly to the right and left. This means, “Who are vou? I do not know you.” The other party will then reply by giving the peculiar signal of the tribe to which they belong, and if this be not understood the questioning party will ask if they are friends by raising both hands grasped in the manner of shaliaing hland(s, or by locking the two forefingers firmly vwhile the hands are held ulp. If friendly the other party will respond with the same signal, but if enemies they will pr1obably disregard the comnland( to’hlialt, or will give the signal of anger by closing the hand, placing it against the forehead, and turnling it back and forth while in that position. The nationality of a party is signalled as follows, which will be better understood Iby the reader when it is renmembered that the name of each Indian tribe has a particular significationi. The Comanche, or ” Snake,” is indicated by making with the hand a wavi ig motion in the air in imitation of the crawling of a snake. The (?heyenne, or Cut Arnm,” by drawing the hand across the arm to imitate the cutting it with a knife. The Arapalioes, or “Smellers,” by seizing the rnose with the thlumb -and forefinger. The Sioux, or ” Cutt-throats,” by drawing the hand across the throat. lThe Pawnees, or “Wolves,” by placing a hand on each side of the forehead, with two fingers pointing to thie front, to represent the narrow, sharp ears of the wolf. The Crows by imitating the flalpp)ing of the bird’s wings with the palms of the hand(s. The Indians do not confine themselves to these purposes in their sign language. Thley have a pantomnilmic vocabulary which is exceedingly graceful and simple, and whlichl is understood and used with great facility alnld accuracy by all the tribes from the Gila to the Columbia, the motions and signs to express ideas being common to all.

It is a singular fact that this Indian sign language bears a striking resemblance to that used by the deaf mutes in our public institutions.

General Marcy, of the United States army, state. that he described a buffalo hunt to the pupils of one of these institutions, using the Indianl sign language, and that the pupils understood him perfectly, with the exception of mistaking a buffalo for a deer. By means of these signs the Indians, whose sight is keen and practised, can colmmunicate with each other at considerable distances and in the presence of an enemy. Indeed, the closer we study their customs the more we are impressed with the fact that necessity, “the mother of invention,” has supplied them with expedients which equal mliany of our own in ingenuity. THE ICE TRADE. The business of gathering, storing, and selling ice has become such a commonplace afliir in our country that our readers may be surprised to find it included among the remarkable things of this wonderful land. But as such, indeed, it deserves to rank. The principal supplies of ice are collected in the Northern States, and are obtained from the freshwater rivers, the smaller lakes, and the New England “ponds,” from the upper Mississippi to the Canada line. The more important firms engaged in the business pursue a uniform and exact system, which is very interesting and admirably adapted to the purpose. When the ice has reached a thickness of nine or ten inches 1145

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1146 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. for home use, or twenty inches for exportation, the snow, or rough upper crust, is shaved off by means of a metal scraper which is drawn over it by a single horse. An instrument, or plow, armed with several sharp blades placed at regular distances from each other, is drawii over the ice, and then drawn over it a second time at right angles to the first lines, dividing the field into small blocks twenty-two inches square. In some cases the size of tilc blocks is twenity-twno by thlirty-six inches. A plow of deeper blade is then drawn over the ice in the lines made by the first plow, sinking just deep enough to leave the ice adhlering firmly together until the final operation. In the smaller establishments the final cutting is done by means of a hand-saw. An icespade completes the final separation of the blocks, and(
they are pushed by means of a pike into the open water and conveyed to the shorie. Ihere the blocks are carried by the aid of steam power up an inclined plane to a gallery, from which they are lowered into the icehouse in regular rows. The icehouses are situated immediately on the shiore of the water where the “harvest” is made. They are substantially constructed, and are very large and spacious, frequently exceeding 20,000
tons in cap)acity. Tlihere is an icehouse at Athens, on the I-Hudsoni, which holds 58,000 tons, and there are two at Rockland Lake, New York, holding 40,000 tons each. There are about fifty of these huge buildings around Fresh Pond, inii Cambridge, Massachusetts. The cutting season is very short, and all hands are kept busy. The work is carried on day anid niighli, and the numnber o’f iime engaged often armounts to several hundred. These, aided by the steam power employed in lifting the ice from the water to the houses, cut and pack about 600 tons in an hour. The scene is animated and exhiilarating, and never fails to draw large crowds of spectators to witness it. The first attempt to make American ice an article of commerce was made by Mr. Frederic Tudor, of Boston, who, in 1805o, sailed( from that port in his own brig for Martinique, with a cargo of 130 tons of ice, whichl he obtained from that part of Lynn which was then called Saugus. MAr. Tudor derived no profit from this business until lthe close of the second war with England, when lie obtained the monopoly of the Hfavana trade. In 1817 lie introduced his business into Charleston, South Carolina; in 1818 into Savannahl, Georgia; and in 1820 into Newv Orleans. About 200,000 tolns of ice are aniiiiially shipped from the port of Boston alone at present. About onehalf of this amount is sent to the Southern States. Besides this, New York and several other cities are engaged in exporting ice. A great quantity of ice is also obtained from the great lakes and shipped down the MAississippi. The ice-boats ascend to the vicinity of Peru, Illinois, in the autumn, where they are filled during the winter, and allowed to freeze up in the river. They are released by the spring thaw, and float down the river into the Mississippi with their freight. A large part of the Southern States draws its ice supply from this source. AN AMERICAN ENTERPRISE. The Express system, now so necessary to the wants of our country, is decidedly an American institution. It was begun, like many great enterprises, in a very modest and unassuming way. On the 4th of March, 1839, Mr. William F. Hiarnden, of Boston, made his first trip from that city to New York as a public messenger. His route was from Boston to Providence by railroad, and thence by steamer, via Long Island Sound, to New York. He had charge of a few booksellers’ bundles and orders, and some packages belonging to brokers, containing Southern and Western bank notes to deliver or exchange. For these services he charged a moderate compensation,

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THE CHICAGO LAKE TUNNEL. and his enterprise soon grew so popular that he proposed to take charge of freight, the speedy delivery of which hlie guaranteed. For this purpose hlie made a contract with the Providence Railroad and the steamners connecting with it, which enabled him to make four trips per week. Ilis scheme offered so many advantages to business men and others that it soon became firmly established. This was thle origin of the express system, which, commencing thlirty-six years ago wvithl a capital of about five dollars, employing one man, and embracing but one route of less than 200 miiles, now commands over $20,000,000 of capital, employs about 10,000 men, and traverses each day nearly 40,000
miles of railroad, besides the steamboat routes. Besides the home traffic, some of the companies send out expresses by every steamer to Europe, and receive them from the Old Worl wvitli e’qual regularity. The advantages of the system arc incalculable, and it may be safely asserted that the business of the country cotuld not be transacted without it. A merehaut sending goods to a distant buyer niay\ slip themn by anl express, the proprietors of which will guarantee their safe delivery tir in advance of the time that would be consunied by the ordinary freight lines; be respolsible for any loss or injury of goods; and, should the merchant desire it, will collect the amount of his bill on the delivery of the goods, and remit it to him within a few days, at a moderate charge and without trouble to him. The business of the express companies is conducted with the most perfect order and precision. Each mani has his place and sepiarate specified duties. There is no conflict of authority, no confusion; everything goes on with clock-like regularity. Every charge made by the conmpany for transportation is entered, with the date, upon the way bill, at the office or station from which it is forwarded. The address of each package is entered in full, with the value of the package and the sum charged by the company for transporting it. Eilich agent retains copies of his way bills, which copies are carefully preserved, and after a certain time forwarded to the main office of the division, where they are filed away. Every package received by aln agent is compared with its appropriate entry in the way bill accompanying it. If correct, it is checked off; if wrong, information of the error is sent to the office from which it was shipped, and the mistake promptly rectified. Tihe companies transport their freight in their own cars, paying the various roads a stated sum per annum for this privilege, and these cars form a part of each filst express or mail train. Every express car or train is accompanied by a ” messeilger.” To the agent of every station he delivers what the way bill calls for, and receives the freight to be forwarded from that point to the stations further on. All this is done at the stations during the ordinary pauses of the trains. The main offices of the various companies are located in New York. Their routes extend throughout the Union, every railway station being an express office. When we consider the vast amount of energy and executive ability and tact’engaged in the management of the tremendous business of the various express companies we may well be proud of an institution which reflects so much credit upon the mercantile community of the Union, and which has done so much to develop the industry and wealth of the country. THE CHICAGO LAKE TUNNEL. One of the most remarkable public works in this or any other country is the great tunnel under Lake Michigan, by means of which the city of Chicago is supplied with pure water. It is a t. iumph of engineering skill of which any country might be 1147

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1148 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. proud, and will always remain a noble monument to the intelligence and enterprise of the great West. For many years Chicago labored under a serious disadvantage with regard to its supply of drinking water, which retarded the growth of the city and impaired its healthfulness. The drinking water of the city was obtained from sources which were poisoned by the drainage of its sewers. There was but one way to remedy this evil, and that was to obtain pure water from the lake at a distance too far from the city to admit of the liquid being rendered impure by contact with the drainage of the citv. The mnnicioal authorities set to work in concert with competent engineers to accomplisli this, and the result of their efforts is the wonderful lake tunnel. It was resolved to sink a shaft into the bed of the lake at a distance of two miles froii the city, and to connect this shaft with the water-works by means of a tunnel undll(ler the bed of the lake. Thle lake bed was carefully examined, and it was ascertained that underneath the top layer of soft mud was a continuous stratum of hard blue clay, which would give a firm and solid support to the proposed tunnel. Ground wis broken on the 17th of March, 1864. A shaft was sunk at each end, on shore and in the lake. The workl on shore was easy enough, but the lake shaft required all the skill and courage of the engineers in charge. A huge wooden crib or coffer damn was built on shore and towed to its destination. It was heavily armored with iron, and was built as strong as human ingenuity could make it, and was provided with water tight comnpartmrents which could be filled with stonie in order to steady it in its place in the lake. It was sunk in about thirtyfive feet of water, which left about five feet of the structure above the surface of the waves. It was then fastened securely to huge screws driven ten feet into the bed of the lake.

In the centre of this crib was a well or open space, twentyfive feet in diameter, through which the shaft was to be sunk. The shaft was to be driven through the well of the crib thirty feet into the bed of the lake, making the depth in all sixty-six feet below the surface of the water.

Seven cast-iron cylinders, each nine feet long, nine feet in diameter, and weighing about thirty thousand pounds each, were prepared for this purpose. One of these cylinders was suspended in the well, another was bolted on to it with a water-tight joint, and the cylinder was lowered and another fastened in the same way. The process was continued until the shaft, a solid iron tube, sixty-four feet deep, rested on the bottom, and forced its way by its own weight through the soft mud down to the hard blue clay beneath. Then the water was pumped out, the top closed, the air exhausted by a powerful steam engine, and the tube driven by atmospheric pressure down to the desired depth in the lake bed. The shore end shaft was easily sunk. A cast-iron tube, similar to that used in the lake, was sulnk to a distance of twenty-seven feet, making it lower than the lake shaft, causing a descent of two feet to the mile in the tunnel. The work of excavating the tunnel was then begun at both ends. The tunnel is nearly a true cylinder of five feet diameter. It is walled up with the best of brick, and lined with cerlent eight inches thick. “A narrow railway was laid from the foot of each shaft as the work progressed, with turn-out chambers for the passage of meet ing trains; and small cars, drawn by mules, conveyed the excavated earth to the hoisting apparatus, and brought back at every trip a load of brick and cement. The men worked in gangs of five at the excavation; the foremost removing a drift in the centre of the tunnel, about two and a half feet wide, the second breaking down the sides of the drift, the third trimming up the work to the proper shape and size, and the last two loading the earth into the cars. The bricklayers followed closely, only a few feet behind the miners. About one hundred and twentyfive men were employed,

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THE MOUNT WASHINGTON RAILWAY. in three relays, working about eight hours each, the only cessation being from twelve o’clock Saturday night to twelve o’clock Sunday night. A current of fresh air was constantly forced through the tube by miachinery. It is remarkable that no accident from earth, gas, or water, occurred in the whole course of the work, sufficient to interrupt its progress.” The mining parties joined their work on the 17th of November, 1866. T-he accuracy with which the two lines of excavation met is something remarkable in the annals of engineering. The centre lines coincided within nine and a half inches, and the floors were joined with a difference of only one inch. Water is let into the lalke shaft by three gates. These are situated at different heights and on different sides of the shaft. The lowest is five feet from the bottom of the lake, the next ten, and the third fifteen feet. These gates can be opened or shut at pleasure. A solid granite structure will eventually enclose the lake shaft to protect it from the violence of storms, and the whole will be crowned with a lighthouse. Thie water enters thile lake shaft and flows through the tunnel into the shaft at the shore end, from which it is raised to the distributing reservoir by the pumping engin s of the water-works. By means of this great work an unlimnited supply of the purest water is furnished to the city. The great fire of 1871 destroyed the water-vworks, but (id not injure the shaft or the tunnel, a(nd the supply of water was interrupted enly (turing the time occupied in restoring the iwater-works to their proper condition. The cost of the entire workl was about one million of dollars, but its real value to the city cannot be estimated in figures. THE MOUNT WAStHINGTON RAILWAY. Mount Washington is the highest of the White Mountain range, its summit being ()226 feet above the level of the sea. It has long been a favorite resort lor tourists, as ‘rom its highest point may be obtained a view embracing in its extensive range the better part of New England. Formerly the long and difficult ascent was made on horseback. The summit is now more easily and agreeably reached by the Mount WashiniigtonI RItailway. Thiis road is a triumph of engineering skill. It was designed by Sylvester MIarsh, an -tAmerican engineer, and was built under his superintendence. The work was begun in 1866, and the road was completed and opened to the public in the summer of 1869. It has proved a complete success, and has revolutionized mountain travel in many parts of Europe. It was the model of the road up the Rlhigi, in Switzerland, which is now patronized by nine-tenthls of the visitors to that region. Tile railroad is nearly three miles in length. It starts from the base of the mountain at a point about 2668 feet above tidewater, and ascends 3625 feet, to the summit of the mountain. For a considerable part of the way the road ascends the side of the mountain in a straight line from the starting point, and then winds around the side in a zigzag until the summit is reached. The maximum grade is 1980 feet to the mile, or a little more than one foot in three, and the average is nearly one foot in four. The road is built in the most substantial manner of massive timbers, interlaced and bolted, and resting on the solid rock of the mountain side. It is a model of strength and careful workmanship, and it is difficult to imagine how it could give way. It seems to every test almost as firm as the rocks upon which it rests. The track consists of the usual rails, and of a centre rail of peculiar construction, designed to receive the motive power. It consists of two bars of iron with connecting cross pieces at a distance of every four inches. A centre cog wheel on the locomotive 1 1 4,)

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. )l.-tys into this rail, and secures a sure and steady mode of ascent and descent. The teeth of the cogwheel fit so closely and firmly into the centre rail that it is impossible .r the locoriotive to move without a revolution of this wheel. In case the )machinery of’ the locomotive should break down, the brakes which connect with the cogwheel are 6o constructed as to hold it firm and enable it to retain its grip on the centre rail. ”lie driving wheel of tilhe locomotive is geared directly into a smaller whleel, whichl ‘oltnects directly with the crank. Four revolutions of the engine are required to il.kec one of the driving whvleel, thtus sacrificinrg speed to power. The engine is not , (iiiee cted to tlhe car, but simp-)ly ptushes the car up the track. On the return it allows I ie car to followv it at a slow rate of speed. T’ile ascent is slow and( giradual, occupying about two hours, and affording ample tiltle to enjoy the magnificent -,lew, whlichl in fair weather spreads out before the ,(lirist, growing w-ider and grander at every successive stage of the ascent. Few wlho ‘;tivc made the ascent will ever forget the peculiar sensations experienced in this .tlrmost perl)peidicular climb. The engines and cars used are of peculiar construction. Strength and safety are the chlecf considerations, and to these objects miere beauty and conmfort are sacrificed. THE NEW YORK

CLEARING HOUSE. The intricate and gigantic financial operltions of the great monetary celttre of the lUnion hlave been greatly simnl,lified by an institution knlown as the “Clearing IHouse,” wlichl fairly’ mnerits a place in this collection of reimarkal)le things. h’le buildiing used and owned by the Clearing House stands at the corner of NIassau atlnd Pine streets. Its exterior is of brownstone. It is five stories in height, having a frontage of thirtv-seven feet on Nassau street, and a depth of eiglhty feet onl Pilne street. The first floor is leased to the Tenth National Bank, but the remainder of tlhe. }I)tilding is used for Clearing House purposes. The interior decorations are very liandsomie, the rooms are large, lofty, and elegantly furnishedl. A spacious stone stairwav on Pine street leads from thle entrance to the ilpper stories. The first room o-) the right onI the second floor as the visitor enters is the settling roomn. Next to this is the bank officers’ parlor, where the meetings of the association are held. In front of this room are two smaller ones overlooking Nassau street, the corner room is a library and reading room, and the one adjoining is the mainager’s room. From this lIst a private stairway leads to tlhe clearing room, which exte.nds the entire length of the building, being lighted by numerous windows opening upon Nassau and Pine streets, and by a handsomely decorated skylight overhead. Thle gallery at the rear is set apart for the proof clerks. From this gallery the manager, whose desk is located there, gives the signal to Legin the(-
operation of exchange. Before the New York Clearing house was established, the business of presentation was done )y messengers. One bank would send to another its daily accumulation of drafts, and it, in return, would deliver whatever checks it held, which were due at the counter of the sending bank. Instead of settling daily, the account was allowed to run for a week, when the creditor bank drew its check upon the debtor Lank, and the latter paid the amount in coin. By way of adjusting accounts a creditor bank would endorse a settlement check over to one to which it was indebted, thus transmitting as little bullion as possible. The time of manv messengers was wasted by this unsystematic practice, and an intricacy of accounts was the inevitable result. Hence the dawning of the Friday settlement day invariably discovered all bank officers in a state of fear and trembling, an indisposition which was only relieved by the knowledge, at 1.1.50

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THE NEW YORK CLEARING HOUSE. the close of business, that their affairs were still prosperous, and that there was now another week before them in which to eat, drink, and be merry. At length an organization was devised, pondered, and finally adopted, the workings of which amply equalled the fondest hopes of its projectors. This society was called the New Yorkl Clearing House Association. Nowv, instead of employing an army of me.ssengers. to scour all parts of the city, each bank sends two clerks to a stated place ol’ mueting, where are assembled an equal niumber of clerks from every ass(sciated bank. ()ne of these clerks attends to the settling, that is to say, hlie receives from the delivery clerks of the other banks the debits which have accumulated against his own. The (,thler, who is iitrusted with all the debits held by his bank against each of its associates (vllhich debits are made up into separate packets, one packet for every bank), iiiakes the delivery; in other words, he places the packets containing checks against bank number one into the hands of number one’s receiving clerk, and so with number two and number three, until all his packets have been distributed. Ealch bank knows the total amount of checks against other banks which it sends to the Clearing House, it only remains for the settling clerk to ascertain how much shall be taken awavy.

The amount of checks one bank produces against all the others is credited to it on the books in the Clearing House; the amount all the others produce against it is charged to it. If the anmount brought by any bank is in excess of the amount taken away, the balance resulting froei such exchange, which is manifestly in its favor, is paid to it by the Clearing hIouse. In a reversal of the case, the latter would collect from the former. This association was established and its constitution adopted more than twenty years ago, and consisted of fifty-one banks as associate members. At present the number is fifty-nine. During the intervening time fourteen of the banks have failed, or otherwise liquidated their business.

Of the banks and banking institutions in New York and its suburbs, possessing no imembersliip in the Clearing House, forty-seven participate in its benefits by having their redenmptions made through some one of the associate meribers.. A Chairrman and Secretary of the associatioi are lected annually, also a standing committee, composed of five bank officers, whose duties are to guard the interests of the banks, appoint a imanager, and engage the requisite clerical force, all of which latter, as well as the clerks sent fromt the banks, being, while at the Clearitg House, under the manager’s control. Three long counters, four feet high, extend nearly the entire length of the room, leaving a space in front for a passageway. These counters are divided bv iron railings into spaces wide enough to allow standing room for the person who receives the packets, and in front of each desk is the name and number of the bank whose clerk is the occupant. Each bank is assigned a certain desk or division of counter, which( it retains during its memnbership. The hour of ten A. M. is the time for making the exchange. Before that time every bank must have sent two clerks to the Clearing House. When the volume of business is large, a third accompanies them to receive the packets, while the actual settling clerk, whose duty that usually is, puts the amount upon its balance sheet. The .x’(-h(nges, or paclkets for delivery, are made ulp in each bank the day previous, by clerks of the second and third teller’s departments, and the total amount of each is written on the outside of the packet. The settling clerk brings with him to the Clearing House a sheet of paper called a statement, which contains a list of the banks with the amount of the packets which the delivery clerk is to hand to the other banks. tUpon entry, the footing of this statement is handed to one of the proof clerks, so that before the work of exchange has been completed, part of the proof may be ready. 1151

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1152 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. This proof consists of a list of total amounts sent by each bank, set against the total amounts taken away lby them. If the work has been done correctly, these debtor and creditor columns will agree, and the debtor id( credlitor balance columns also. THE

OIL REGIONS. About the close of the civil war it was discovered that certain portions of the United( States were rich in petroleum oil, or, as it is more commonly called, coal oil. The dliscovery created an excitement which can be compared only with that occasioned by the discovery of gold in California. Thousands flocked to the oil regions; lands that were before considered almost worthless were sold for large sums if they were found to contain tie precious deposit; and vast amounts of money were invested in operating the wells that were suink for the collection of the oil. The excitement has long since subsided, and the oil regions have passed out of the period of feverish speculation into the calni and settled repose of legitimate and steady industry. Their business has not fallen off; however, but has grown in bulk and value every year. Many parts of the country contain petroleum wells, but the true oil regions are situated in the northwestern corner of Pennsylvania, towards the shores of Lake Erie. They lie mainly in Veiiango and Cnrawford counties, beyond the Allegheny river. This region, at the time of the discovery of its oil wells, was comparatively unsettled and unimportant. It is now the centre of a large and active population, and niew towns, sonme of them of considerable importance, have sprung up in it. Corry and Oil City have grown utip in the last ten years, and are thriving towns, and Ale.tdeville and Franklin, places of older d(ate, have become centres of large aind profitable business operations. Corry is a place of 4000 inhabitants, and is almost entirely devoted to the oil business. Long before reaching the oil regions, the traveller encounters evidences of his appro-ich to them in the long trains of cars bearing the oil to the markets of the Union. As he continues on his way, the whole country assuaes a greasy appearance, and is redolent with the odor of petroleum. Once in the oil regions he hears nothliig discussed but “wells,”’ ” oil,” and “oil stocks,” smells nothling but petroleum, the scent of which l)e,rvades everything, and seems to cling to every person and object in the whole distiict. Franklin, built on the site of the old French Fort Venango, Corry, and Oil (ity are the principal centres of the trade of the region, but the wells are scattered through the country, lyiiig chiefly along French, Sugar, and Oil creeks. Whichever way one turns he may see the large cone-like structures for the pumping machinery of the wells rising against the sky, singly in some places, in groups in others. The wells are silnk by means of boring machinery to a considerable depth, until the stream of oil is reached.

During the first years of the business some of the wells were so active that the oil spouted a few feet above the surface of the ground, like the stream of an artesian well. This extraordinary activitv has ceased and thle oil now lies in a thick crude state at the bottom of the wells, from which it is raised by steam puimps, and conveyed into tanks prepared for its reception. It is then sibjected to a process of refining bv which the pure oil is freed from the coarser mixture. It is then drawn off into barrels and shipped to the market. Some of the refineries are very extensive, and refine about 300 barrels of oil per day. All the oil, however, is not refined in the oil regions. The crud(le petroleum is shipped in bulk to Pittsburg, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and other larg,e cities and there refined. The city of Pittsburg turns out about $11,000,000 worth of refined oil every year.

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AMERICAN GLASSWARE. AMERICAN GLASSWARE. Our country has become famous for its glass manufactories, which turn out in great quantities every species of glassware from tlhe coarse green bottle to the most delicate and costly articles of table use or ornament. In the ycar 1870 there were 201
establishments in the United States engaged in the manufacture of glass, employing 15,812 hands and a capital of $14,111,642, and producing annually wares valued at $19,235,862. In the manufacture of glass the hiighest skill and the utmost care are necessary. The furnace must be constructed with the greatest precision and of the best materials. The crucibles are made of clay, and must be prepared with care, must be without a flaw, and must be set in the furnace in the most exact manner.

One of the principal materials used in the manufacture of glass is kelp, or the calcined ashes of sea-weed. It is first put into a calcining filrnace, where it is kept for twentyfour hours at a red heat, and then into cold water. After this it is sent to the mixing room and mixed with carbonate of soda and either lime or sand. The mixture is then placed in the crucible, which has been brought to an intense degree of heat. As it melts more is added to it iuntil the crucible is filled. The heat is then increased and the mixture brought to l liquid state. It is then clear glass. This process is termed “founding,” and occupies firom twentyfour to thirty hours. At the end of this time the fire is slackened for two hours to enable the skimnmer to clear or clean the surface, after wlhich the mass is reatdy for the workmen. The gatherer takes a hollow tube of iron about five or six feet in length, and having heated one end of it, gathers thereon a quantity of the melted glass sufficient for the use that is to be made of it. ie works this and expands it by drawing it out and blowing through the tube, and then passes it to the blower, who fashions it by blowing through the tube and forcing out the soft metal into a hollow mass, and by shaping it with the instruments provided for that purpose, turning the tube and with it the mas.s rapidly all the while. In this way the soft hot glass is formed into the myriad shapes that delight the eye. Until within a period not many years back, and within the memory of the majority of workers in glass of to-day, the finest vases, goblets, decanters, and the most delicate-stermmed wine-glasses were blown by a workman who afterwards shaped them by rolling the blow-pipe holding the heated mass alternately to and from him rapidly, and applying to the hot metal a tool not unlike a pair of shears. The workman generally sat on a stool between two rails, known as the bullion bars, upon which he rolled his blow-pipe, passing it rapidly until, with the centrifugal movement produced by the motion and the manipulations of the tool descriLed, hle shaped a decanter, goblet, vase, or wine-glass of any desired pattern, and in an incredibly brief space of time. In this art, as in all others, modern invention ha,s in a great measure superseded the more tedious processes of the olden time. By means of the improved processes it is now within the reach of the pockets of the poor to become the possessors of a set of elegant glassware. The new process, which is known as pressing, is far in advance of the old method, as by it not only forms but patterns without limit can be produced; whereas by the old style only plain glass of various shapes could be procured. And even at the present time the same kind of work can be produced only by the old process, the engravers’ art being brought into requisition to relieve the plainness of the production.

In the new process the mass of melted glass is gathered on the end of the blow-pipe, is worked by the operator and slightly distended by blowing. It is then placed in the mould and blown out to its l 159’

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1154 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. proper shape, or a mass of melted glass is placed in the mould and pressed into shape by anll iron instrument made to fit in the mould. Thile results of the new process, embracing as they do everything from plain to the most delicate and intricate designs in foliage and figures, are pressed in moulds made of iron, the production of which involves the expenditure of much labor and money. The mould for the goblet, straw-stem wine-glass, or tumbler, that may be procured for the merest trifle, costs from $50 to $150. The cost of moulds for a full set of glassware is sometimes as much as $3000. American ingenuity has furnished us the means of decorating our tables, at a trifling outlay, with articles any one of which the sovereigns of the ancient world would have regarded as a great treasure. Thile tools in general use in the glass factories are very few and are simple in consruction. They consist, in the main, of the blow-pipe, of wrought iron, four or five fet in length, by wlichl the molten mass is caught up from the pots; a puntv, or rod of iron, which receives the article on its end when knocked firom the pipe; spring tongs used to fashion ribbons of glass into handles; pucellas, or heavy spring shlears, wlichl are employed to give shape to the articles; the battledores of wood to assist in shaping; compasses, measuring stickl and calipers. When a piece has been nearly finished on the pipe, a little red-hot lutmp of glass is dropped on the end and the punty applied. A slight blow on the pipe releases the vessel, and it is afterwards handled by the punty until that, in turn, is no longer necessary. When the various articles are finished as to shape and size, they are put into the annealing ovens for a few hours, after which all the roughness is filed or rubbed off. The delicate engraving and the roughness of surface so much admired in glassware are done by means of a water or sand wheel, the figures having been previously traced on the surface. This is a very delicate operation, requiring great delicacy of touch as well as skilful workmanship, as the slightest slip of the hand or inequality of pressure may shlatter the glass into a thousand pieces.

riThe manufacture of glass in this country was begun in New England. In 1790 Rel,bert Hewes, a citizen of Boston, built a factory in a forest of New Hampshire, close to the Massachusetts line. His only production was window glass of a poor quality, anid hlis enterprise resulted in failure.

In 1800 another factory for the production of crown window glass was started, but it, like its predecessor, was unsuccessful. It was xiot until 1803, when a German named Lint undertook the manufacture, that it proved successfill, the State of Massachusetts paying a bounty for every plate manufactured. Since then the business has grown rapidly, and has spread into other parts of the country. THE NEW YORK POST-OFFICE. The massive granite edifice now occupied by the New York Post-Office and the United States Courts is by far the finest building in the metropolis of the Union. The excavations for the foundations were begun on the 9th of August, 1869, and the edifice was completed in the autumn of 1875. The work was delayed very greatly during its first years for want of funds., Congress being very slow in nmaking the necessary appropriations. The total cost of the building was $8,000,000, which is reasonable enotiugh considering its immense size, its beauty, and strength, and the magnificence of its internal decorations. The building is a triangular strlcture, the three sides of which front on the City Iall Park, Broadway, and Park Row, respectively. The Park Row front is 278 feet long, and the other two fronts are 280 feet each in length. The extreme length of the

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THE NEW YORK POST-OFFICE. building from the Park front to the opposite extremity is 286 feet. The height from the sidewalk to the lantern on the south end of the building is 195 feet, to the pavilion 140 feet, and to the dome 182 feet. Below the sidewalk are a basement and a cellar, the cellar being 7 feet and the basement 14 feet high. Above these are five stories, the first, second, and fifth of which are set apart for the Post-Office, and the third and fourth for the Courts and offices connected with them. The first story is 29 feet high; all the other stories are 22
feet, with the exception of the District and Circuit Court rooms, which rise from the second to the fourth floor. The portion of the building devoted to the Post-Office is admirably arranged for tilhe transaction of thile immense business of the department and for the accommodation of the public. The basement is the large working room of the Post-Office, where the mails are opened and packed, newspapers assorted, and all other work of that nature performed. A number of semicircular frames called “ovens,”

filled with pigeon holes-200 to 250 pigeon holes being in each “oven”-are among the principal features of this portion of the building. The pigeon holes are made unusually large, so that letters and packages can be thrown in with the greatest possible rapidity. Twenty large tables are also placed here for the purpose of emptying the mails uponi them. On the soutlhwest side of the basement is a large iron storeroom for the purpose of holding all the mail bags in the United States not in use. Wardrobe and other accommodations for the emnploves are also liberally provided in this portion of the building. Thile floor on the street level is divided into corridors for the accommodation of the public and a large hall for the work of the office. The boxes and windows for the delivery of mail matter and for the sale of stamps and envelopes are on this floor. Partitions fifteen feet high divide the workling space for the clerks from the wide corridors for the accommodation of the public. On the Broadway side are the receptacles for drop letters, vlwhere a new feature has been introduced which will, if properly carried out, greatly facilitate the business of despatching the mails and serve as a school of geography for those vlwho daily post a great number of letters. Tile openings for the reception of mail matter arc labelled wvithl the names of the various States of the Union, and special drops are provided for the principal cities. By means of these dIrops persons mailing letters assist in assorting the immense mail that daily passes through the New York ofice.

Some idea of the size of this mail may be gained firom the following statement: The average number of domestic letters received and distributed daily by the -New York office i: 300,000; the number of foreign letters received 30,00D; the number despatchede 3o5,000; and the number of local letters received and distributed 120,000. The Postmaster’s private office is in the second story. He occupies a large room in the southwest front and a smaller one on the same side near the Park Row front. The office of thile Assistant Postmaster is also on this floor. These offices are finely decorated. The rooms facing Broadway on this floor are occupied by the Post-Office Money Order Department. One of these rooms-100 feet in length by 20 feet in widthcontains a handsome mahogany screen counter, similar to those constructed in banks, with windows for Fourteen clerks. Besides this, there are fourteen desks for receiving clerks, and thirty desks for the other clerks of the department. The rooms are otherwise handsomely filrnished. The rooms in the Broadway wing, facing the light court, are used by searchers and money order clerks. InII the opposite wing the rooms facing Park Row are occupied by the Post-Office Cashier’s Department, the offices being of the same size and furnished in the same manner as those of the Money Order 11515

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1156 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Department. The apartment on this side, which is nearest the southwest front, is occupied by the Auditor, and is subdivided into two rooms by an ornamental counter and screen. The rooms in this wing looking upon the light court are used by the General Mail Agent. Onil the side of the second story, facing City Hall Park, the room nearest Broadway is the United States District Court Room, measuring 36 by 60 feet. Its height is 40 feet, extending through the third story.

The centre room on this side is for the United States Circuit Court, being 45 by 60 feet, and of the same height as the District Court Room. The room nearest Park Row is the Equity Term Room, 25 feet square and 20 feet in height. Between the courts are the private rooms of the judges, toilette rooms, etc. The walls and ceilings of the court rooms are in ornamented white, “hard finish.” Opening upon the light court on this side are two rooms for male and female witnesses. On the City hIall front of the third story, the room above the Equity Term Roonm, extending also over the judges’ private rooms on the floor below, is used for the United States Criminal Term Room. It is of about the same size as the District (ourt, and extends in height through the fourth story. In the Park Row wing the room nearest City Hall Park is occupied as the office of the Judge of the Circuit Court. The rooms adjoining this are used for the Clerk of the Circuit Court. The rooms on the southwest front, and two rooms on Park Row, are used as the District Attorney’s office. A circular room at the corner of the southwest and Broadway fronts is used by the United States Alarshlal, together with two rooms facing Broadway. Thile other rooms on Broadway are occupied by the Clerk of the District Court, with the exception of one which is used by the Judge of that court. The rooms facing the light court include waiting rooms and the office of one of the judges. The fourth story contains the Law Library and offices for the District Court clerks and United States Marshals, the Circuit Court and District Attorney’s clerks, and the Chief Supervisor of Elections and his clerks. The Law Library fills two magnificent rooms, with a small committee room between. The library consists of 18,000 volumes, nearly all of which are arranged on the shelves. Whatever of value is published in this country or Great Britain, bearing on legal subjects, is purchased for the library, which also contains a fine collection of about 600 volumes of French law books, with a lesser number of Spanish, Italian, and German works. The only libraries in this country which can compare favorably with it in its special scope are the Library of Congress at Wasiington, and the New Ycrk State Library at Albany. The fifth story is used for the safe-keeping of the documents of the Post-Office Department. The building is fire-proof throughout, and all the window-shutters, which are of iron two inches thick, are so arranged that in case of a fire from without threatening the building, they can be easily closed by persons within.

Each floor is lighted by sixty large windows from the outside, and every floor, except the first, by twentyone windows from the inside, the light coming to these latter by the open central spaces of the building. There are ten elevators in the building for mail matter, and four foT passengers and general freight. Twelve of the elevators are worked by hydraulic pressure. The four passenger elevators run to the top of the building; the other tenll from the basement to the first floor and gallery. Seven principal staircases rise from the first to the fifth story, and there are about twenty smaller ones to various points in the building. All the staircases are spiral and constructed of iron. There is a heater beneath each wUldow, a fanlight over every door, and ventilators in every room

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THE SALMON NURSERY IN CALIFORNIA. 1157 connecting with the top of the building. The cellar is occupied by heating apparatus for the whole building, by boilers and engines for running the elevators, and by other machinery. In short, the building is one of the most complete in all its arrangements, as well as one of the most magnificent in the Union. It is one of the chief ornaments of tile great city for the convenience of which it is intended, and is a model Post-Office in every respect, and as such worthy of the admiration of the whole country. THE SALMON NURSERY IN

CALIFORNIA. The work of tihe United States Fish Commiission is deeply interesting. We propose to present to the reader in this place somne of the results accomplished in the culture of salmon on the Pacific coast.

The United States Fish Commission for that region selected in 1872 a point on the MecCloud river, in Shlasta county, California, for the great salmon nursery. It is about twentv miles frota the terminus of the Oregon &

California Railroad, and about three miles from its junction with Pitt river, one of the largest tributaries of the Saclamiento and amiong all the beautiful spots in California, none more lovely or more grandly pictu’resque than this could hlave been chosen. It is peculiarly eligible from the fact that it is the best of the few water sites in California not injured for hlatchiing purposes by the operations of the miner. Almost overhanging the bank of tl river a plain, substantial building about fifty feet in length has been erected, and divided into kitchen, dining-room, and sleeping apartments, for the accommiodation of the large force employed during the hatchling season. Immediately below this building a canvas tent, one hundred feet in length and thlirty feet wide, is stretched, covering the hatching trough and supply reservoir. Here the river, about two hundred feet wide, sweeps over a natural bar with a strong, heavy current, falling into a large, deep pool below, where most of the salmon are taken. Across the former MAr. Stone, the Deputy Commissioner, and his men, have, wvitl great labor, stretched a fence of willow poles reaching from bank to bank, safely anchored amolng the heavy boulders of the rifile, and presenting an almost impassable barrier to the salmon on their way to the spawning grounds cf the upper stream. At the foot of the riffle an undershot wheel, twelve feet in diameter, furnished with long buckets on the inner periphery, and capable of lifting 12,000
gallons per hour, is set deeply and securely in the swift current. At the lower end of the tent are two large receiving tanks or reservoirs, into which the water is led from the wheel by a flume. The fish are caught at night with the seine. They are then put into a crib floating at the side of the river, and secured by lines to the slhore. Tile next (lay they are taken out, one by one, and gently pressed by hand until the eggs and iilt are deposited in a vessel made for the purpose. The eggs of a healthy femrlale will average 6000. VWhen the eggs become impregnated they are placed in a trough, through which al stream of water is caused to run by the wheel referred to above. E,xperience has demonstrated that no matter how pure the water of the river may seem, it is not sufficiently so to insure complete success in salmon hlatchling. Accordingly three flannel screens are placed in each of the tanks to prevent the passage of ftllulgus, which gathers on the egg and prevents the egress of the young salmon, and every drop of water passing into the hatchling troughs is filtered through these screens. From the tanks are led the hatching troughs, in eight strings of five each, making forty in all. An incline of one inch to each troughl gives free circulation to the water, and a drop of three inches at the lower end serves to aerate it before passing through

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1153 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the next. Suspended in every trough are seven trays, eleven inches wide, two feet long, and six inches deep, constructed of No. 5 wire cloth, and each capable of containing 30,000
eggs, thus placing the hatching capacity of the establishment at over 8,000,000 of young salmon in a season. At the commencement of the spawning scason there is no perceptible difference between the male and female head. As the season advances the upper jaw of the male protrudes over the under, and the snout forms an eagle-slhaped beak, the under jaw fitting closely into the upper. A marked peculiarity of the California salmon is the brevity of its life. It is estimated by Mr. Stone that “not one out of a hundred ever returns to the sea after spawning.” Myriads of the dead fish line the banks of the McCloud in the months of October and November, after having completed their mission in life. The salmon of thie Atlantic returns, season after season, to its early spawning ground. This, too, is the case with the salmon of the Danube, and of Great Britain generally.

The bridge or fence across the river, to which we have alluded, answers two purposes. It increases the power of the water at the wheel, and prevents the fish from ascending the river. Myriads of them may be seen below anxiouslv searching for a place of escape. As they increase in numbers the agility of the fish is remarkable. Jumping from two to three feet in the air, turning somersaults, and cutting up all sorts of antics generally, they afford a very singular spectacle to the traveller. While in this state of excitement they will perform some of the most wonderful feats, as well as inflict upon themselves the greatest bodily torture. A fish from two to three feet long will often force himself out of the water, perfectly upright, and by a rapid undiilation of the tail support himself from one to three minutes, surveying the surroundings for an opening in the fence to escape through. When unsuccessful it will often fall back, and then, with one tremendous leap, jump clear over the top of the fence, which is about two feet above the water’s edge. The question arises whether the bridge, ill preventing the salmon from ascending the river and spawn, will not tend to depopulate the river; it being remembered that the fish always return to spawn in the place where they were hatched. This is offset by putting a certain portion of the artificially hatched salmon back into the river. The advantage of this station may be estimated by looking at the cost of the eggs as heretofore purchased. Until the establishment of the works on the Penobscot river, the Government paid Canada forty dollars per thousand for the eggs. The works on the Penobscot reduced the cost to about three dollars; while the establ)lisliilient on the MIcCloud river furnished them, in the season of 1875, at about one dollar and a half per thousand. THE FAST MAIL SERVICE.

Probably no branch of the public service shows such marked improvement as does the Post-Office Department. The contrast between what it was when the Federal Government was first formed, in 1789, and what it is at present is so striking as to be almost incredible. Then lumbering wagons, stage coaches, slow-sailing vessels, horseback riders, and sometimes pedestrians were the means used to carry the mnails from place to place; and what with the delay of transportation and the lack of system in the whole management of the Post-Office, our worthy ancestors must have had but a faint gleam of the inestimable value of the system that in our day works so smoothly and effectively, and makes the mail our most useful and trusted servant.

Step by step o

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THE FAST MAIL SERVICE. postal reform and improvement have been advancing, until perfection lhas almost been reached. The railwvay mail service began in 1836, but it was not until 1864 that Colonel (George 1’. Armstrong suggested the plan, which was subsequently adopted, of putting “post-office cars” onil the railway lines. On the 28th day of August, 1864, the first postal car left Chicago for Clinton on a trial trip, and on the 31st of the samle month it began running regularly. IIl October, 1864, improvements were made in the postal car, and a force of expert clerks from the Department at Washington was placed in the cars runnling between New York and that city. On the 9thl of Novenbei post office cars were placed upon the lines between Chicago and Davenport, Iowa, and Chicago and Dunleitlh, Illinois. On the 17th of January, 1865, the Chicago, Butlrling ton, & Galesbulrg-Quincy lines were established, and on May 22d the first railway post-office service was put in operation on the Philadelpliia-Pittsburghl line. About tile same time, or a little later, postal cars were placed upon all the principal lines leading out of Chicago, and also upon the Hudsoni River & New Yorlk Ceitral Railroads, between iNew York, Albany, and Buffalo, carrying and distributing along the line lNorthiern and Western mails. The establishing of fast mail trains has been a pet scheme of the Post-Office Department for several years, and Colonel George S. Bangs, General Superiiteldelt of Mail Itoutes, hals worked industriously to perfect the system. He met with much opposition from railroad officials, vlwho complained that the compensation for running postal cars was iiisufficient. So strong was the dissatisfaction of the companies that in the sunimmer ofi 1873 the Presidents of some of the leading lines threatened to wvitlhdraw the postal cars. The grievance of the railroad companies was the law which limited the conmpenaition of mail carriers to $375 per mile per annum, no matter hlow muich weight of mail matter was carried. By talking wvithl the various representatives of the dissatisfied roads MAr. Bangs became instrumental in averting the calamity which such a withdrawal of the postal cars would certainly have been. Subseqiuently, after a great deal of legi.slation, the basis of payment for the transportation of niails was changed by Congress to something more equitable, and the new law rendered a concentration of mail matter on any one line mututally profitable to the line and to the department. This is easily understood. This settlement opened the way for pushing the subject of fast mails, and after long discussions with railroad officials a plan for lightning postal trains between the East and the West was perfected. About the 1st of July, 1875, the officers of the New York Central Railroad announced their willingness to run a mail train from New York to Chicago in twentysix hours. The proposition from the Central road was at once acce,ptecd l)y the Department, and almost immediately afterwards came a similar proposal from the Pennsylvania Railroad, which was also gladly accepted. Specifications and plans for the new equipment necessary to carry out this undertaking were furnished each road, and the construction of postal cars was immediately begun. The 16thl of September was fixed upon as the date for the inauguration of,liec new enlterprise, and on that day the two special trains started from New York, each carrying a large mail, Post-Office officials, and invited guests. The New York Central train left the Grand Central Depot, in N-ew York, at 4.15 A. M., and the Pennsylvania train started from Jersey City at 4.30 A.,Tr. Previous to this the rivalry between the two roads had led to some little dissension, and had resulted in the Pennsylvania Company despatching a “limited malil” on September 13thl. The officers of that company state that when they offered to run a fast mail and fast newspaper train to Cincinnati and St. Louis, the Post-Office authori 1159

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1160 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ties accepted the offer, and requested the company to have its cars ready by September 12th. This gave the company only thirteen days in which to build the cars. The work was accomplished by the prescribed time; but the Post-Office authorities, on being informed that the New York Central Railroad cars were not ready, declined to send any mail matter until the 16th. The Pennsylvania Railroad Comrpany was not willing to wait until the New York Central Railroad should be ready, and accordingly sent out its first train on the 13th.

This train left Jersev City at 4.4o A. M., and arrived at its destination on time. The postal car used on these fast trains is of peculiar construction. It is of ordinary width, but sixty feet in lengthl. It is built of white pine wood, and is painted white inside and out. Internally the car is divided into three compartments. The first of these colitains 97o pigeon holes, each of themi representing a station. A shelf surrounding the holes is used for the purpose of sorting the letters.

Letter drops, with their aFertures to the outside of the car, are in this compartment, and Beay be used by persons just as the ordinary drops are.

The next compartment of the car is fitted up with boxes and hooks for the reception of mail bags and newspapers destined for the way stations.

Behind this, and in the last compartrment, are a number of boxes arranged in rows. One side of these boxes is open, while the opposite side is closed by a door on hinges. Fronm books in these boxes the mail bags are suspended, and the newspapers, as fast as sorted, are thrown through the boxes into the bags, each of which represents a station. The cars are well heated, ventilated, and lighted, and are provided with all the new arrangements for keeping out sparks of fire from the locomotives. Each car is accompanied by a tender, which is simply an ordinary express car, and is used for storing the mail bags not in use. Each train is in charge of a Chief Clerk, who has a private office in the car provided with desk and other coinveniences. The trains stop only at the principal stations. At the others the mail is delivered and received by means of the patent “catchers” with which each car is provided. By neans of these the bags are hung out from the car and thrown off at the proper station. The bags to be taken on board are suspended from a post at the station provided for the purpose, and are caught by the iron arm or “catcher” attached to the car, and thrown into it without damaging the bag or causing any slackening in the speed of the train. The first mail trains have proved of the greatest benefit to the community, and it would now be difficult to dispense with them. THE MANUFACTURE OF TOBACCO. This is such a strictly American industry, and has attained such an important rank among our manufactures, that it merits a place in this record. The principal tobacco factories are located in Richmond, Lynclhburg, Petersburg, and Danville, ill Virginia, and these turn out the bulk of the chewing tobacco used in commerce. Thile factories are large buildings, generally constructed of brick, and are often five or six stories in heigit, with flat roofs surrounded by a wooden railing. Oil the first floor is located the steamni engine, which not only supplies the motive power for the machinery employed in the establishment, but warms the whole building, and fiurnishes the amount of heat necessary for the various stages of the process of nianufacture. All the tobacco sent to Richmond for sale is stored in the ilnmmense warehouses provided by the State for its reception, where it is inspected, properly graded, and

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THE MANUFACTURE OF TOBACCO. finally sold. The sales are by sample. Each sample is ticketed and marked with the name of the planter by whom the crop of which it forms a part was growl, the gross and net weight of the hogshead from which it was taken, the warehouse where it was inspected, the merchant who sold it, and the price paid by the nmanufacturer. Thus the whole history of the hogshead from which the sample was taken is written upon the ticket, and should the manufacturer find the hogshead to fail to correspond with the representations upon which hlie purchased it, hlie can trace the responsibility to the proper party. Upon being conveyed to the factory the hogsheads are raised by an elevator to the “stemmili)g room,,” where the casing of the hogshead is removed and the tobacco exposed to a steam bath. The room is air-tight, and the steam is forced into it aid permeates every particle of the tobacco. This renders it soft and fit for stemming. It is then placed in bulk and carefully covered with blankets in order to enable it to retain the moisture until the process of “stemming” can be accomplished. The stemmers are usually negro women and children. It may be here stated that the majority of the hands engaged in the Southern tobacco factories are inegroes. The stemmers take the leaves, which the steaming has rendered as soft as the finest kid, and strip them of the “stemn.” They are then tied in bundles, the inferior quality of stems being used to bind them. The best stems are laid aside and are packled in hogsheads and shipped to Bremen, where they are made into snuff. The stemmers are paid so lmuch per pound for the tobacco they stem.

This is weighed by th’e;iuperintenident of the stemming room, who keeps the accounts of the hands in his departlenIt with scrupulous exactness.

The bundles of stemmed leaves are then hung on sticks, and are suspended in the drying room until they become perfectly dry. When dry they are ready to receive the “flavoring mixture” of syrup and licorice, which gives to clhewing tobacco the sweetness and flavor so much appreciated by the users of that article. The mixture is prepared in huge iron kettles. A good article of sngar-liouse molasses is cooked to a candy and is mixed with Spanish Iicorice, which lis been previously dissolved in water. Thie mixture is then brought to the proper coisistency by boiling, being stirred all the while by men with large wooden paddles to i)]‘event its burning. In some of the factories as lLmuchl as two hundred gallons of molasses are used daily for this purpose. :ks soon as the mixture is prepared it is poured boiling hot into a large trough. The dried bundles of tobacco are then dipped into the steamiing fluid. If thie leaves are not perfectly dry when subjected to this immersion they will mould rapidly and become hopelessly ruined. The heat of the bathl causes the pores of the leaf to expand, and every particle of the tobacco absorbs the sweet syrup and becomes thlorouglily saturated withl it. Besides the leaves, there are a lot of odds and ends of tobacco, termed “clippings,” which are too small to be dipped in the bath. The mlixture is applied to these by sprinkling it from a watering-pot. The bundles, dripping with the liquid, are carried friom the bath to the flat roof of the building and there exposed to the sun. Maiiuficttirers declare that one (lay’s sunshine is worth all the artificial heat they canll comimand, as it gives to the tobacco a sweetness which nothing else will. Should a rain come onl all hands are ordered to the roof and the tobacco is taken into the house at once. A drenching withl water would ruin it at this stage. After being exposed to the sun for a (lay, the leaves are taken to the second dryiing room anid subjected to a heat of ninety degrees during the day, and at night the heat 1161

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1162 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. is increased to such a degree that the room is so hot in the morning that the workmen cannot enter it until it has been cooled. This process is continued until the tobacco is perfectly dry. The tobacco is then sprinkled plentifullly with the best i7Tew England rumn, which has been flavored with certain essential oils. It thus receives an additional flavor and is rendered damp and pliable for the final working. It is now covered carefully with blankets, and as soon as possible is delivered to the lumpers and twisters” in the twist room. Thei twist room generally occupies the length of the whole building, and is arranged with the utmiost exactness. At the upper end stands the desk of the Superintendent. The tall work-benches of the operatives are arranged in parallel rows down the long room. The benches are double, being divided by a partition down the middle, and the worlkmen are placed at opposite sides, facing each other. They stand during their work. Each man is fuirnished with a gauge for regulating the length of his Slumi) or twist, and a scale in which to verify its weight. Perfect exactness is necessarv in size and wveighlt, in order that the lumps may fit exactly into the shapes in which they are to be pressed. Indeed, throughout the whole process of manufacture everything is dlone bIy an invariable rule, and no one is allowed to leave anythling to chance or guessvworik. Every process is carefully tested. A supply of the prepared leaves is placed upon the lumper’s bench. lie takes them and workls themn with his fingers into the proper shape, and around the lump thus formed wraps a leaf of the virgin tobacco wiclih has been stripped of its stems, but has undergonie no drying or flavoring. This forms the outside wrapper, and prevents the lunmp fromt sticking to the press in the final process. As the lumps are completed the lumper slips them into his gauge, and cuts of’ the ends which project with a “tobacco cutter,” and then weighs the lump in his scale, taking from or adding to the filling until the exact weight desired is obtained. When the lumps are correct they are placed in a box provided for that purpose on the bench in front of the worker. Every lumpler has an assistant. This individual is a boy, whose principal duty it is to stem and hand him the leaves for his outside wrappers. This boy waits on his lumper exclusively. The lumpers pay their assistants out of their own wages, giving them from one to two dollars per week; the boy, if intelligent, having the advantage of learning the trade of his employer.

The most expert “lumpers ”’ earn from twelve to fifteen dollars per week.

Thle lumipers in regular rotation carry their work to the Superintendent of the twisting room for inspection. He examines and weighs each lump separately, and thlrows out all which vary in the least degree from the standard. Those which are found correct are then weighed collectively, and the lunmper is credited with the weighit. Thle defective lumps are thrown back upon the workman’s hands to be remade until they conform to the standard. The lumps having been inspected by the Superintendent, are packed by the lumper or his assistant into boxes furnished for the p)urpose. These boxes, when full, are taken to the press room, where the lumps are fitted into the “shapes,” which are large shallow pans of shleet-irori, subdivided into compartments the exact size of the “plugs”

that are to be made. Over each shape is placed a cover of thick wood, faced with sheet-iron, and intersected by grooves which fit the lines of the shleet-iron subdivisions which separate the shape itself When the shapes are filled they are placed under hydraulic presses, of whichl each factory has a number, and are subjected to a pressure of three hundred and twentyfive tons. The cover of the shape is forced down upon it, and the lumps of tobacco are pressed firml., and cvenly into the flat plugs of commerce with which every one is familiar. Upon being removed from the presses the plugs are found a little ragged at the

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THE ICE MOUNTAIN. edges. Every piece is therefore turned and put under the press again so that all the sides may be uniform and smooth. The moulds are carefully oiled with the best olive oil every time the tobacco is placed in themn, to prevent its sticking to them. ThIe plugs are now taken to a second row of presses, and after having been fitted together exactly on sheets of tin-withl one sheet of tin between every two sheets of tobacco-they are pressed a third time. This gives the sheets of tobacco the exact length and width of the box in which they are to be packed for shipping. After coming out of these presses the sheets will fit in the boxes, which are made of regular specified sizes, as evenly as the most intricate machinery is joined together. The packing boxes are made of buttonwood, or sycamore, imported from Canada. A single factory will use as much as 30,000 feet per week. The p)lugs are packed in the cases, which are then placed in a third row of presses for the final comnpresslire. In order to prevent the bursting of the boxes by the immense pressure to which they are subjected, they are placed in stout frames called “billies,” which protect the wood and save it from the force of the strain. After being removed from the press the cases are closed and nailed, and after the revenue stamps and the brand of the manufacturer are affixed, the tobacco is ready for the market. Smokling tobacco is manufactured with less labor and expense. The tobacco, after being removed from the hogshead, is dried to the utmost, and is passed through a mill in which a revolving cylinder, armed with short blunt teeth, grates it into tiny particles. Thie same machine then passes it through a series of sieves similar to those of a wheat fan. The coarser particles which are left on the upper sieve are passed and repassed through the mill until all is ground to the required fineness. The leaves ire not stenmmed for this purpose, the stemns whichl are too coarse to pass through the finer sieves being used to make an inferior article of smoking tobacco. Smoking tobacco is generally put ul) in bags holding from two ounces to one pound each, the Government fixing one pound as the maximum weight for a single package. The bags are drawn tightly over hollow iron cylinders, and into these the tobacco is packed by forcing upon it a wooden mallet worked by a treadle. When the cylinder is packed tight atnd full it is withdrawn, leaving the closely-packed tobacco in. the bags. An immense number of bags are used in this business. THE ICE MIOUNTAIN. In Hampshire county, West Virginia, there is a remarkable natural curiosity known as the Ice Mountain. It is situated on the eastern bank of the North river, a branch of the Capon, and is about twentysix miles northwest of Winchester, and sixteen miles east of Romniey. It is between four and five hundred feet in height. For about a quarter of a mile the west side of the mountain is covered with a mass of stones very loose and of a light color, which reaches down to the bank of the river. By removing the loose stone, pure crystal ice can always be found in the warmest days of summer. It has been discovered even as late as the 15th of September, but never in October, although it may exist throughout the entire year, and be found if the.rocks were excavated to a sufficient depth. The body of the rocks where the ice is found is subject to the full rays of the sun from nine o’clock in the morniing until sunset. The suni does not have the effect of melting the ice as much as continued rains. At the base of the mountain is a spring of water colder by many degrees than spring water usually is. The owner of the property has removed the stone not far from the spring, and has erected a small log dairy for the preservation of his milk, 1163

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1164 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. butter, and fresh meats. Kercheval states that when hlie saw this building, “which was late in the month of April, the openings between the logs (on the side next the cavity from which the stone had been taken out), for eighteen inches or two feet from the floor, were completely filled with ice, and about onehalf the floor was covered with ice several inches thick.” Mr. Deevers, who was at that time the owner of the property, informed him “that milk, butter, or fresh meats of every kind are perfectly safe from injury for almost any length of time in the hottest weather. If a fly venture in he is inmmediately stiffened with the cold and becomes torpid. If a snake in his ramrbles happens to pass over the rocks covering the ice he soon loses all motion anid dies.” Reliable persons assert that several instances have occurred of snakes being found frozen to death among the rocks covering the ice.

“Mr. DI)eevers stated that lihe had several times removed torpid flies from his dairy into a nmore temperate atmosphere, when they soon recovered life and motion and flew off.” Mr. C. B. Hayden, in a communr ication to “Silliman’s Journal,” some forty years ago, thlus endeavored to account for the phenomenon of the preservation of ice in this mountain: “The solution, I conceive, is to be found in the large and unusual collection of rocks, which from their porous, hlomogeneous texture are extremely poor conductors of hlieat. One side of the mountain consists of a massive wall many hundred feet in thickness, and heaped up against this as an abutment is a mass of rocks containing several thousand cubic feet. As the mountain has a general direction from N. E. to S. W., the talus heap containing the ice has a N. W. exposure. The caverinous nature of this heap would admit the free entrance of atmospheric waters, which during the winter would form ice in the interior of the mass. The ice thus situated would be protected from external heat by the surrounding rocks, as ice in a refrigerator is isolated and protected from the external temperature by the nonconducting sides of the refrigerator. The Ice Mountain only requires for the explanation of its phenomenon the application of the familiar principle upon which is constructed the common refrigerator, which temporarily effects what the Ice Mountain permanently does-a temperature independent of external causes. The Ice Mountain is, in fact, a huge sandstone refrigerator, whose increased and unusual effects beyond those of the ordinary refrigerator are due to the increased and unusual collection of poor-conducting materials which form its sides.” TIUE

NATURAL BRIDGE. This remarkable formation of the natural rock has long been known as one of the principal curiosities of the many to be found in the State of Virginia. It is situated in the cotunty of Rockbridge, about fourteen miles southwest of Lexington. It consists of an immense mass of rock which spans the deep ravine through which flows a little stream called Cedar Creek. The sides of the ravine are of massive rock rising perpendicularly from the bed of the stream. The rock structure which forms the bridge is flung across the ravine in a massive but graceful arch, seeming more the work of art than of nature. The mean height of the bridge is 215 feet from the stream below to the roadway; its average width is 80
feet, its length 93 feet, and its thickness 55 feet. The arch constituting the bridge is of limestone rock, covered to the depth of from four to six feet with alluvial and clayey earth, and based upon huge rocks of the same geological character, the summits of which are ninety feet and their bases fifty feet apart. The county road leads over the bridge, and the structure has been used since

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___ffi~___ (I~Iyy;%;Il III _____ -_______ f{I I -””U -I ______ -
lI ii - - _______ i”“‘i”1 -”””ii ST. LOUIS.

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,a-Dqiu sioi~ li’ 91T __ __”-4,, - ____ III : z

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THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE. the settlement of the region for the ordinary purposes of travel. A natural parapet of rock extends along the sides of the bridge, which are still further protected by a thick growth of trees and shrubbery. So perfectly do these screen the ravine firom view that visitors constantly pass over the bridge without being aware that they have reached it. The only satisfactory view of the bridge is obtained from the bed of the ravine below. Looking up to the dizzy height at which the gigantic arch springs across the abyss, it is hard to believe that the structure is not the work of a race of giants. The arch is elliptical in formn, and the whole structure has a picturesque appearance impossible te, describe in words. The lines of masonry seem perfectly defined, and the piers appear to be laid in gigantic blocks. The rocks have a soft, pleasant hue which harmonizes well with the beauty of the surrounding landscape. “A hot and brilliant day,” says a traveller, “is, of all others, the time to enjoy this object. To escape from a sun which scorches you, into these verdant and cool bottoms, is a luxurv of.itself which disposes you to relish everything else. When down I was very carefil of the first impression, and did not venture to look steadily on the objects about me until I had selected nmy station. At length I placed myself about one hllund(lred feet from the bridge, on some masses of rock which were washed by the running waters and ornamented by the slender trees which were springing from its fissures. At my feet was the soothing melody of the rippling, gushing waters. Behind me, and in the distance, the river and the hills were expanding themselves to the light and splendor of day.

Befiore me, and all around, everything was reposing in the most deliglitful shade, set off by the streaming rays of the sun, which shot across the head of the picture far above you, and sweetened the solitude belowv. On the right and left the miitjestic rocks arose with the decision of a wall, but withoutt its uniformity; nmassive, bIroken, beautiful, and supplying a most admirable foreground; and everywhere thle most delicate stems were planted in their crevices and waving their heads in the soft breeze which occasionally came over them. The eye now ran through the bridge and was gratified with a lovely vista. The blue mountains stood out in the 1),‘ckground; beneath them the hills and wood,s gathered together so as to enclose the lell below; while the river, which was coursing away -from them, secemned to have its well-hidden head in their recesses. Then there is the arch, (liptinct from everything andi above everything!

Massive as it is, it is light and beautiful by its height, andl the fine trees on its height seem now only lilke a garland of evergreens; and, elevated as it is, its apparent elevation is wonderfully increased by the narrowness of its piers, and by its outline being drawn on the blue sky, lwhichli appears beneath and above it.” THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE. The bridge over the Mississippi river at St. Louis is one of the most superb structures in the world, and the costliest of its kind in this country. It was built tinder the superintendence of Captain James B. Fads, and is owned by a stock company. The bridge rests upon four immense piers built in the river. The portion of the piers which lies under water is composed of a firm, magnesian limestone, yellowish in color, taken from the quarries at Grafton, Illinois. From two feet below low-water mark to two feet above high-water mark the exterior of the piers, including those on the wharves and abutments, is of the best quality of granite. Above the granite the exterior is entirely of cut sandstone. A granite course eioht feet in thickness is laid through the channel piers and in the abutments, to receive the heavy cast-iron plates against which the ends of the arches rest. 1167

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1168 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The bridge has three spans, each formed with four ribbed arches made of cast-steel. The central span is 520
feet, and the end spans each 500 feet in the clear. The four aiches forming these spans consist each of an upper and lower curved rib, extending from pier to pier, and a horizontal system of bracing extends between these ribs for the purpose of,securing the arches in their relative distances from each other. The two centre archles of each span are thirteen feet nine and a half inches apart from centre to centre, and the upper member of one arch is secured to the lower one of the other by a system of diagonal bracing. The roadways are formed byN transverse iron beams twelve inches in depth, suitably separated. From the opposite ends of the iron beams formning the roadways a double system of diagonal, horizontal iron bracing binds the whole together. The bridge is a double structure. The upper portion is for vehicles and pedestrians, and is fifty-four feet two inches in width. The roadway is tliirts;-foulr feet wide between the footwalks, which are eight feet in width. The sides are protected by a handsome iron balustrade ornamented with gas lamps. Below this floor of the bridge are the railway passages, each fourteen feet six inches in the clear and eighteen feet high. At each end of the bridge the road and railways are carried over the lwharves on five stone arches, each twentysix feet wide. The railway passages are enclosed thlroughout the whole length of these arches by a cut stone arcade of twenty arches, supporting the upper roadway. On the St. Louis side the railway is carried on brick arches from the end of these passageways into the tunnel on Third street. On the Illinois shore the railways descend to the level of the East St. Lotis railways by a descending grade of one and a half feet in one hundred for a distance of 30)00 feet. The carriage-way on the Illinois side descends with a grade of four feet in one lhundred, and on the Mississippi side the grade is nearly level. The br’dgOe accomimodates two double tracks of steam railways in the lower story, aid above there is space for street railways, vehicles of all styles, and pedestrians; and the plia is so a,.ranged that none of these interfere with each other. The bridge is so constructed as not to be an obstacle to the navigation of the river. The strengthil of the bridge is enormous. The three arches are capable of sustaining 28,972 tons before giving way-a much greater load than will ever be placed upon it. If the bridge were loaded witlh people from one end to the other, the strain upon the arches vwould be less than one-sixth of what they are capable of sustaining. The piers and abutmenits were designed with a view to sustain either spm whenli thus loaded, even if the others were entirely unloaded, and to sustain either span entire if, from any cause, thlle adljoining ones shoul(l be destroyed. On te’e 2d of July, 1874, the formal test of the strength of the bridge was made. Two trains of locomotives, weighing 560 tons altogether, fourteen in all, were moved out abreast, and simultaneously over each one of the three spans.

The deflection of the middle span was three and a half inches; of each side span three inches. The two trains moving a.breast upon each arch was the severest possible test to produce listortion of the curve of each arch. Ten locomotives were then coupled together, and these were run over each track on each side of each arch of the entire bridge, covering the entire track of each span, and throwing the whole weighit of the train400
tons-on one side of each span. This test was applied to each side of the bridge, and produced the severest twisting strain to which each arch can be subjected. The vertical deflection produced by this test on the centre span was two and onehalf inches. The locomotives thus coupled were run at a speed of ten miles per hour. The local traffic on the upper roadway of the bridge was uninterrupted (luring the I

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MUSIC BY TELEGRAPH. progress of the tests. The instruments failed to detect any side motion whatever during the test. The bridge is one of the most useful as well as one of the most magnificent public works in the Union. It brings St. Lollis in direct communication with the States east of the Mississippi, and must unquestionably contribute in a marked degree to the advancement and growth of the prosperity and wealth of the metropolis of the Southwest. MUSIC BY TELEGRAPH. M-r. Elisha Gray, of Chicago, a gentleman who has already become famous in the electric telegraph world as an inventor and maker of telegraphic apparatus, perfected during the year 1874 an instrument which will convey sound by electricity over an unbroken current of an extraordinary length; that is, without the aid of automatic repeaters. In the ordinary transmission of messages over the telegraph wires to points at long distances, a message is generally repeated by automatic working instruments about every five hundred miles, in order to renew the current of electricity. Mr. Gray has succeeded in transmitting sounds which are distinctly audible at the receiving point, over an unbroken circuit of 2400 miles. This is more properly speaking a discovery and not an invention. The invention merely consists in adapting certain appliances to the discovery for the purposes of its practical illustration. Music played on a small melodeon or piano key-board, transmitted through an unbroken circuit of 2400 miles, is reproduced on a violin attached to the receiving end of the wire. Mr. Gray played “Hail Columbia,” “The Star Spangled Banner,” “God Save the Queen,”

“Yankee Doodle,” and other well-known airs, and they were unmistakably repeated, note for note, on the violin which lay on a table near at hand.

The apparatus by means of which this extraordinary feat in telegraphy is accomplished has been named by Mr. Gray the “Telephone,” or an instrument designed for the purpose of transmitting sound to a distance. It consists of three general parts: First. The transmitting instrument. Second. The conducting wire, running to a distant point. Third. The apparatus for receiving the sound at that distant point. The transmitting apparatus consists of a key-board having a number of electromagnets corresponding with the number of keys on the board, to which are attached vibrating tongues or reeds tuned to a musical scale. Any one of these tongues can be separately set in motion by depressing the key corresponding to it. Thus a tune may be played by manipulating the keys in the same way as those of an ordinary piano or melodeon. The music-produced entirely by electricity-of these notes is so distinctly audible in the next room that, in spite of much talking, there is no difficulty in determining what tune the manipulator is playing. To this transmitting instrumnent the conducting wire is attached, the other end being attached to the receiving apparatus, which may be anything that is sonorous, so long as it is in some degree a conductor of electricity. A violin, with a thin strip of metal stretched between the strings at a point where the bridge of the instrument is ordinarily placed, will, on receiving the sound transmitted through the conducting wire from the piano, give out a tone very similar in quality to that of a violin. If, then, the metallic strip is electrically connected with a wire, say 500 or 1000 miles long, which has its distant end properly connected with the transmitting instrument, any one at the receiving end can distinctly hear, without the aid of electromagnetism, the tune or air which is being played 500 or 1000 miles away from him, if he properly manipulate the receiving apparatus. 71 1169

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1170 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The length of the wire connecting the transmitting with the receiving apparatus may be one mile or ten thousand miles, provided that the isolation is sufficiently good to prevent the escape of the electric current before it reaches its destination. In fact, there seems no limit to the distance to which sound of any desired pitch may be thus conveyed with from two to five cells of battery, all the conditions being proper. The quality or timbre of the tones depends upon the character of the receiving apparatus, which may be a violin prepared as described above; a tin hoop, with foil paper heads stretched over it after the fashion of a baby’s rattle; a nickel five-cent piece; an old oyster can, and a thousand other things. A sound sufficiently loud to read Morse’s telegraphic characters-made by interrupting, with the common telegraphic key, one sustained note-has been obtained under favorable circumstances at the receiving end of the wire without any more scientific sounding apparatus than that of a piece of common tissue paper. THE CROTON

WATER-WORKS. The rapid growth of the city of New York made the question of supplying it with pure water one of the greatest importance. It was believed at one time that an adequate supply could be drawn from the Broux river, which stream was thought capable of furnishing 3,000,000 gallons daily. The prevalence of Asiatic cholera in 1832 impressed upon the people the necessity of a supply of pure drinking water; and the great fire of 1835 convinced them that an abundant supply of water for all purposes was indispensable. It was resolved to obtain this supply from the headwaters of the Croton river, and in May, 1837, the work on the aqueduct which was to convey it to the city was actually begun. On the 4thl of July, 1842, the Croton water was distributed through the city. The first step in the great work was to throw a massive dam across the Croton river, by means of which the Croton lake was formed, the water being raised to a depth of forty feet by the obstruction. From this dam an aqueduct, constructed of brick, stone, and cement, was built to convey the water to the reservoirs prepared for it on Manhattan island. The aqueduct is nearly forty miles in length. It is arched above and below, forming a hollow cylinder seven and a half feet wide and eight and a half feet high, with an inclination of thirteen inches to the mile. It rests upon the ground for a portion of its course, and in other parts is supported by a series of stone arches. It crosses twentyfive streams in Westchester county, besides numerous brooks which flow under it through culverts. It is conveyed across the Harlem river by means of the High Bridge, the water flowing through vast iron pipes the size of the aqueduct, which rest upon the bridge. The bridge itself is a magnificent structure of stone, 1450 feet in length, with fifteen arches, the highest of which is one hundred feet above high-water mark. Its great height prevents it from interfering with the navigation of the stream. The High Bridge is one of the principal pleasure resorts in the suburbs of New York. The bridge itself is a noble work of art, and the surrounding scenery is exceedingly beautiful. There are two large reservoirs at the city end of the bridge-the “Storage Reservoir” and the “High Service “-the latter of which is designed for supplying the elevated section of Washington Ifeights. From here to the distributing reservoirs in the Central Park the distance is two and a quarter miles. There are two of these reservoirs in the Park. The old, or lower one, is a parallelogram in form, covering an area of thirty-one acres, and with a capacity for 150,000,000 gallons of water. The soo_

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THE BRONZE DOORS OF THE CAPITOL. new reservoir lies to the north of the old one, and is separated from it by a sunken road which traverses the Park. It is a massive structure of granite, irregular in form, and occupying almost the entire width of the Park. It covers an area of 106
acres, and will hold 1,000,000,000 gallons of water. The two reservoirs thus cover an area of 137 acres and hold 1,150,000,000 gallons of water.

They are among the finest specimens of the engineer’s work in this country. The gate houses are elegant granite buildings, and are among the notable ornaments of the Park. The distributing reservoir for the lower part of the city is on Fifth avenue between Fortieth and Forty-second streets. It is built above the level of the street, of granite, is lined with cement, covers about four acres of ground, and will hold about 20,000,00(0 gallons of water. It is exactly forty-one miles from the Croton lake. The daily flow of water throiiugh the aqueduct is 60,000,000
gallons, its full capacity. The reservoirs at the High Bridge, in the Park, and at Forty-second street hold over 2,000,000,000 gallons, or about fifteen days’ supply at the present rate of consumption. About 400 miles of main pipes distribute the water through the city, distributing it to over 68,000 dwelling-houses and stores, about 1700 manufactories, about 300 hospitals, prisons, schools, and other public buildings, over 300
churches, and 14 markets. There are over 100 public drinking hydrants and a number of ornamental fountains in the city. The lakes and fountains in the Central Park are all supplied with Croton water, which is also filrnished to the State Prison at Sing Sing and the institutions on Blackwell’s, Randall’s, and Ward’s islands. The Croton river is one of the purest streams in the world. The water is bright and sparkling, and there is’ no sediment perceptible to the naked eye. Actual analysis has shown that the amount of impurity during an entire summer was but 4.45 grains in a gallon, or 7.63 parts in 100,000 parts. The original cost of the aqueduct and reservoirs was about $9,000,000. Since then the increased supply, the new reservoirs, pipes, etc., have made the total amount upward of $40,000,000. The total receipts from the water tax since the opening of the aqueduct have amounted to about $30,000,000. The tax at present amounts to something less than $1,500,000 annually. THE BRONZE DOORS OF

THE CAPITOL. The main entrance from the central portico of the National Capitol at Washington is provided with doors of bronze which constitute the most superb and beautiful work of art of this character in existence.

The doors were designed and modelled in Rome, in 1858, by Randolph Rogers, an American sculptor, and were cast at the Royal Foundry, at Munich, by F.

Von Milller, and completed in 1861. The whole work weighs 20,000 pounds, and cost the nation $30,000. The doors, with the frame or casing, which is also of bronze, are seventeen feet high, nine feet wide, and are folding or double. The casing is semicircular at the top, and projects about a foot in front of the leaves of the door. Around the casing extends a handsome border emblematic of conquest and navigation. The key of the arch of the casing is ornamnented with a fine head of Columbus, beneath which is the American eagle with outspread wings. Four figures, representing Asia, Africa, Europe, and America, stand at the top and bottom of the casing. The upper right-hand figure represents Asia, the lower right-hand figure Europe, the upper left-hand figure Africa, and the lower left-hand figure America. There are eight square panels in the doors besides the semicircular transom panel. 117T

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Between these panels are ten heads, five on each leaf of the door, “representing historians who have written on Columbus’ voyages, from his own time down to the present day, ending with Irving and Prescott.” On the right and left panels are sixteen statuettes, set in niches,. representing the most eminent of the contemporaries of the great discoverer. The names of these worthies are marked on the door, and the figures can be easily recognized. Commencing with the lower right-hand figure, vhichl is opposite the panel which begins the story told by the door, they are as follows: Juan Perez, Prior of the Convent of La Rabida, the most faithful of all Columbus’ friends, through whose efforts the Spanish queen was at last induced to grant the expllorer the assistance which enabled him to undertake his first voyage. The next above is Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico. The third is Don Alonzo de Ojeda, a distinguished but unfaithful follower of Columbus. The top figure is Amerigo Vespucci, whose name is borne by the continent. At the top of the double row, between the two leaves of the door, are Pedro ,Gonzatles de Mendoza, Archbishop of Toledo and Grand Cardinal of Spain; sometimes called, on account of his immense influence, the “third King of Spain,” and Pope Alexander V\I. The cardinal, who was an early patron of Columbus, stands on the right; the Pope is on the left. The figures immediately below them are Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Spain; the queen being placed on the right. Below these are Donna Beatriz de Bobadilla, Marchioness of Moya, one of the fast friends of Columbus, and Charles VIII., King of France. The artist was unable to find a likeness of the lady, and gave her the features of Mrs. Rogers, his wife. - Henry VII., of England, and John II., of Portugal, form the lowest pair, the English monarch being on the right. Both of these sovereigns declined to employ the great discoverer, and so lost the opportunity he offered them. At the bottom of the left row stands Martin Alonzo Pinzon. He was the captain of the “Pinta,” and one of the first to see the land of the new world.

Eventually lihe betirayed his friend and commander, and died of grief and mortification. Above him is Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the great man, and appointed bv limi Lieuiteuant-Governor of the Indies. This figure wears the face of the artist, Mi’. R,ogers, as it was impossible to find a likeness of the subject. Above him is Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who, crossing the Isthmus of Darien with his follo)wers, discovered the Pacific Ocean on the 29th of September, 1510. Friacisco Pizarro, the cruel conqueror of Peru, fills the topmost niche, and completes the group. WAe come now to the exquisite pictures embraced in the panels of the door. The twoi’ is in clto’elievo, the figures standing out boldly from the surface. Every detail is perfect, and the gazer’s emotions of admiration are strongly mingled with wonder that so elaborate a design has been so faithftilly and minutely executed. An oil )paiitinig or steel engraving could not more forcibly or perfectly tell the story. The lowest right hand panel begins the tale, the transom panel being the central scene. Panel I. Coltumbus is expanding to the Council of Salamanca his theory of finding the Indies by sailing due west from Europe. This Council gravely deliberated the subject, and solemnly concluded that the project was “vain and impossible, and not becoming great princes to engage in on such slender grounds as had been adduced.” The calmn confidence and the eagerness of the discoverer, and the cold, half-pitying incredulity of the monks is admirably depicted in the figures of the group. 1172

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THE BRONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, COMMEMORATING THE EVENTS OF THE

LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. I

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I 0 0;; 1 il; (II I “:11 I ‘I J __________ I! I (k 0 I jtLAAlItLI1JI I tI4IIIIII THE BRONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, CO0MM,TEM,TORATING TIlE

EVENTS ( TIE LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON.

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THE BRONZE DOORS OF THE CAPITOL. Panel II. Weary and heartsick, on foot, and leading his son Diego, a mere lad, by the hand, Columbus set out on his departure from Spain. He was without money and without friends, and was in despair of having his great scheme adopted by any of the potentates of the old world. On his journey he stopped at the Convent of La Rabida, near Palos, and was kindly received by the monks, who induced him to remain with them a long time. While there he stated his plans and hopes to the Prior, Juan Perez, who had been the Confessor of Queen Isabella. Here, also, he met Martin Alonzo Pinzon, who accompanied him in his subsequent voyage. The prior became warmly interested in the scheme, and mentioned it to Donna Beatriz de Bobadilla, an attendant and favorite of the queen. The two brought the matter to the queen’s notice, and urged it upon her so warmly that her majesty sent Columbus a sum of money sufficient to enable him to appear at court and plead his cause in person. The scene depicted in the panel represents him setting off from the convent to wait upon the queen. Panel III. Columbus having been presented at court is represented as laying his plan before the King and Queen of Spain. The queen leans forward with eagerness but the king holds back coldly and doubtingly. The courtiers in the background regard the bold adventurer with looks of mingled scorn and incredulity. Panel IV. This panel is at the top of the right leaf of the door, and represents “The Departure from Palos.” The admiral’s ships lie waiting in the harbor, while he is standing on the shore bidding farewell to his son and confiding him to the care of his friend the prior. The Transom Panel. This panel extends over both leaves of the door, is semicircular in form, and represents the admiral and his companions landing at San Salvador, and taking formal possession of the island. The banner of Spain is borne aloft by Columbus, who grasps a sword in his right hand. Boats are coming ashore from the ships in the offing, and a group of natives crouch at the foot of a large tree, gazing at the newcomers with wonder and fear. Panel V. is at the top of the left leaf of the door, and represents the first intercourse between the Indians and the discoverers. One of the sailors is seen approaching the admiral bearing on his shoulders an Indian girl whom he has captured and bound.

Columbus sternly rebukes him for his cruelty and orders the instant release of the girl. Panel VI. represents “The Triumphal Entry into Barcelona.” Columbus having returned from the New World, bringing with him the proofs of his discoveries, is entering the city of Barcelona amid the cheers of the assembled multitude. The admiral is represented on horseback in the foreground. Panel VII. represents the wrongs of Columbus. Don Francisco de Bobadilla, having been sent to the New World to investigate the charges brought against the admiral by his enemies, decided against him without investigation, and sent him back to Spain in chains. The panel represents the arrival of the chained admiral on board the vessel that was to convey him to Europe. The officers of the ship, filled with generous indignation at the outrage, desired to relieve him of his fetters, but he replied, “No; I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of princes.”

Panel VIII. represents the death of Columbus. Upon his return from his last voyage the admiral met with a cold welcome in Spain. The queen, his benefactress, was dead, and the selfish Ferdinand was ungrateful to the man who had given a new world to Spain, and refused to grant him the rewards that had been promised him. The admiral was without friends at court, his great fame having excited the hostile jealousy of the courtiers. Landing near San Lucas, Columbus proceeded to Seville. He was poor in parse, feeble from age, and broken down in health. He made 1175

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OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. repeated efforts to obtain redress for the wrongs done him, but failed. Broken-hearted, he died at Valladolid on the 20th of May, 1506, being about seventy years old. The panel represents the chamber in which hlie died. His friends are gathered around his bed, the last rites of the church have been administered, and a priest holds aloft a crucifix, in order that his last earthly glance may be fixed upon the symbol of his redemption. The world fast recedes from the dying eyes, the weak lips murmur, “In AIanus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum.” “Into thy Hands, 0 Lord, I commend my spirit,” and the great, grand soul passes into a blessed eternity. The door forms one of the richest and most beautiful ornaments of the Capitol, and is an object of pride to the whole nation. It is a grand achievement of American genius, and is worthy of the high praise it has received from lovers of art on both sides of the Atlantic. THE WASHINGTON DOORS. The main entrance to the Senate wing of the Capitol is adorned with a second door of bronze, commemorative of the events in the life of George Washington. It is not as elaborate as the Columbus door, but has been considered by some critics a better work of art. It was designed by Thomas Crawford, the sculptor of the magnificent group in marble which adorns the pediment of the. Senate portico, and the colossal statue of Liberty which looks down firom the summit of the great dome. The door contains but six panels, illustrative of scenes in the life of the father of his country. The upper panel of each leaf of the door is occupied with a five-pointed star, enclosed in a laurel wreath. The lowest panel on the right represents two angels holding joined wreaths of laurel.

Below these figures, enclosed in a circle, is a scene representing an American defending his wife and child against a Hessian Grenadier. The wife crouches to the floor, with her babe clasped in one arm, while the other hand holds a rifle, which she has in readiness for her husband. The husband has seized the musket of the Hessian, and is in the act of discharging his pistol at his breast. The lowest panel on the left represents Cincinnatus called from his plough to assume the command of the armies of Rome. He stands with his hand on the plough, and is surrounded by his family. The group is enclosed in a circle, over which hover two angels with suspended laurel wreaths. The second panel from the top, on the right, represents the death of General Braddock. He is supported by Washington, and the Virginia Rangers are seen hotly engaged with the enemy. The third panel on the right represents the meeting of Washington and General Charles Lee at the battle of Monmouth. The scene is spirited, and the overwhelming anger of Washington, and the guilty hesitation of Lee are depicted in a masterly manner. The fourth panel on the right represents the battle of Trenton. Washington is shown leading the final charge upon the Hessian Grenadiers. The fourth panel on the left, immediately adjoining the one just described, represents the reception of Washington at Trenton, on his journey to New York, to assume the duties of the Presi(dency. He is passing under a triumphal arch, amid the joyful acclamations of the citizens. The third panel on the left represents Washington taking the oath of office as Presi 1176 o

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AN AMERICAN PICTURE. dent of the United States. He stands with his hand resting on an open Bible, while Chancellor Livingston administers to him the oath of office. The second, or highest of the panels on the left, represents Washington laying the cornerstone of the Capitol of the United States, at the city of Washington. The cornerstone was laid on the 18th of September, 1793, and the ceremonies were performed in accordance with the ritual of the Masonic order. Washington is represented with the Masonic apron, and the various personages attending him wear similar aprons. The door is rectangular in shape, and is enclosed in a massive frame of bronze. It is a noble work, fully sustains the great fame of the artist, and is a worthy companion of the central door. The two form the most notable ornaments of the Capitol. AN AMERICAN PICTURE. At the north end of the west corridor of the House of Representatives wing of the Capitol at Washington is a splendid marble stairway leading to the second floor and the galleries of the House. The wall at the end of the stairway, from the first laniding to the ceiling, is ornamented with Leutze’s great painting, “Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way.” It is lighted from a skylight in the roof, and is seen to the best advantage from the upper corridor. The picture is painted on the wall by a process known as “Stereochrome,” or, as it is sometimes called, “Water-glass painting.”

“The wall is coated with a preparation of clean quartz sand, mixed with the least possible quantity of lime; and after the application of this, the surface is scraped to remove the outer coating in contact with the atmosphere. It is then washed with a solution of silesia, soda, potash, and water. As the painter applies his colors he moistens his work by squirting distilled water upon it. When finished it is washed over with the silesia solution. The picture, also, in its progress is washed with the same solution, and the colors thus becoming incorporated in the flinty coating, the picture is rendered hard and durable as stone itself.” The coloring of the picture is very rich, but is softer and more natural than is often seen in mural paintings. The work has been done with a master hand, and the scene is lifelike and exhilarating. However minute the details may be, each is produced with the utmost fidelity. Gaze at it for hours, and the eye will all the while discover some new beauty. The scene represents a train of emigrants crossing the Rocky Mountains. They have reached the summit of the range, from which a glorious view stretches before them to the westward. The adventurers consist of the usual class of emigrants-men, women, and children. There are several wagons and a number of horses in the train. The faces of the emigrants express the various emotions which fill their hearts as they gaze upon the glorious scene before them. Some are full of life and vigor, and hope beams in every feature; whilst others are struggling with sickness and despair. The advance of the train has been momentarily checked by a huge tree which has fallen across the path, and two stout men, under the direction of the leader of the party, who is sitting on his horse, are engaged in hewing it away with axes. Two men have climbed to the summit of a neighboring rocky crag, on which they have planted the banner of the Republic, which is seen flapping out proudly from its lofty perch. In the foreground stands a manly youth, clasping his father’s long rifle with a firm grasp, and gazing towards the promised land with a countenance glowing with hope 1177

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1178 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and energy. His sister, hopeful as himself, is seated by her mother’s side on a buffalo robe which has been thrown over a rock. The mother’s face is sad but patient. She knows well the privations, toil, and hardships which await them in the new home land, but she tries to share the enthusiasm and hope of her children. She clasps her nursing infant to her breast, and listens to her husband, who stands by and points her to the new country where they will build up a home of her own. Her face is very beautiful-such a face as only a true artist could depict. The rich, warm light of the rising sun streams brightly over the whole scene and gives to it a magical glow. The legend, “Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way,” is inscribed over the painting in letters of gold. An illuminated border, illustrative of the advance of civilization in the West, surrounds the painting. This border is in itself one of the most elaborate works of art in the Capitol. Beneath the painting, and detached from it, the artist has given a view of “The; Golden Gate,” the entrance to the harbor of San Francisco. On the right of the picture is a portrait of Daniel Boone, below which are the lines: “The Spirit grows with its allotted spaces; The mind is narrowed in a narrow sphere.” On the left of the painting is a portrait of Captain William Clark, and the lines: “No pent-up Utica contracts our powers; But tihe whole boundless continent is ours.” Leutze was paid by Congress the sum of $20,000 for this magnificent work. THE UNITED STATES OBSERVATORY. The United States Observatory is located at Washington, and is situated upon ant elevated site, southwest of the President’s house. It is near the Georgetown line, and commands a fine view of the city and the Potomac river as far down as Fort Washington and Mount Vernon. It is in charge of a corps of officers of the United States Navy, being a branch of the Navy Department. The officers in charge are selected for their scientific knowledge and skill, the duties required of them being of the most difficult and intricate nature. The institution holds a high rank among the observatories of the world. It is said that it is excelled in completeness and excellence only by that of Russia. Besides discharging the usual astronomical duties of such an establishment, the officers of the Observatory are the keepers of all the nautical books, maps, charts and instruments belonging to the navy. Principal among these are the chronometers belonging to the Government, which are kept in a room set apart for that purpose. These instruments are purchased by the Navy Department with the understanding that they are to be tested in the Observatory for one year. They are placed in the chronometer room and are carefully wound and regulated. Each day they are examined and are compared with the great Astronomical Clock of the Observatory, and an accurate record of the movements of each one is kept in a book prepared for that purpose. The temperature of the room is examined daily and recorded. These minute records enable the officers of the Observatory to point out the exact fault of each imperfect chronometer. Thanks to this system, the maker of the instrument is enabled to remedy the defect, and to render it perfect. At the end of the year the instruments found to be unsatisfactory are returned to their makers, and those which pass tlhe test are paid for.

The returned instruments are usually over 4

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THE UNITED STATES OBSERVATORY. hauled by the makers, and the defects remedied. They are then sent back for another year’s trial, and rarely fail to pass the test at the end of this time. There are usually from sixty to one hundred chronometers on trial at the Observatory, and the apart ment in which they are kept is one of the most interesting in the establishment. The researches connected with the famous “Wind and Current Charts,” begun and prosecuted so successfully by the late Lieutenant Matthew F. Maury, whose services were unfortunately lost to the country by his participation in the rebellion, are con ducted here, as are those relating to “The Habits of the Whale,” and other ocean phenomena. The Equatorial, which is the largest telescope in the Observatory, is mounted in the revolving dome which rises above the main building. It has a fourteen feet refractor, and an object glass nine inches in diameter. Its movements are most ingenious, being regulated by machinery and clock work.

Its powers are so great that it renders stars visible at midday; and, if directed to a given star in the morning, its machinery will work so accurately that it will follow with perfect exactness the path of the star, which will be visible through it as long as the star is above the horizon. The Meridian and Mural Circles are in one of the rooms below. The Transit instrument is placed in the west wing of the building, under a slit twenty inches wide, extending across the room and down the wall of the apartment on each side, to within four or five feet of the floor. It was made by Ertel & Son, of Munich, and is a seven foot achromatic, with a clear aperture of 5.3 inches. The mounting consists of two granite piers, seven feet high, each formed of a solid block of that stone, let down below the floor, and imbedded in a stone foundation eight feet deep, and completely isolated from the building. Midway between the piers, and running north and south, is the artificial horizon, composed of a slab of granite ten feet long, nineteen inches deep, and thirteen inches broad; it rests on the foundation, and is isolated from the floor, with the level of which the top of it is even, with a space all around it of half an inch; in the middle of this slab, and in the nadir of the telescope, there is a mortise, nine inches square and ten inches deep, in which the artificial horizon is placed to protect it from the wind during the adjustment for collimation, or the determination of the error of collimation of level, and the adjustment for stellar focus, verticality of wires, and the other uses of the collimating eye-piece. The great Astronomical Clock, or “Electro-Chronograph,” is placed in the same room with the Transit Instrument, and is used in connection with it to denote sidereal time. It was invented by Professor John Locke, of Cincinnati, and is one of the most remarkable instruments in the world. By means of an electrical battery in the building, the movements of this clock can be repeated by telegraph in any city or town in the land to which the wires extend. With the wires properly connected with it its ticks may be heard in any part of the country, and it will record the time so accurately that an astronomer in Portland or New Orleans can tell with exactness the true time of day by this clock. The clock also regulates the time for the city. There is a flagstaff on top of the doire, upon which a large black ball is hoisted at ten minutes before noon every day. This is to warn persons desiring to know the exact time to examine their watches and clocks. Just as the hands of the great clock point the hour of twelve the ball drops, and the city is thus informed that it is high noon. The Observatory is open to visitors every day between the hours of 9 A. M. and 3 P. M.; and an accomplished and genial officer is in readiness to explain the mysteries of the establishment. 1179

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1180 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. The “Big Trees” of California are among the most remarkable specimens of gigantic vegetable growth in existence. They are situated in Calaveras and Mariposa counties, on the sides of the Sierra Nevada, at a height of 4500 feet above the level of the sea. They were unknown to the whites until 1852, but are now among the best known and most constantly visited natural curiosities of the State. For fully twenty miles before reaching “The Grove,” as the forest containing the “Big Trees” of Cala veras is called, the size of the timber begins to increase, and grows larger at every mile until it attains its maximum size in the “Big Trees.” “The Grove” of Calaveras county covers a space of about 50 acres, and contains about 92
of the big trees. Another grove in Mariposa county contains 134 trees over 15 feet in diameter. These giant trees stand sometimes in groups, and sometimes singly and apart. Some are low and stumpy, but others rear their heads to such a height that they appear to touch the clouds. This vast height has the effect of dwarf ing the immense proportions of the trees, and it is not until one examines them more closely that their gigantic size is seen. The Calaveras Grove contains the largest specimens, and we shall confine our description to these. A comfortable hotel has been erected in the Grove for the accommodation of tourists. Near to the hotel is one of the largest of the trees, which lies prone upon the ground. The stump has been trimmed away, and is covered over with a handsome summerhouse, and fitted up as a pavillioni for dancing. On a Fourth of July occasion a cotillon party of thirty-two persons danced upon the stump, and had abundant room for the musicans and a dozen spectators. The stump has a surface 25 feet in diameter. While standing, the bark, which was 18 inches thick, added 3 feet more to this, making the total diameter of the tree in a state of nature 28 feet. It was 302 feet in height, and 96 feet in circumference three feet from the ground. The tree was cut down, and five men were twenty days in felling it. The work was done with long augurs, boring it off little by little; but when entirely severed, such was the perfect plumb of trunk and branches, that, to the amazement of the spectators, the tree merely settled down, and still stood, as if refusing, conscious of its majesty, to bow to human endeavors. Vast wedges were then inserted on the northern side, and driven little by little, till, heaved beyond the line of gravity, the mighty tree came crashing to the ground. Sections of the tree and bark were sent to the Eastern States and to Europe to convince the world of the truth of the reports concerning the trees. The largest of all the trees is called “The Father of the Forest.” It lies upon the ground, and evidently fell many years before the Grove was discovered. It is 110 feet in circumference at its base, and the distance from this point to the first branch is 200 feet. The tree is hollow for this distance, and through this hollow part a tall man can easily walk erect. The tree, when standing, was at least 420 feet high, and may have been higher. The largest of the trees now standing is “The Mother of the Forest,” so called from two round protuberances on one side.

The bark has been removed for a height of 116 feet, but without it the tree is 84 feet in circumference at its base. Twenty feet from the base its circumference is 69 feet, from which point it decreases with elegant regularity to the height of 321 feet. It is the most regularly proportioned of all the large trees. For this reason its immense size is seldom appreciated at the first view. It is not until one has examined it closely and viewed it from different points that its grandeur is properly appreciated. The bark was from ten to twentyfour inches thick, bulging outwardly in a succession of ellipsoids around the trunk. 4’ Ten feet from the base,” says a visitort “this tree would’square’ twenty feet, to use

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\t ___ ij _______ 7 “BIG TREES,” MARIPOSA AND CALI,VERAS GROVES, CALIFORNIA. (First tree, 350 feet high and 28 feet in diameter; Second tree 386 feet high and 3’ feet in diameter.)

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A NEVADA MOUNTAINS (6,220 feet above the sea 2I miles long and I2 miles broad.)

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THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. a sawyer’s phrase; and taking this with a length of 320 feet, gradual decline, a prac tical lumberman of our party estimates that it must contain at least five hundred and twenty thousand feet of sound inch lumber! This seems incredible, but the rules of mensuration show it beyond a doubt.” The “Husband and Wife” are the names given to two immense trees of younger growth, each 60 feet around the base and 250 feet in height. They grow very near and bend lovingly to each other, their upper branches meeting in a dense mass of foliage. The “Burnt Tree ” is another of the fallen monarchs of the forest. Its fall was pro duced by natural causes. It measures over 39 feet in diameter across the roots, and is believed to have been over 300 feet high. It is hollow, and one can ride into it on horseback for a distance of 60 feet. Another tree, known as “The Horseback Ride,” is hollow its entire length. The narrowest part of the interior is twelve feet wide. One of the stumps is hollow, and will comfortably seat twentyfive persons. It is called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” Three magnificent trees, known as the “Three Sisters,” stand side by side in graceful amplitude, each 20 feet thick and 200 feet high, of exact proportions and equidistant from base to crown. The trees are mammoth redwoods, and are placed by botanists among the class known as Sequoia gigantea. They belong to the Taxodium genus, and, like all of this race, are but little subject to decay. The fallen trunks, which are believed to have lain prostrate for many hundred years, fully prove this.

The great height at which they stand above the sea level, the dry, balmy air, and the summer droughts and winter snows, with but light rains in the spring and autumn, expose them to but a slight risk of decay, and exempt them from the causes of death to which the timber of the lowlands is exposed. The age of the trees is very great, and sets our mere human periods at naught. It requires twenty years for the trees of this genus to increase one inch in diameter, and forty years for the bark to gain the thickness of a knife blade. By these evidences, and those afforded by the number of annular rings, it is made clear that the largest of these’

standing trees must be at least three thousand years old. The fallen ones are probably a thousand years older. “When our forefathers landed on Plymouth Rock the largest of these had long attained its growth, and was hardening into solid maturity. For how many centuries did the Indian contend with the grizzly bear and mountain lion through these shades, before the pale-face came to gaze with the enlightened wonder of a superior race? Could these whispering boughs but drop intelligible words, what of primeval history might they not tell-of combats of savage beasts, or equally savage men? When Magna Charta was signed, these giants were already of size sufficient to have astonished all the barons at Runnymede, familiar as they doubtless were with the great oaks of Boscobel and Epping Forest. When Rome yielded to the Goth, the’Father of the Forest,’ grown old and decrepit, was tottering to his fall. When Rome was founded, the’Burnt Tree’ was still a vigorous sapling, rearing his head two hundred feet upon a body of ten feet diameter, and when the Saviour bowed his head on Calvary, we may well believe that here a mighty forest groaned and shuddered in the throes of universal nature. Nay, when Solomon sent to Lebanon for cedars, and Hiram rafted him curious woods from Tyre, had navigation so far extended he might here have found solid redwoods of size sufficient for the heaviest beams of the House of God. When Homer sung of Troy, this Grove was already a wonder; and when Horace delighted himself in the Sabine woods, here were trunks to put to shame the largest oaks of the Apennines.” 1183

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1184 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE HOOSAC TUNNEL. The great Hoosac Tunnel, which, after so many years of labor, was completed irr 1874, is one of the noblest monuments of engineering skill and work in the world.

For half a century the four great Atlantic cities of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore have been engaged in a vigorous rivalry to secure the trade of the great West. The rivalry between New York and Boston has beenthe most marked and zealously prosecuted. The effort of the former city to reach the West was comparatively easy, as its natural route lay along the valley of the Hudson, but from the first the question how Boston should reach the upper Hudson on an equality with New York has constituted one of the most difficult problems that has been offered to, the fertile genius of New England for solution. Right across the western part of the State of Massachusetts stretches the Hoosac. Mountain, a spur of the Green Mountain range, forming a natural barrier between New England and New York, cutting off the former from the direct route to the West, and forcing it to seek an outlet by the valley of the Hudson. The problem for New England has been how to overcome this barrier to her communication with the West. There seemed but one way to accomplish this, and that was to tunnel the mountain. In 1825 it was proposed to tunnel it for the passage of a canal from Boston to the Hudson river, and the project was discussed for many years without any conclusion being reached. In the meantime the Boston & Albany Railway was constructed over the mountain in 1841, and the tunnel project was abandoned. The new railway thus enjoyed a monopoly of the trade between New England and the West, and in the natural order of things, the necessity for a competing line was soon felt. In 1845
the Fitchburg Railway, from Boston to the northern part of the State of Massachusetts, was built to Fitchburg, and soon afterwards the Vermont &

Massachusetts Railway, a continuation of the Fitchburg line, was built to Greenfield. In 1848 the Troy & Greenfield Railway was chartered, with authority to build a road from the terminus of the Vermont & Massachusetts Railroad at Greenfield, through the valleys of the Deerfield and Hoosac rivers, to the State line, where it should unite with a railway leading to Troy. This charter revived the project of tunnelling the Hoosac Mountain, the tunnel to be for the railway this time, and not as formerly-for a canal. It was found that the only part of the mountain that could be tunnelled was in the northern part of the State, near the town of Adams.

The top of the mountain at the point selected for the tunnel is 2500 feet above tidewater. The mountain is approached on the east by the deep and well-marked valley of the Deerfield, a tributary of the Connecticut river, and on the west by the Hoosac, a tributary of the Hudson. The mountain consists mainly of a mass of mica slate, with occasional veins of quartz, except on the western side, where a secondary formation overlaps the primary. The rock in some places is scarcely to be distinguished from granite, and is much harder Except where the quartz seams occur the work of drilling the rock is comparatively easy, but it is difficult to remove by blasting. The project of tunnelling the mountairn having been thus revived, it was the general desire that it should be pushed through to completion, without delay. The act of incorporation of the Troy &

Greenfield road required the road to be built within seven years; and in 1854 the Legislature authorized the loan of the credit of the State to the Troy & Greenfield Company to the amount of $2,000,000 for the purpose of constructing the tunnel through the Hoosac Mountain. In 1855 authority was given by the Legislature to certain towns on the line of the road to take stock in the tunnel to a certain fixed amount. In spite of the

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THE HOOSAC TUNNEL. great desire for the tunnel, and the belief that it could be built, capital held aloof from it, and the early years of the enterprise were full of difficulties and failures. In 1855 .a contract was made with W. E. Serrel & Co. of Philadelphia, to build the tunnel and road for $3,500,000, the contractors to take $440,000 of the stock of the company. This agreement resulted in failure, and a second contract was made with the same parties in January, 1856. The State was asked to subscribe $150,000 to the stock, but refused, and the company was not able to raise the necessary funds, so the Serrel contract was abandoned. In July, 1856, the company entered into a contract with Herman Haupt & Co., by which the latter agreed to build the road and tunnel for $3,880,000.

The company was again unable to raise the necessary suim, and this contract failed. The difficulty of attracting capital was so great that in 1857 the Legislature modified in a very great degree the conditions of the assistance of the State, but the bill for this purpose was vetoed by the Governor. By this time-the latter part of the spring of 1857-the tunnel had been pierced for a distance of 621 feet from the western end, of which 274 feet had been excavated full size; and 185 feet from the eastern end; making the whole distance pierced 806 feet. In February, 1858, a new contract was made with Haupt & Co. to finish the tunnel for $4,000,000, and it was stipulated that the $2,000,000 of bonds to be issued by the State should be used exclusively for the work on the tunnel. The work was now resumed with vigor, and by September, 1858, the mountain had been pierced for a distance of 1291 feet. Shortly after this the company obtained a modification of the Loan Act, and the work was prosecuted up to July, 1861. By this time the advances of the State amounted to $778,695.

About the same time the State Engineer refused to approve the work of the contractors, or to certify their bills. Operations were at once suspended in consequence of this refusal, and the enterprise was abandoned by the Troy & Greenfield Company. The project had taken too deep a hold upon the people of the State to be allowed to fail at this stage, and in 1862 the State assumed the entire control of the enterprise, and resolved to complete it at its own expense. Three Commissioners were therefore appointed, and were placed in charge of the affairs of the tunnel. Up to this time a great deal of work had been done on the tunnel at both approaches to the mountain. The east end heading had been driven nearly 2400 feet, 2130 being of the full size prescribed by the State; a shaft, located 3000 feet from the west end, had been sunk 325 feet to grade, while the west end had been excavated 610 feet. Serious defects were found to exist in the tunnel as constructed. It had been planned to be only fourteen feet wide, with a total height of eighteen feet, while the western shaft was found to be ten feet north of a straight line between the two portals. The Commissioners recommended that the work should be done over upon an entirely different plan; that the tunnel should be twenty-two feet wide at the grade line, twentyfour feet at the widest point, twentyone feet high above the track, with a circular roof. They estimated the cost of colnmpleting the tunnel, including interest and the advances already made by the State, at $5,719,930. A bill was passed by the Legislature appropriating $3,800,000 to the work. In October, 1863, over two years after the abandonment of the enterprise by Haupt & Co., work was resumed on the tunnel under the direction of the State Commissioners. An entirely new line was now established, following the axis between the centre of the western shaft and the centre of the work at the east end, bringing the line out eighteen feet north of the old western portal. At the east end the old bore was used and 1185

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1186 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. enlarged, but at the west end an entirely new bore was begun. It was resolved to sink but a single shaft-a central one-and the position of this was selected. Work was begun on it in December, 1863. The work was prosecuted under the direction of the Commissioners until 1868, when the State, after much public discussion, determined to have the tunnel completed on contract. At this period the eastern heading had been driven 5282 feet, and 4056 feet in various stages of advancement had been cut from the western end eastward. The central shaft had been sunk 583 feet. There remained 15,693 feet of tunnel and 457
feet of the central shaft to be excavated. In December, 1868, the contract was awarded to Walter and Francis Shanly, of Canada, for $4,623,069, and it was stipulated that the work should be completed by March, 1874. The tunnel was to be 24 feet wide and 24 feet high in the clear; while where arching was required it was to be 26 feet wide in the clear and 211 feet high above the rails. Under this contract the work was pushed forward with vigor and success by day and night. On November 27th, 1873-Thanksgiving Day-the workmen advancing from both ends met, and light was admitted through the entire tunnel. The work was completed in 1874, within a short period of the stipulated time, and was turned over to the State by the contractors. The whole tunnel is 25,031 feet, or four and threequarter miles long. It is 26 feet wide, with a varying height of from 23 to 26
feet wherever brick arch is used. Where the excavation is through solid rock the section is reduced to 24 feet wide by 20 feet high. The tunnel has a capacity for a double track. The open space cut of the new tunnel at the west end extends into a portion of the old Hiaupt tunnel, which strikes it diagonally. It is probable that the old tunnel will be used as a culvert to carry off the water from the west end. The grade of the tunnel is 26 feet to the mile for nearly the whole distance, rising from each portal towards the central shaft, and leaving a short length of level immediately under the shaft. The height of the interior summit over the portals will be something over 60 feet. The dip in the grade each way from the centre was made to secure good drainage. The grade in the tunnel necessitated some very difficult work in carrying the elevations. The main difficulty of the engineers was to establish the three tunnel points of the east and west ends and the foot of the central shaft in proper relations to each other. To accomplish this the engineers carefully went over the mountain with their levelling instruments, and determined the relative positions of the portals and the depth of the shaft which should be sunk to reach the proper grade at its bottom in the tunnel. The tunnel has two shafts. One of these is near the western end and is but 318 feet deep. The other, the central shaft, is nearly in the middle of the tunnel.

It is elliptical in shape, 27 feet long by 15 feet wide, and is sunk to a depth of 1028 feet. The western shaft is to be closed up, if it has not already been, in order to increase the draught of the central shaft. The central shaft was sunk for two purposes: first to secure two facings, one to the east and the other to the west, from which the work on the tunnel could be driven to meet the work advancing from the eastern and western ends, and thus greatly expedited; and secondly to afford proper ventilation to the tunnel. It is a matter of great doubt whether the tunnel, constructed, as it is, with a grade from each end, would ventilate itself at all. Since the shaft was completed and connection made with the east end, a strong draft is obtained from it, and the tunnel is thus readily cleared of smoke and gases.

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THE VALLEY OF YOSEMITE. The rails have been laid through the tunnel, and it is now in working order and affords direct and uninterrupted communication with the West. The total cost of the work, including all the failures, up to January, 1875, has been $12,973,822. The State of Massachusetts retains its ownership of the tunnel, and will prevent it from being used for the benefit of any railway monopoly and the injury of the people. The Hoosac Tunnel, as has been said, is one of the noblest public works in existence. It is surpassed only by the Mt. Cenis Tunnel through the Swiss Alps. The latter work was opened on the 17th of September, 1871, and is seven and four-fifths miles long. It was completed after fourteen years’ labor, at a cost of about $13,000,000. THE VALLEY OF

YOSEMITE. The Valley of Yosemite lies in Mariposa county, California. It is a gigantic cleft in the Sierra Nevada, between five and six miles long and nearly two miles wide, and is bounded on all sides by walls of yellowish granite from 2000 to 4000 feet in height. It is the most sublime valley in the world, and its beauties yearly attract an increasing number of visitors. It lies so high up on the side of the Sierras, and is so difficult of access, that it is cut off almost entirely from the world around it, and constitutes a world of its own. The visitor is transported from the last station of the stage in a stout mountain wagon to a point within five miles of the valley. From this point to the bed of the valley, nearly 3000 feet below, the descent must be made on horseback or on foot.

It is so precipitous and formidable looking that minany persons, despite the assurances of the guide, prefer to make the descent on foot. Several comfortable hotels have been established in the valley for the entertainment of visitors, and are so located that all the prominent points of interest can be easily reached from them. The valley is watered by the main fork of the Merced river, which pours down into it over lofty crags fromn its source, 8000 feet higher up on the Sierras. The sides of the valley rise up almost perpendicular to the height of 3000 feet, and are impassable save at a few points. The Merced, as it ernters, forms one of these places, and the rocky outlet of this stream constitutes another.

The walls of the valley bear upon their sides the record of the geological changes to which they have been subjected, and tell of the ancient glaciers and waves that have worn smooth their rocky faces. The bed of the valley is thickly strewn with huge boulders, and the central part is filled with a forest of pines and firs. Above the cliffs which shut in the valley a number of noble and majestic peaks rise to a still greater height, varying from 2000 to 4000 feet, and add inexpressibly to the grandeur of the scene. From one of these, called “Cloud s Rest,” a grand view of the entire valley and the surrounding peaks is obtained. Almost every object of interest is in sight. To the left is the South or Half Dome. Above it, on the same side, is Sentinel Rock, sloping down to Glacier Point. Farther away are the Cathedral Rocks and Spires, and beyond them the valley runs off into the mountain side. On the right, at the upper end, nearly opposite Cathedral Rocks, rises the bold head of El Capitan; lower down is the majestic North Dome sweeping down to Washington Column, and separated from the Half Dome by Tenaya Canion. Back of the North Dome lies the Yosemite Fall, while to the left and back of the Half Dome are the Gorge of the Merced and Nevada and Vernal Falls. The distant spires of the Cathedral Rocks hide the beautiful Bridal Veil Fall. 1187

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1188 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. “To the north,” says a writer describing the scene from Cloud’s Rest, “over inter vening canons and gorges, the Sierra peaks rose grandly desolate, paie and delicately tinted with many tonles, warm and cool, against the cloudless vacuum of the sky beyond, that by contrast wore a strangely sombre hlue. Their shoulders were robed with snow and ice, and their flanks were grooved and scarred by glaciers long since extinct. Upon the lower levels a sparse growth of evergreens hardly served to cover the naked appearance of the landscape, and bald spots showed almost as white as the snow beyond. This peculiar appearance of sterility, and meagre, patchy forest growth, characterizes all the surrounding country when seen from such a height. Turning from the Sierras, that were from 3000 to 5000 feet above our level, we looked down 6000 feet into the Yosemite, whose peculiar trough-like formation was readily recognizable, running almost at right angles to the regular trend of the mountains, and fully 4000 feet below the average level of the surrounding country. The familiar forms of the enclosing walls, and the green groves and meadows of the valley floor upon which the Merced sparkled, could be plainly seen, but angles of rock hid each waterfall.” A pleasant excursion is made from the original hotel, across the Merced-a fine mountain stream ten feet deep and abounding in trout-to the head or eastern end of the valley. On the left as the visitor ascends the valley are the “Royal Arches,” on the north side. The granite has fallen in some previous convulsion in such shape as to form five gigantic arches, one within the other, half a mile in length, and rising in the centre 1500
feet. In the upper part of the valley lies Mirror Lake, a pretty mountain tarn of clear water, in which, when the day is clear, the whole valley and the surrounding peaks are reflected as in a mnlirror. When the sky is cloudless and the sunlight unobstructed, the picture reflected in the lake is dazzlingly brilliant. Continuing up the valley one may visit the Cathedral Rocks, two sharp, lofty pinnacles, rising like the spires of a Gothic cathedral for a height of 2000 feet. At their feet the river crowds so close that the trail is forced to find its way through a wilderness of great granite blocks that lie embowered in a forest that has grown up since they were hurled from their places on the cliffs above. Beyond these is the exquisite Bridal Veil Fall, which leaps from a rockv height of 900
feet. Its upper part sparkles a moment in the sunlight, a solid body; then sweeps down in a wild whirl of spray which breaks into a thousand lighter showers before it reaches the basin below. There are several other falls by which the Merced flowvs into the valley. The river enters it in two branc’les, which unite in the valley. The smaller branch comes in from the northeast, under the shadow of the North Dome and the Cap of Liberty-the last a wondrous cone rising directly from the north clif 1000 feet of beautiftil yellow and smooth rock, completely inaccessible. The main branch enters behlind the Southl or Half Dome, in two magnificent cataracts called Nevada and Vernal Falls, and a series of beautiful rapids and cascades between them. A hard climb of over two hours brings the traveller to the foot of the Nevada Falls, 2000 feet above the level of the valley. This is the most superb fall in the Yosemite. The Merced comes rushing down the mountain side in a deep trough from its source among the ice peaks, hurrying on in a clear crystal stream, and leaps at a single bound 400 feet, and then rushes down into the valley below in a series of rapids broken by the rocks, scattering itself at times in clouds of thin spray, and then recollecting its waters again and pouring them over the rocks in a single stream. The Vernal Fall is so called because of the exquisite emerald tints it displays. It

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THE VALLEY OF YOSEMIITE. was called by the Indians the “Cataract of Diamonds.” It is accessible from more p)oints than any other fall in the valley, but can be reached only on foot. It consists of one clear fall of 350 feet. The water starts from the cliff in two great rocky flumes, twenty feet wide and perhaps a foot in depth, but long before reaching the bottom is utterly broken into the minutest fragments and rolled into one great airy sheet of foam, snow-white and dazzling, bordered apparently by pearl dust, it seems a column of cloud breaking upon the rocks to light surf and stony crystals. A series of stairways has been constructed to enable visitors to reach the various points from which the fall inv be viewed to advantage. The cliffs are so gigantic and majestic that it is impossible to repress a feeling of atwe while standing in the valley and gazing up to them. Theue huge peaks or “domes” which rise still higher are inexpressibly beautiful. The coloring of the whole scene is brilliant and striking, varying from the richest hules to the softest tints. A solemn silence broods over the whole valley, save where it is broken by the sighing of thl( wind or the noise of the waterfalls. On the north side of the valley the Yosemite Creek flows into it by the beautiful Yosemite Falls. The immense wall of the northern cliff gives back, leaving an inlet into the mnountain, the sides of which, like buttresses, approach each other at a slharF angle, and down one side of this inlet ponrs Yosemite, in summer a mere rill, but iit thile rainy season a fierce, swollen mountain torrent. Then great liquid volumes fall from the first height 1600 feet, strike and break to a thousand splintered streams. lacing all the second fall fo,r 400 feet with dazzling lines of foam; then gather in aanother flume, take another plunge, and rebounding from cliff to cliff in a mlillion comminuted streams, roar into the basin below. Large logs from the mountain forests plunge a thousand feet without check and splinter to fragments, but somretilmes pass entire, and with myriad tumblings are drifted far down the plain. The three (livisions of the fall measure respectively 1600, 434, and 633 feet, mnaking a total fall of 2667 feet.

The name of thile valley is an Anglicized or corrupted form of the Indian i-omn-e-ta5, whielh means Great Grizzly,ear, supposed to be the title of a chief, and apl)lied g icnerl tilo tribe that held possession of the region from the valley to the plains on the west. That name, however, was never given to it by the Indians. They called it A-wal-nee, whiicli finds its equ(ivalent in the Spanish cafivon or the lnglishl clhasm. The vallev was discovered in 1S35. The miners and early settlers on the MIariposa estate were greatly annoyed by the depredations of the thieving Indians. A military company was organiized to piinislh the savages, and guided by Tenaya, a friendly Indian, this force pursued the astonislhed redskins into their innernost hiding-place, the now amous Yosemite Valley, vlwhich the savages had suppose(l was inaccessible to the whites. The pursuers;‘were astounded at the magnificence of thile scenery, and their accounts of it upon their return were set down by their comryades as pure exaggeration. Other visitors confirmed the first reports, and the region soon attained the celebrity it haq since possessed. The valley is now under the control of a Commiissionl appointed by the State of Ca]iliornia.

The Commissioners appoint a guardian of the valley, vwho resides on the spot, and whose duty it is to see that the rules for the l)reservation of tile trees and the prevention of wanton defacenient are properly carried out. New roads are being opened into the valley, and the iinuber of visitors is annually increasing. It Awould be impossible to present to the reader a full description of this wonderful’ vXllev in an article as brief as this. AVe lhave tried to draw the attention to the most piromIinent iharacteristics and most interesting objects, auld have been obliged to omit 1189 72

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1190 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. a minute description of the wonderful domes and a score of other objects of beauty and grandeur. Indeed, no words can adequately describe such a scene. Even the pencil of the greatest artist fails to do it justice. Nature has made this wonderfl valley her niaster-work, and it must be seen to be appreciated. THE SIGNAL

SERVICE. One of the best arranged, though one of the most recent, branches of the general Government is that section of the War Department known as the Signal Bureau. The chief of this bureau has been humorously termed “Old Probabilities,” in consequence of his daily prognostications of the state of the weather for the next twentyfour hours. “Old Probabilities “
is at present Brigadier-General Albert J. Meyer, one of the most thoroughly competent and accomplished officers on duty at Washington. The operations of the bureau are conducted under his immediate and constant supervision. lie is assisted by a corps of trained and well-qualified subordinates, and has brought the Signal Service to a state of efficiency and usefulness of which the whole country is proud. Tile Signal Service is charged with a double duty. In time of war its members accolnpany the army, and transmit messages from point to point by means of a system of flag telegraphing. In peace their duties consist in observing and transmitting to Washington accurate reports of the condition of the weather. The Signal Corps is composed of a commanding officer, with the rank of Brigadier-General, several conmmiissioned officers, and a certain number of sergeants and enlisted men. The sergeants are required to be proficient in spelling, the ground rules of arithmetic, including decimal fractions, and the geography of the United States, and must write a legible hand. They must pass an examination in these branches before being admitted into the service. They are also subjected to a searching medical examination, and only men of sound physical condition are accepted. They are regularly enlisted into the military service of the United States, and are subject to the regulations for the government of the army. Immediately upon admission into the corps each sergeant is sent to Fort Whipple, in Virginia, opposite Washingt.n, where he is taught the duties of his profession, which are “chiefly those pertaining to the observation, record, and proper publication and report, at such times as may be required, of the state of the barometer, thermormeter, hygrometer, and rain-gauge, or other instrumlents, and the report by telegraph )r signal at such times as indicated, and to such places as may be designated by the chief signal officer, of the observations as made, or such Qther information as may be required.” The textbooks used in the school at Fort Whipple are Loomis’s “TextBook of Meteorologv,” Buchlan’s “Hand-Book of Meteorology,” Pope’s “Practical Telegiraphly,” and the “Manual of Signals for the United States Army.” Instruction in the use of tile instruments is also given, and the sergeant is taught to operate the telegraph. He is required to make daily recitations, and when he is considered prepared by his instructor, he is ordered before an examining board, and is subjected to a rigid examnination. If he is found properly qualified, he is assigned to a signal station in some part of the country, and is allowed an enlisted man to assist him inl his duties. There are about fifty signal stations located in various parts of the Union, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from British America to the Gulf of Mexico. Each of theseis supplied with a filll set of the instruments necessary for ascertaining the eon -8 >

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THE SIGNAL SERVICE. .ition of the weather, etc., and is in charge of an observer sergeant, who is required to make observations three times a day by means of his instruments, which are adjusted to a standard at Washington. These observations are made at 8 A. M., at 4 P. M., and at midnight. Each post of observation is provided with a clock which is regulated by the standard of Washington time, so that the observations are taken precisely at the same moment all over the United States. The result of each observation is imnie diately telegraphed to the Signal Office at Washington, the Government having made arrangements with the telegraph companies to secure the instant transmission of these messages. The reports are limited to a fixed number of words, and the time of their transmission to a fixed number of seconds. The signal stations, as at present located throughout the country, “have been chosen or located at points from which reports of observations will be most useful as indicating the general barometric pressure, or the approach and force of storms, and from which storm warnings, as the atmospheric indications arise, may be forwarded with greatest despatch to imperilled ports.” The work of the observers at the stations is simple. It is limited to a reading of their instruments at stated times, the transmission to Washington of the results of these observations, and of information of any meteorological facts existing at the station when their tri-daily report is telegraphed to Washington. The work of the officers on duty at the Signal Office in Washington is of a higher character, and demands great skill and perfect accuracy. The reports from the various stations are read and recorded as they come in, and from them the officer charged with this duty ?reparies a statement of the condition of the weather during the past twentyfour hours, and indicates the changes most likely to occur within the next twentyfour hours. ‘rliese statements are prepared shortly after midnight, and are at once telegraphed to the various cities and important ports of the Union in time for their publication in the newspapers the next morning. Professor Maury, of the Signal Office, thus sums up the workings of the service: “Each observer at the stations writes his report on manifold paper. One copy he preserves, another he gives to the telegraph operator, who telegraphs the contents to Washington. The preserved copy is a voucher for the report actually sent by the observer; and if the operator is careless and makes a mistake, hlie cannot lay the blame on the observer, who has a copy of his report, which must be a fac simile of the one lihe has handed to the operator. The preserved copy is Afterwards forwarded by the observer sergeant to the office in Waslhington, where it is filed, and finally bound lip in a volume for filture reference. “When all the reports from the various stations have been received they are tabulated and handed to the officer whose duty it is to write out the synopses and deduce the’probabilities,’ which in a few minutes are to be telegraphed to the press all over the country. This is a work of thirty minutes. The bulletin of’probabilities,’ which at present is all that is undertaken, is made out thrice daily-in the forenoon, afternoon, and after the midnight reports have been received, inspected, and studied out by the accomplished gentleman and able meteorologist who is at the head of this work. The’probabilities’ of the weather for the ensuing day, so soon as written out by the professor, are immediately telegraphed to all the newspapers in the country. “Copies of the telegrams of’probabilities’ are also instantly sent to all boards of trade, chambers of commerce, merchants’ exchanges, scientific societies, etc., and to conspicuous places, especially seaports, all over the country. “While the professor is preparing his bulletins from the reports just furnished him by telegraph, the sergeants are preparing maps which shall show by arrows and numbers exactly what was the meteorological condition of the whole country when the 1191

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1192 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. last reports were sent in. These maps are printed in quantities and given all the signal stations. t dozen copies are laid on the table with sheets of carbon paper between them, and arrow stamps strike in them by the manifoid process the direction of the wind at each station. The other observations, as to temperature, barometric pressure, etc., etc., are also in the same way put on them.

These maps are displayed at various conspicuous points in Washingtoni-e.

g., at the War Department, Capitol Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, and the office of the chief signal officer. They serve also as perfect records of the weather for the day and hour indicated on them, and are bound up in a book for future use. “Every report and paper that reaches the Signal Office is carefully preserved on file, so that at the end of each year the office possesses a complete history of the meteorology of every day in the year, or nearly 50,000 observations, besides the count less and continuous records from all of its self-registering instruments.

“When important storms are moving, observers send extra telegrams, which an despatched, received, acted upon, filed, etc., precisely as are the tri-daily reports. One invaluable feature of the system as now o:ganized by General Meyer is that the phenomena of any particular storm are not studied some days or weeks after the occurrence, but while the subject is fresh in mind. To the study of every such storm, and of all the’probabilities’ issued from the office, the chief signal officer gives hi, personal and unremitting attention. As the observations are made at so many different stations, and forwarded every eight hours, or oftener, by special telegram from all quarters of the country, the movements and behavior of every decided storn can be precisely noted, and the terrible meteor can be tracked and’raced down’ in a few hours or minutes. A beautiful instance of this occurred on the 22d of February 1871, just after the great storm which had fallen upon San Francisco. While it wa, still revolving around that city, its probable arrival at Corinne, Utah, was telegraphec there, and also at Cheyenne. Thousands of miles from its roar, the officers at thl Signal Office in Washington indicated its track, velocity, and force. In twenty-foni hours, as they had forewarned Cheyenne and Omaha, it reached those cities. Chicag( was warned twenty hours or more before it came. Its arrival there was with grea violence, unroofing houses and causing much destruction. Its course was telegraphec to Cleveland and Buffalo, which a day afterward it duly visited. The President of the Pacific Railroad has not more perfectly under his eye the train that left Sati, Francisco to-day than General Meyer had the storm just described.” At present the Signal Office aims only to give a synopsis of each day’s weather, and a statement of what weather may be expected, or will probably occur. The “probabilities” so far have been generally verified and confirmed. It is not thought wise to undertake more than can be securely accomplished. These synopses and “probabilities” are all that intelligent shippers and careful seamen require. Shippers will not send their vessels to sea if the weather synopsis indicates threatening or alarming weather. Travellers can consult the “probabilities” before leaving home, and any severe storm that menaces any city or port is now specially telegraphed thither, and the announcement made by bulletins posted in the most public places. THE MOQUI TOWNS. In the northern part of Arizona Territory there are a number of singular towns or villages of an Indian tribe known as the Moquis. The people of the tribe are supposed to be the last surviving remnant of the ancient Aztecs. They are simple in.their

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THE MOQUI TOWNS. habits, correct in their morals, except that polygamy is lawful among them, and are noted for their honesty. Their towns are located on the summits of the lofty cliffs which rise up perpendicularly from the beds of the canlons of the region a thousand feet or more. A narrow footpath, winding in and out upon the crevices and projecting shelves of rock, leads up to the settlement, and could be defended by a handful against an army. The Moquis are peaceable, however, and are rarely molested by the roving tribes. There are seven Moqui towns in all. Three of these stand upon an extensive plateau which is in itself one of the most remarkable features of the country. “It appears to be walled in by precipitous mountains, with five or six openings; but this is only in appearance, as a succession of ridged mesas, scattered over the country, appear to the traveller at any one point as forming a circle. Around the border, where it rises towards the enclosing hills, the plain is rich in bunch and white seed grass; whence towards the towns it falls off to a horribly barren plain of dry and burning sand. From this plain the mesa rises, oval shaped and equally on every side, to the height of 1000 or 1200 feet. This rocky mole of mingled white and red sandstone, with a lower stratum of soapstone, is nearly half a mile long and not quite a quarter wid(le. l’romi the edge the cliff falls off perpendicularly, or even with a slihlit overhang, sonme half way down; then the foothills begin and slope away in a succession of sandy inclines. At one place only, by rock-liewn galleries and dug and walled ways, can h)orses reach the summit. In two other places persons can descend or ascend by ailsome climbing…. The three or four springs that supply the place break but from under the rock about the point where the abrupt cliff joins the foothills, and can all be fortified against the approach of an enemy from below. All the provision is stored as fast as gathered, in the houses, and thus they seem always ready to sustain a long siege. As far as possible lip the cliffs, where caves open inward, flats have been l~orked upon the rock, and sheep and goat-penis constructed leading into the caves.” fhe three towns on this plateau contain about 1000 inhabitants. The houses of these towns are generally square in shape and are simple in design. TPhey are constructed of flat stones laid in a fine cement which hardens with time. hlie joists are composed of immense timbers liewii round. Th-e houses are heavily plastered inside, and are whitewashed with a material whichl gives a hard, smnooth lolish. They are easily kept clean, and their occupants take a pride inll keeping theni (Is neat as possible. The houses are built together in groups, with but narrow passagewvays between them.

Thus a well-filled town will only cover four or five acres. The ‘ouses are two or three stories in height, each story, except the lowest, being very higli. The lowest story is rarely more than four or five feet high, and is never occupied in ,,ie summer time. On this the second story-which is two or three feet narrower all around than the first-is built. It is usually ten or twelve feet high. Upon the joists of the second story a floor is made by piling willows or long branches two or three feet deep and covering them with dirt. This is overlaid with hard plastering, smoothed and polished. This is used as a ceiling for the second story and a floor for the third. The third story is never more than half or a third as large as the second, and the walls of this rest not upon those of the story below, but upon the immiense joists of the second story. At the outer corner of the house the stones project so as to form a rude stairway from the base to the roof. Almost every house has a ladder resting against it by which the roof niay be reacleId. The people sleep on the roofs of their houses altogether, and draw up the ladders after them at night. The well-to-do Moquis carpet their houses wvithl sheep skins, and all use sheep skins to sit on, although the floors are kept scrupulously clean.

1193

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1194 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The dress of the Moqui consists of a very loose jacket and drawers made of calico, which they obtain from the traders. The jacket fits close to the neck and flows loosely to the hips; the drawers reach fromn the waist a little below the knees. The feet are protected by heavy sandals. The men frequently appear naked with the exception of a cloth worn about the loins. The women wear a dress of a heavy woollen fabric of their own manufacture, consisting of a single skirt and a sort of half waist, or rather a fold thrown over the shoulders, and leaving one arm and breast bare. The Moquis are short and stumpy-the women especially so. They are not a prolific race, and are rapidly dying out. They are civil and peaceable, and halve a horror of shedding blood. Their oldest men do not remenmber any time when they were at war. They have a hard struggle for existence, and in spite of their being more civilized than the tribes by wL.ichl they are surrounded, can scarcely derive I living from their dry and barren country. They are interesting chiefly as forming a link between the past and present nativ4
races of America. Scientists are perplexed as to their exact status, and of their hiistorj they know nothing themselves. They have no traditions concerning their ancestors and are said by some travellers to have no religion, though others state that they have a very clearly defined religious faith. One of their customs is very singular, and would seem to have a religious sig,nifi cance. About bedtime the chief of the tribe goes to the top of his house and utters a loud chant for about five minutes, after which the whole village is still. At the break of day a man with a number of bells attached to his belt runs through the village and rouses the inhabitants, who at once turn out. Those whose duty it is proceed to milk their goats, while the bellman and a number of the young men descend to the plain and go a mile or more towards the east. It is said in explanation of this that they look for a deliverer from the east, and send an embassy every morning to meet him. THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. The Yellowstone River is one of the principal tributaries of the Missouri, and rises in Yellowstone Lake, in the northwestern corner of Wyoming Territory. The region in which it takes its source is about half way between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean, and in about the same latitude as the State of New York. tHere the grand Rocky Mountain system culminates in a knot of peaks and ranges which enclose the nmost remarkable lake basin iil the world. On the south of this wonderful basin are the Wind River Mountains, a snow-clad barrier which no white man has ever crossed. On the east is the Snowy Mountain Range and the grand cluster of volcanic peaks between it and Yellowstone Lake. On the west is the main divide of the Rocky Mountains. On the north are the bold peaks of the GaIIatin Range, and the parallel ridges which give a northward direction to all the great tributaries of the Missouri from this direction. The present formation of this region has been so plainly caused by volcanic action that it has been Iooked upon as the remains of a mammoth crater forty miles across. It seems, however, to have been rather the focus of a multitude of craters. “It is probable,” says Professor Hayden, “that during the pIiocene period the entire country drained by the sources of the Yellowstone and the Columbia was the scene of vtlcanic activity as great as that of any other portion of the globe. It nmight be called one vast crater, made up of a thousand smaller volcanic vents and fissures, out of which the fluid interior of the earth, fragments of rock and volcanic dust were poured in uniim

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TIIE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARIK. ited quantities. Hundreds of the nuclei or cones of these volcanic vents are now remaining, some of them rising to a height of 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea. Mounts Doane, Lianford, Stevenson, and more hlan a hundred other peaks may be seen from any high point on either side of the basin, each of whichl formed the centre of effusion.” The region was unknown until after the discovery of gold on the Rocky Mountain slopes had attracted a venturesome population of miners and trappers to it. The first explorers brought back the most wonderful accounts of the Yellowstone country, and their reports were so much mingled with what was evidently exaggeration, that what truth they told was disbelieved. The first attempt to properly explore the region was made in 1859 by Colonel Raynolds of the Engineer Corps. He passed all around the Yellowstone basin, but could not penetrate it. In 1869 a small party, under Mr. Clarence Cook and Mr. Folsom, ascended the river to Yellowstone Lake and succeeded in exploring the basin. Since then other successfill explorations have been made, and their reports have made this eighth wonder of the world familiar to the people of the country. In such a brief article as this the writer can only point out the more remarkable features of the basin, and must of necessity pass over many which would establish the fame of almost any other spot on the globe. The route to the Yellowstone basin is from north to southl, and commences at Fort Ellis, in the southwest corner of Montana. It lies through a country abounding in grand mountain scenery, and at Emigrant’s I eak, which rises to a height of over 5000 feet above the Yellowstone valley, enters the wonderfil country to which the reader’s attention is asked. The wagon road terminates at Bottler’s Ranch, opposite Emigrant Peak, and the remainder of the way must be travelled on horseback. From this point a fine valley leads up the river to the head of the Second Caion of the Yellowstone.

This is a narrow chasm a mile in length, with walls rising perpendicularly fromt the water’s edge for over a thousand feet on each side. Through this cleft in the mountain the river rushes with great force. Ten miles above the head of the Second Canion is the Devil’s Slide, a singular formation, consisting of two parallel vertical walls of rock fifty feet wide, which traverse the mountain from base to summit, and project to the height of 300 feet for a distance of 1500 feet. The sides are as even as if wrought by line and plumb, and the rock is perfectly smooth. Tea miles above the Devil’s Slide, Gardiner’s River, a wild mountain torrent, breaks through a deep and gloomy gorge, and enters the Yellowstone at the lower end of the Third Canion. Four miles up the valley of Gardiner’s River are the famous I-hot Sp)rings, situated on the slope of a mountain. There are a number of these springs, covering an area of about one mile square, and a larger tract three or four miles square is covered with a still larger number of springs which have ceased to flow. The basins of the springs are generally about four by six feet in size and from one to four feet in depth. The water rises in the spring basin and flows down the mountain side from one reservoir to another, losing a portion of its heat at each successive fall. The temperature ranges at the spring basin from 126 to 132 degrees Fahrenheit. The basins are formed by the natural deposits left by the waters, and are of a snowy whiteness which contrasts strikingly with the hues of the surrounding rocks. Higher utip the mountain is the largest of the active springs, twentyfive feet wide by forty feet long. The water holds in solution a, great amount of lime, with some soda, alumina, and magnesia. Clouds of steam and hot vapors rise from a deep crevice surrounding the main spring, and the boiling and gurgling of the water down in its lowermost part can be distinctly heard. The springs are constantly shifting 1195 I

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1196 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. their positions, new ones forming and old ones dying out. “Around the borders of these springs,” says Professor Hayden, “especially those of rather low temperature, and on the sides and bottomns of the numerous little channels of the streams that flow from these springs, there is a striking variety of the most vivid colors-various shades of red, from the brightest scarlet to a bright rose tint; also yellow, from deep, bright suilphlur, through all the shades, to light cream color. There are also various shades of green from the peculiar vegetation.” The Third Cainon of the Yellowstone is impassable.

The trail leads to the left of it over a lofty, barren plateau, through which the river breaks in a winding canion, known as the Third, or Middle Canion, over 2000 feet in depth. Its descent is considerable through this gorge, and it rushes along in a foaming torrent in some places, but lies in others in pools of apparently unfathomable depth. At some points it appears from the lofty heights above a mere ribbon of foam, and its heavy roaring as it daslies through the gorge seemns to the listener above only a subdued murmur.. Above the head of the Third Caiion a large, fierce mountain streaam, known as the Hell Roaring River, rushes into the Yellowstone. Along the course of the latter river above this point are a number of wonderfil ravines andl canrons cut by the streams into the very heart of the mountain. We have not space to describe them. The most conspicuous of these is the Canion of Tower Creek, which is so deep and gloomy that it is called the “Devil’s Den.” About 200 yards above its entrance into the Yellowstone the stream falls 156 feet at a single leap, Cormiiig one of the most beautiful falls in the country. The rocks around the fall are worn into the most fantastic shapes. “One can almost imagine,” says Professor HJayden, “that the idea of the Gothic style of architecture had been caught from such arvings of nature.” A short distance above the mouth of Tower Creek the Yellowstone emerges from , he Grand Cafinn, the mouth of which defile constitutes one of the chief marvels of ihis marvellous region. The Grand Calon is twenty miles in length, and extends lrom the mouth of Tower Creek to the foot of the Great Fall. It is impassable bhrougliout its entire length, and accessible to the water’s edge only at a few points und by dint of severe labor. The road leads over the country to the left of the cafion, )y way of Mount Washburn, to the falls of the river. “No language,” says Professor Hayden, “can do justice to the wonderful beauty and ;:randeur of the Grand Cafion.” There is nothing like it on the globe. It is from 1500 to 2500
feet deep, “and from the bed of the river,” says Lieutenant Doane, who lescended to the stream, “the stars could be distinctly seen” at three o’clock on a lear afternoon. Thile sides of the cafion have been carved by the waters that have [owed through it into fantastic resemblances to massive columns and Gothic pinnacles. “The basis material of the old hot-spring deposits in silica, originally as white as snow, are now stained by mineral waters with everv shade of red and yellow, from scarlet to rose color, from bright sulphur to the daintiest tint of cream. When the light falls favorably onil these blended tints, the Grand Cation presents a more enchanting and bewildering variety of forms and colors than human artist ever conceived.” The river rushes down the descent of the cation with a hoarse roar, but the gazer peering down from the lofty cliffs can hear nothing. A deep and even painful silence fills the whole chasm as he gazes into it. A mile above the head of the Grand C’.fion is the Lower Fall of the Yellowstone. The river, 150 feet in width, leaps at a single bound over a smooth rocky precipice 350 feet in height, and rushes down to the Grand Cation, a mile below, in which it disappears. The fall is superb. Half a mile above is the Upper Fall, the river

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THE GREAT GEYSER OF THE FIRE-HOLE BASIN. NEAR VIEW OF YOSEMITE FALLS.

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:ITE VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. NTINEL ROCK YOSEMITE VALLEY. (4,5oo feet high above the Valley.)

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THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. between the two flowing through a canion from 200 to 400 feet deep. The Upper Fall is 140 feet in height, and the precipice over which the stream plunges in a sheet of snow-white foam is perpendicular like that of the Lower Fall. Above the Upper Fall the Yellowstone flows through a peaceful and grassy meadow-like valley. A mile or two above the falls a small stream known as Alum Creek flows into the Yellowstone. It rises in a group of alum and sulphur springs about ten miles above the falls. These springs are boiling actively, and emit clouds of steam and vapor. Steaming vapor also rushes from the crevices in the surface of the surrounding country, and deposits of pure crystallized sulphur are scattered about near them. The crust of the ground is treacherous in the vicinity of the springs, and a man’s weight may easily break through it in some places. Professor Hayden thinks these springs and steam vents the remains of a series of once powerful but now slowly dying geysers. A couple of miles above these springs, near the banks of the Yellowstone, is a not less remarkable group of sulphur and mud springs, and the country around them for some distance bears witness to having been covered with similar springs long since extinct. “The contents of most of them,” says Mr. Langford, “were of the consistency of thick paint, which they greatly resembled, some being yellow, others pink, and others dark brown. This semifluid was boiling at a fearful rate…. The bubbles, often two feet in height, would explode with a puf, emitting each time a villanous smell of sulphuretted vapor.’ Not far from this group of springs is the Muddy Geyser, which has a funnel-shaped orifice in the midst of a basin 150 feet in diameter, with sloping sides of clay and ,and. The crater or orifice is about thirty feet in diameter. The flow of this geyser ‘s regular every six hours. The water rises gradually, commencing to boil when tbout half way to the surface, and occasionally breaking forth in great violence. When the crater is filled it is expelled from it in a splashing, scattered mass, ten or ifteen feet in thickness, to a height of forty feet. At the distance of a mile, perhaps, from the Muddy Geyser is the “Mud Volcano.” dit is situated in the midst of a grove of pines on the slope of a small hill. At irregular intervals it discharges through a crater thirty feet in diameter dense volumes of steam, with a loud, thundering report. “The reports,” says Mr. Langford, “though irregular, occurred as often as every five seconds, and could be distinctly heard half a nile. Each alternate report shook the ground a distance of 200 yards or more, and ‘he massive jets of vapor which accompanied them burst forth like the smoke of )urning gunpowder.”

Discharges of mud are mingled with the steam, and are scat;ered for as much as 200 feet around the opening. Professor Hayden considers this the most important mud spring yet discovered in the MWest. The steam rising from it can be seen for many miles in every direction. A few miles further up is Yellowstone Lake. The river leaves it in a channel a quarter of a mile wide, and is here a calm, deep stream. The lake itself is irregular in form, and is over twenty miles long and fifteen miles broad. It covers a superficial area of about 300 square miles. Its greatest depth is 300
feet, and its elevation above the sea 7427 feet. In its lofty position it has but one rival-Lake Titicaca in South America. It has no tributaries of any considerable size, and receives its clear, cold waters solely from the snows of the lofty mountain ranges that hem it in on every side. Its shores are paved with volcanic rocks, sometimes in masses, sometimes broken and worn into pebbles of trachyte, obsidian, chalcedony, cornelians, agates, and bits of agatized wood; and again, ground to obsidian sand and sprinkled with crystals of California diamonds.

Vegetation is abundant both in and around the lake. The 1199

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1200 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. waters swarm with trout, but no other fish of any kind exist in them. Water-fowl of various kinds are found about the lake in great numbers. The surrounding country is rich in game, from the muskrat to the elk, the grizzly bear, and the California lion.

The beauty of the lake has aroused the enthusiasm of all who have seen it.

Evenl the cautious Hayden declares that “such a vision is worth a lifetime, and only one of such marvellous beauty will ever greet human eyes.” “It is a fitting climax to all the wonders we had seen,” says Mr.

Langford, “and we gazed upon it for hours, entranced with its increasing attractions.” Hot springs strongly impregnated with mineral deposits are scattered around the lake on all sides. Some of these are large and important, but we have not the space to describe them here. The eastern rim of the Yellowstone basin is formed by one of the grandest volcanic ranges in the world. The general level of the sumlmits of these mountains is about 10,000 feet above the sea, while numerous peaks thrust their heads a thousand feet higher still. The three highest bear the names of Langford, Doane, and Stephenson, after the first explorers who ascended them. Between the lake and this group of mountains is Brimstone Basin. The ground for several miles around is impregnated with sulphur and the air is tainted with sulphurous exhalations. The springs which occur in this tract are of the ordinary temperature, though the basin was evidently the scene of thermal activity within a comparatively recent period. The upper Yellowstone rises in the high volcanic range which shuts off the Yellowstone basin from the Wind River drainage, and constitutes the great watershed of the continent. It flows north into Yellowstotne Lake. About eight or ten miles south of Yellowstone Lake is a smaller body of water called Heart Lake, which is one of the sources of Snake River. Ten miles northwest of this is Madison Lake, the source of Madison River. The mlain fork of the Madison River, from the lake to its junction with the South Fork, is known as the Firehole River. About ten miles below the lake it flows through a deep cainon, and as it emerges from this it falls over two ledges of rock, one twenty and the other fifty feet in height. A short distance below these falls the canioii widens, and both banks of the river are lined with a considerable number of hot springs in active operation.

Two miles below the stream enters the Upper Geyser basin, the most wonderful portion of this whole region. It is an open, rolling valley, two miles wide and three miles long, the mountains on either side rising 1500
feet above the valley, with steep, heavily-timbered ledges of dark rock.

Scattered through this valley aire a large number of powerful geysers. The principal of these are known as “Old Faithful,”.“Thle Beehive,” “The Giantess,” “Castle Geyser,” “The Grand Geyser,” “The Saw Mill,” “The Giant,” “The Grotto,” “The Riverside,” “The Fan Geyser,” and “The Sentinels.” These are all among the most powerful spouting springs in the world, sending up, when in action, vast columns of water from 50 to over 200 feet, and emitting dense clouds of steam. The exact number of geysers is not known. There are about 1500 hot springs in the upper basin, many of which Professor Hayden thinks may be geysers whose periods of activity have never been observed. “We could not distinguish,” says Lieutenant Doane, “the geysers from the other hot springs, except by seeing them play, and doubtless there are many besides in the valley of great size, which we saw when quiet and classed as boiling springs…. Taken as an aggregate, the Firehole basin surpasses all the other great wonders of the continent. It produces an effect on the mind of the beholder utterly staggering and overpowering. During the night we

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V’ \, _ __ ~~~~~I
i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~‘l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I’ A_ 1 I

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CPATER OF GIANT GEYSER. TIE FAN GEYSER.

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THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. were several times awakened by the rush of steam and the hissing of the waters, as the restless geysers spouted forth in the darkness. A constant rumbling, as of machinery in labor, filled the air, which was damp and warm throughout the night.” It will not be possible to describe each one of these marvels in detail; so we shall content ourselves with quoting the description of the “Grand Geyser,”

given by Lieutenant Doane: “Opposite camp, on the other side of the river, is a high ledge of stalagmite, sloping from the base of the mountain down to the river. Numerous small knolls are scat tered over its surface. The craters of the boiling springs are fromn fifteen to twenty five feet in diameter; some of these throw water to the height of three or four feet.

On the summit of this bank of rock is the grand geyser of the world-a well in the strata twenty by twentyfive feet il diametric measurements (the perceptible elevation of the rimt being but a few inclhes), and when quiet having a visible depth of 100 feet. The edge of the basin is bounded by a heavy fringe of rock, and stalagmite in solid layers is deposited by the overflowing waters. When an eruption is about to occur the basin gradually fills with boiling water to within a few feet of the surface, their suddenly, with heavy concussions, immense clouds of steam rise to the height of 500 feet, and the whole great body of water, twenty by twentyfive feet, ascends in one gigantic column to the height of ninety feet. From the apex of this column five great jets shoot up, radiating slightly from each other, to the unparalleled altitude of 250 feet from the ground. The earth trembles under the descending deluge from this vast fountain; a thousand hissing sounds are heard in the air; rainbows encircle the sum., mits of the jets with a halo of celestial glory. The falling water plows up and bear~ away the shlielly strata, and a seething flood pours down the slope and into the river. It is the grandest, the most majestic, and most terrible fountain in the world. After playiniig thus for twenty minutes it gradually subsides, the water lowers into the crater out of sight, the steam ceases to escape, and all is quiet. This grand geyser played three times in the afternoon, but appears to be irregular in its periods, as we did not see it in eruption again while in the valley. Its waters are of a deep ultramarine color, clear and beautiful. The waving to and fro of the gigantic fountain, in a bright sunlight, when its jets are at their highest, afibrds a spectacle of wonder of which any description can give but a feeble idea.” Below the Upper Geyser basin the river flows for two or three miles through a region entirely free from hot springs, but which was once the scene of great thermal activity, and then enters the Lower Geyser basin, which covers an area of about thirty square miles. This valley is filled with hundreds of hot springs, many of them powerful geysers. Over a thousand steam jets may be seen rising in the air from any commanding point of view. “I can compare the view,” says Professor Hayden, “to nothing but that of some maniiufacturing city like Pittsburgh, as seen from a high point, except that instead of the black coal smoke there are here the white, delicate clouds of steam.” Such is a brief and imperfect account of the Yellowstone region and its wonders. The most complete report published concerning it is that of Professor Hayden, the chief of the Geological Survey of 1870.

As soon as this was published eflbrts were made to induce the General Government to set aside a portion of the Yellowstone region for the undivided benefit, enjoyment, and instruction of the country at large.

Congress readily acceded to this demand, and passed a bill, which was approved by the President on the 1st of March, 1872, setting apart the region embracing the Yellowstone from the headwaters of the upper river to the Second Canion, and the geyser basins, as a National Park. The bill states the boundaries of this park as 1203

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1204 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCEF. follows: “Commencing at the junction of Gardiner’s River with the Yellowstone River, and running east to the meridian passing ten miles to the eastward of the most eastern point of Yellowstone Lake; thence southward along said meridian to the parallel of latitude passing ten miles south of the most southern point of Yellowstone Lake; thence west along said parallel to the meridian passing fifteen miles west of the most western point of Madison Lake; thence north along said meridian to the latitude of the junction of the Yellowstone and Gardiner’s River; thence east to the place of beginning.” The law declares that this tract is “reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, ori sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people; and all persons who shall locate or settle upon or occupy the same, or any part thereof, except as hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespassers and removed therefrom.” It is further provided that “said public park shall be’under the exclusive control of the Secretary of the Interior, whose duty it shall be, as soon as practicable, to make and publish such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary or proper for the care and management of the same. Such regulations shall provide for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition. The Secretary may, in his discretion, grant leases for building purposes for terms not exceeding ten years, of small parcels of ground, at such places in said park as shall require the erection of buildings for the accommodation of visitors; all of the proceeds of said leases, and all other revenues that may be derived from any source connected with said park, to be expended under his direction in the management of the same and the construction of roads and bridle-paths therein.” He is also authorized to take measures to prevent the wanton destruction of the game and fish found within the park, and to prevent their capture and destruction for purposes of merchandise or profit. Under this Act, the Hon. N. P. Langford, one of the first to render the public familiar with its wonders, has been appointed Superintendent of the Park.

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COATS OF ARMS. UNITED STATES. (-I -, - .  - - D.I NEW HAMPSHIRE. I-~ -4

MASSACHUSETTS. A-.~y ~~~~ __ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~-~~~~~~~~~~ RHODE

ISLAND. MYAINE VERMONT. CONNECTICUT.

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COATS OF ARMS. NEW YORE. NEW JERSEY. PENNSYL VANIA. DELAWARE. MARYLAND.

VIRGINIA. GEORGIA. NORTH CAROLINA.

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COATS OF ARMS. FLORIDA. I #11/’ MISSISSIPPI. if 4< ~~~~~~~~~~ LOUISIANA.

TEXAS. ~__ ~ REST __:: - e  ~~j~ - ,.-. 4~~1s~M?~~~ TENTESSEE.

SOUTH CAROLINA. ALABAMA. ‘REST VIRGINIA.

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COATS OF ARMS. OHIIO. KENTUCKY. ILLINOIS. ‘: WISCONSIN. MINNESOTA.

INDIANA. … MICHIGAN. IOWA.

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COATS OF ARMS. ~

Th~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

MISSOURI. ‘ARKANSAS. KALIFOP,NIA. +; ofLI~;0 +o/;;I~~~~~~~~//I.~~~~~~~~~~~
i ‘,m \' ___________ 1/’~~…:: COLORADO. UTAH. KANSAS. OREGON.

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I INDEPENDENCE HALL. Where the Declarttion,as siglled atid the great Bell ruing out the l)rocl;tination of Libierty. BIRTIIPLACE OF LIBERTY.

Building iln -thichl the Declaration of Independence was w ritten.

CARPENTER’S HALL. Where the first Continental Congress assembled.

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. ITS RESULTS. A CONTRAST. The 4th day of July, 1876, closes the first century of the distinct and separate existence of the United States of America as a free and independent nation. That which was an experiment one hundred years ago is now an accomplished fact, and has been worked out to its successful conclusion in the presence of, and under the close and not always friendly inspection of, the civilized world. It is fitting and usefill, therefore, from the point we have reached to look back over the way we have come, to mark the course that has been pursued, and to ponder the lessons and warnings which our past history offers for our future guidance. The formation of the American Republic was an experiment in every sense of tli word. There had been republics in the past, and they had failed to answer the end. for which they were devised. They had been founded upon the principle of the rule of an hereditary aristocratic class, and had made little or no provision for the protec( tion of the rights and liberties of the great mass of the common people. Naturally they had perished. They had drifted into monarchy as the only refuge open to therti from anarchy.

Their failure was held by all Europe to teach the stern lesson that men were incapable of self-government, and that the “divine rule” of kings was essen. tial to the existence as well as the prosperity of a country. When, therefore, it became known in Europe that the people of America had set up a government republican in form, and democratic in principle, it was the universal conviction of thinking melt that the new experiment was destined to a speedy and ignominious failure. Nor were the founders of tihe American Republic themselves free from anxiety They were aware that the system they had set up differed in its most essential principles from those that had failed in the old world; that the equality of all men before the law, and the government of the people by themselves and not by a class, formed( the basis of their systemn-a vital principle which had been lacking in the republics oi Europe-but in spite of all this they were profoundly anxious, and viewed their work as an experiment which might fail, and which would certainly do so unless the peoplet of the country should, by cultivating the virtues of citizenship, prepare themselves tt deserve its perpetuation. Their hopes were well expressed by WVashlington in a letter to Lafayette, written upon the adjoutrnlnent of the Convention which framed the Constitution-an instrument which, though framed eleven years after the assertion of independence and the establishment of republican government, embodied in one system the principles upon which the Republic was founded in the first instance. The anxiety which he shared with his compatriots manifests itself through all his hopefillness: “It appears to me,” he writes, “little short of a miracle that the delegates from so mnany States, different from each other, as you know, in their manners, circumstances, and prejudices, should unite in forming a system of national government so little liable to well-founded objections.

Nor am I suchi an enthusiastic, partial, or undiscriminating admirer of it as not to perceive it is tinctured with some real, though not radical, defects. With regard to the two great points-the pivots upon whlich the whole machine must move -my creed is simply, First. That the General (overument is not invested with more powers than are indispensably necessary to perform the fuinctions of a good government; and consequently that no ol-bjection ought to be made against the quantity of power delegated to it. “Secondlv. That these powvers, as the appointment of all rulers will forever arise 1211

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1212 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. from, and at short, stated intervals recur to, the free suffrages of the people, are so distributed among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches into which the General Government is arranged, that it can never be in danger of degenerating into a monarchy, an oligarchy, an aristocracy, or any other despotic or oppressive form, so long as there shall remain any virtue in the body of the people. “It will at least be a recommendation to the proposed Constitution, that it is provided with more checks and barriers against the introduction of tyranny, and those of a nature less liable to be surmounted, than any government hitherto instituted among mortals. “We are not to expect perfection in this world; but mankind, in modern times, have apparently made some progress in the science of government. Should that which is now offered to the people of America be found on experiment less perfect than it can be made, a constitutional door is left open for its amelioration.” Looking back now over the century which has elapsed since the great work was begun, we may fairly inquire whether the fears of the founders or the unfriendly assertions of Europe have been realized. The experiment was begun, it must be remembered, by a young and feeble country, already involved in a difficult and burdensome struggle with one of the first military and naval powers of Europe. It was an open question whether the effort for independence could succeed. The States had few interests in common besides their endangered liberties, and it was confidently predicted that they would never hang together, but would either separate in a few years and return to the protection of England, or that the republican system would give way to a great monarchy or a number bof separate monarchies. In any event republicanism was doomed to run its usual course and end in failure. To the astonishment of Europe the Republic survived its early trials and conquered its independence; but upon the return of peace it found itself face to face with numerous serious difficulties, many of which threatened to rend it into fragments.

The predictions which had greeted the commencement of its existence seemed nearer their realization than ever, and it was confidently believed that the end was close at hand. Let us examine the prophecies of Europe for the future of the Republic, and see how far they have been fulfilled during the hundred years that have tested the stability and virtues of our institutions. I. It was predicted that the Americans, as republicans, would be unstable, visionary, given to change; that instead of striving after a possible system of government, and seeking to secure its permanence, they would exhaust their energies in attempting to set up wild and impracticable systems. II. It was predicted that the personal independence and the freedom of speech secured to every man would result in general insubordination; that men would be led to think their own ideas supreme, and would thus be unwilling to submit to any defined standard, and that the body politic thus becoming unmanageable, the country would be so beset with insubordination and rebellion that it would welcome a monarchy or even a despotism as the only escape from anarchy. III. It was predicted that the Republic, even if it escaped or survived these troubles, would be constantly involved in wars with other nations, and so prevented from enjoying the peace necessary to the development of its resources; that foreign nations would take advantage of its weakness to wrest its territory from it whenever the opportunity offered itself. IV.

It was predicted that the Government, being republican in form, could not be made strong enough to offer adequate protection to industry; that in the unhappy

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. state of affairs which would ensue men would not seek to accumulate property which might be swept away from them by some disturbance, and the country would thus remain poor. Time, the great trier of all men’s work, has tested the system founded by our fathers, and the results of the century have vindicated their wisdom and refuted the assertions of the unfriendly prophets of ruin, whose predictions we have recorded. The century has shown a wonderfill increase in the extent, population, prosperity, and power of the Republic, and has witnessed no change in its form of government. It has shown that a republican form of government can develop both the resources and the power of a country. So far from being visionary, given to change, or to following wild and impracticable fancies, the American people have devoted themselves to the perfection and consolidation of thile system with which they began their national existence. The wise founders of that system, appreciating the future growth of the country, and believing that that growth would reveal defects in their work, placed it in the power of their children to remedy them by constitutional amendments. Thus during the century there have been changes made in the fundamental law of the land, modifying or enlarging the powers of the Government, securing the rights of the governed, and stating more clearly the principles of the Constitution; but no radical or even trivial change has been made in the character of our system. It is ,;till the same, except that it has been made more perfect. Believing that its principles are eternal, the American people have cherished as their most precious possession the system of free republican government bequeathed to them by their fathers, and hlave always resented the slightest attempt to interfere with or change’its principles. We have shown that republican institutions are strong enough to deal with the questions that have perplexed monarchical Europe, and to settle them on a safe and satisfactory basis. We have dispensed with large standing armies, and yet we are strong at home and feared and respected abroad. The defence of the country is intrusted to the whole body of citizens, and we have shown that a citizen army and navy capable of contending with the strongest powers, and of waging one of the most formidable wars of history, can be raised at the moment of need. We have no class interests to array our people in hostile divisions. Each man is the equal before the law of all his fellow-citizens, and the highest places in the State are open to the humblest who by force of his own genius can rise to them. The welfare of the State is the direct concern of every citizen. We have shown that the education of the masses is the bulwark of popular liberty. We have separated Church and State, and permit neither to intrude upon the domain of the other, and we have shown this to be to the advantage of both. We have given men the largest liberty in every relation of life, and have shown that this is perfectly compatible with a sound and vigorous political and social system. Nor has the large liberty of the people been found inconsistent with the firm exercise of a strong government. Men have become free in America, and have become settled in the opinion that their freedom rests upon a prompt and willing obedience to the law. The happy arrangement of our confederated system, by which each State charges itself with the administration of its own local affairs, leaving the care for the general welfare to the Federal Government, renders easy the direct and vigilant enforcement of the law. There is no dispute as to the powers of the State and Federal Governments. Each is submitted to cheerfully, and neither conflicts with the other. So far from having become visionary and unstable, the American people are known as the most thoroughly wedded to their system, and the most deternmined to maintain it, of any nation upon the globe. They are not blindly wedded to it, nor do they think 1213

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1214 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. it has yet’attained its highest development. They are prepared to accept any improvements which the future may show to be necessary; and fortunately for thee their fundamental law provides for the peaceful and ready accomplishment of this. But they believe that the principles of equality and of civil and religious freedom upon which their system is founded are eternal, and can never be lost by a virtuous pcople. The assertion that the personal independence and the freedom of speech secured to every citizen of the Republic would result in general insubordination; that men would be led to think their own ideas supreme; that the minority would never submit to, the luajority, and that the body politic, being thus unmanageable, the country would be so given over to insubordination and rebellion that a monarchy would be indispensable as the only refuge from anarchy-this assertion has likewise been refuted by the events of the century. Republican government has been found strong enough to per petuate itself. There is no country in the world where a more willing obedience t( the law is rendered by its citizens. In this country the obedience is voluntary, an(( we are saved the necessity of enforcing the law by means of vast standing armies and large police forces, such as those which eat up the strength of European countries,. The minority have been found to yield cheerfully to the majority, as is witnessed every four years in the choice of the Chief Magistrate of the nation, and in the more frequent elections of the officers of the Federal, State, and municipal governments. Parties the most antagonistic in political beliefs-yet agreeing on the great questionc of free governm’nt-yield their places and power to their successful opponents with promptness and without for a moment entertaining a thought of seeking to retain theni by force; trusting for their restoration to power only to the free expression of the will of the people at the polls.

During the whole century we have had but one rebellion, md but five or six riots of importance. Even the rebellion was not an effort to break up the system of government, but merely an attempt on the part of certain States to withdraw from the Union. They gave the highest testimony in their power to the excellence of the sysn by seeking to perpetuate it in a new confederacy. As for the system, its proudest triumph has been won in the successful reconstrnction of the Union. But ten years have elapsed since the close of our civil war, and yet the conquered States are again members of the Republic, in full fellowship with their triumpliant sisters; eiljoying every right guaranteed by the Constitution, and in the full exercise of free republican government. The supremacy of the Constitution has been maintained, a great war has been waged, and the result has been to enlarge the liberties of the nation and to ground them more solidly in the hearts of the people. There have been no attainders for treason, no executions or confiscations. The victors have treated the vanquished as brothers, and the vanquished, on their part, have reassumed their places within the Union, frankly accepting the results of the war, and firmly resolved to maintain the system which has been so fairly and terribly tested. would be regarded as an idiot. It was predicted that the Republic, even if it escaped or survived the intestine troubles prophesied for it, would be constantly involved in wars with other countries, and so prevented from enjoying the peace necessary to the development of its resources; that foreign nations would take advantage of its weakness to wrest its territory from it whenever the opportunity offered itself. Our history during the century has shown that we are not an aggressive people.

We went to war with Great Britain for the preservation of our liberties and the establishlment of our independence. The struggle lasted eight years. It was followed, after

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. an interval of fifteen years of peace, by hostilities with France, into which the Rteptiblic was dragged by the efforts of the French Government to destroy our com ierce. The outrages of the Barbary States of Africa drew us into war, in 1803, with Tripoli and Algiers. It was a naval warfare only, and was maintained with credit, 3000
miles from home, for nearly five years. Seven years more of peace followed. In 181z the Republic was forced to take up arms to defend its commnerce and sailors against its old enemy, Great Britain. Peace was made at the close of 1814. The next year the Republic compelled the African pirates to respect its commerce, and so rendered a service to mankind.

Thirty-one years of peace followed. Tjien came the wsar with Mexico, lasting about two years. This was our last foreign war. In neither of those we have nmentioned was the Republic the aggressor. It took up the sword simiply to defend its rights, which had been assailed, and laid it down as soon as pro-‘ tection for those rights had been secured. Including the War of Independence, but twenty years of the whole century have been passed by this country in foreign wars, and between each of the more important of these wars there has been a long interval of peace. The country has found ample time for the development of its resources, as its conditionii to-day proves. Our energies have been turned in the direction of peace, and we have found time to settle our quarrels with other nations without sacrificing our home interests. The prediction that our weakness would expose us to the attacks of foreign powers lil!, never been fulfilled. We have never been weak enough for this since the declar;11ioni of our independence. We successfully resisted Great Britain in the Revolution, (comlpelled France and the Barbary powers to respect our commerce, and wrung from (.-reat Britain, in our second struggle with her, the protection we claimed for our seamen and commerce. Thus, while the Republic was still weak and struggling with its early difficulties, it proved itself too stronig to be assailed by any foreign power. siince the close of the second war with England it has occupied a position of such growing strength and prosperity that, so far from seeking to molest it, foreign powers have sought its friendship, and have cordially recognized its importance in the political systemn of the world. To-day it takes rank with the great powers of the world. It is regarded by European nations as a valuable friend or a dangerous foe. From the date of its formation the Republic has never lost a foot of its territory by (conlquest or by sale.

On the contrary, the Republic has grown steadily in territorial extent by purchase, cession, and conquest. In 1775 the area of the United Colonies was about 1,000,000 of square miles, embracing only a narrow strip of country along the Atlantic from Canada to Florida. It has grown by successive additions until its total area is now nearly 4,000,000 square miles. Its eastern and western boundaries are the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and it stretches from the forty-ninthl almost to the twenty-fifth parallel of north latitude. In 1776 the population of the Republic was about 3,000,000. In 1870 it was 38,547,229, and in 1876 it is believed by Professor E. B. Elliott, of Washington City, will be 45,627,000. Looking back over the century we cannot help smiling at the last prediction we have related here-that the Government, being republican in form, could not be made strong enough to offer adequate protection to industry; that in the unhappy state of affairs which would ensue men would not seek to accumulate property. We cannot better show the failure of this prophecy than by contrasting the condition of the cotuintry a century ago with its condition to-day. In 1776 but a few wretched roads connected the distant parts of the Republic. Now all parts are broughjt into close and intimate relations with each other by lines of 73 1215

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1216 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. railway and canals. Splendid steamers navigate our bays, lakes, and rivers: and the feeble and precarious trade of colonial days has expanded into a mighty and growing system of commerce which has made America one of the first commercial nations on the globe.

In 1874 there were about 64,000 miles of railway in operation in tihe United States. The telegraph was unknown at the commencement of our nlttionll existence. There are niow about 60,000 miles of wire in operation in this country. In 1776 the manufactures of the country were few and limited to articles of prime necessity. In 1870 there were 252,148
manufacturing establishments in the United States, employing a capital of $2,118,208,769, and producing manufactured articles to the value of $4,232,325,442 annually. In 1790 the toliu,tge of the United States engaged in foreign trade was only a little over half a million. Illt 1860
it exceeded six millions. It (lecrease(d d(Iuring the civil war in consequence of the depredations of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers, but it is now rapidly reviving, and ranks next to that of (Great Brit:tiit. In 1875 the total value of goods imported into the United States from foreign countries was $533,005,436. The total value of exports for the same year was $)13,442,711. In 1790 the cultivation of cotton was in its inft.tcv.

In 18(;0) the crop amounted to 5,198,077 bales, and in i870 to 3,011,996
bales. Besides the larger crops, the value of orchard andl market garden products in 1870 was $68,054,418. Ill the same year the value of homemade articles was $23,433,332; the value of slatiiglitered animatls $‘98,956,376. The cash value of farms was $9,262,803,861; the value of farmingi, itplements and machinery $336,878,429. The inventive gellius of the couittry has supplied every denlitd which its rapid d(evelopmneit has created. To Americans the world owes the al)pication of steam to navigatioil, the invention of the electric telegraphl, the sewing machine, the cotton gin, the retlp)iag machine, and the great improvements in the steam engine and the printing press.’ The States were behind us,” says MIr. Charles Reade. “They soon advancedl upon ius and caught us, and now they head its far…. Europe teems with the iniateriail products of American geniius…. In a wor(l, America is the leading inatioin il <tll matters of material invention and construction, and no other nation rivals nor approaches her.” No man feels that hlie is accumuitlaitiig wealth here at the risk of losing it by civil disturbances. Property i, held here by as secure a tenure as in any countrv in E,urope. So far from being timid in the pursuit of wealth, Americans are noted for the boldness and imagnititide of their fintancial operations. They have tle reputation of caring quite as much for ionev as the lmo.t ardent monarchist, andl of having inm(re money thin any other nation. There can be no qIuestioii that wealth is more generally distributed in the United States thai in EIliropeanit countries. \We have few colossal fil’ttllus, though in that respect we have some men who could rival the “monev kings” of’ the old world; but our people, as a whole and as individuals, are more comfortable, are better off, and live better and dress better than those of European countries. This is especially true of the working class. As a’

rule our people live in separate houses, and these are generally the property of their occupants. Even among the working class the number of persons owninig their dw(lellings is greater than in European States. Not only are thile American people as a general rule better off in purse than Europeans, tltey are cleaner and neater in their persons, lhomes, and habits. This icomparison of course does not apl)ly to persons in the better walks of life, for that class i.i ak) countries is carefil as to its to(le of life. The mass of tile people in the

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. Republic are better dressed, cleaner in their homes and personal lhabits, bathe oftener, and are possessed of more refinement than the same class of people in Europe. Fortunately for the Republic it has as yet no pauper class to be supported out of the earnings of the industrious population. The pauper class, as it exists among us, is small and may be divided into two portions-those receiving assistance in established institutions, and those leading a vagrant life, supporting themselves by begging. It is not possible to obtain any estimate of the latter, but it is generally admitted that it is made up chiefly of foreigners. In 1870 the total native population of the Union was 32,991,142; the total foreign population 5,567,229. In the same year the number of persons receiving assistance in public institutions was 76,737.

Of these 53,939 were natives; 22,798 foreigners. The foreign population is between one-seventh and oneeighth of the whole number of our people. It furnished over one-fourth of the pauper’ in 1870. The ratio was about one pauper to every 610 native inhabitants, and about one pauper to every 245
foreigners. So too with crime. It is a well-known fact that our prisons are filled chiefly with foreign criminals. The graver offences are confined almost entirely to this class. In 1870 the ratio of persons in prison was one prisoner to every 1365 native inhabitants, and one prisoner to every 623 foreigners. But it is not only in material wealth that our coiuntry has improved in such a marked degree. In the higher departments of intellectual progress its development has kept pace with its growth in riches. In 1800 there were but 200 newspapers published in the United States. In 1870 the number of newspapers and periodicals was 5871; their aggregate circulation 20,842,475 copies; and the number annually printed 1,508,548,250. At the opening of the century there were few libraries in this country, and these were chiefly in the hands of private individuals.

In 1870 there were in the United States 164,815 public and private libraries, containing 45,528,938 volumes. In 1790 there were not more than a dozen colleges in the Union, and the common schools were confined to the New England States. In 1870, according to the ninth census, there were 2454 colleges and professional and scientific schools in the United States, with an attendance of 255,190 pupils. The private schools in the same year numbered 14,025, with 726,688 pupils; and the free public schools 125,059, with an attendance of 6,228,060 pupils. The total income of all these establishments during that year was $95,402,726. In the same year there were but 748,970 white males, and 1,145,718 white females of twentyone years and over among the inhabitants of the United States who could not write. The total number of persons of ten years and over who could not read was 4,528,084. Our people are just as moral as those of any other land. We have more churches than any country ia Europe, and our people take more interest in religion than any other. Our benevolent institutions compare favorably with those of any European country, and are as well supported. Foreigners have often given us the credit of being the only religious nation in the world; yet we have no State church or etablished religion, and no laws compelling conformity to religious customs. In fine, it may be said that the condition of our country at the close of its first century of existence shows that a republic is as well adapted to the task of developing and building up the prosperity, power, and morality of a country as a monarchy; and comparing our rate of growth with that of the old world, we are justified in believing that a republic is the best system for the accomrplishment of such a task. There is not an instance in history of such a wonderful growth as oiurs in the short space of a century. 1217

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1218 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Ihaving thus stated the results of our first century as concerns ourselves alone, let us glance at the course of events in the old world, and contrast the history of European nations during this period with our own. Such a task will be both interesting and profitable, and will convey many usefill lessons which we will do well to ponder. We have shown that during the century we have had, apart from the Revolution, but two foreign wars of importance-the brief contests with France and Algiers being tmere episodes in our history. But even including these, the whole period of foreign war has been but twenty years. The two important contests-the second war with Eigland and the Mexican war-covered a period of but six years. Our first century has been a period of almost unbroken peace-the longest period of protracted peace known in all history. Prior to the commencement of our century the history of Europe is a record of a,linost constant war. During the period we are considering we hlave enjoyed a greater degree of peace than any of the nations of Europe.

During this period England has had eight foreign wars (besides her Indian, Persian, and Chinese wars), covering a period of twenty-eight years. These were: 1. The war with France on account of the aid rendered to the Americans by that power, which lasted from 1778 to 1783. 2. A war with Spain, extending from 1780 to 1783. 3. A war with Holland at the same time. 4. A war with France growing out of the French Revolution, and lasting from 1793 to 1802. 5. A war with the Confederation of the North in 1801. 6. The war against Napoleon I., extending from 1803 to 1815. 7. The war with the United States, from 1812 to 1815. 8. The Crimiean war with Russia, from 1854 to 1856. Besides these European conflicts, England has had nine wars in India, two with China, one with Persia, and one with Abyssinia. France has spent forty years out of the century in foreign wars. These conflicts were: 1. A war with England in 1778, growing out of the alliance with the United States, and lasting until 1783. 2. The wars of the Revolution and of Napoleon, commnencing in 1792 and lasting until 1815. Some of these wars were aggressive on the part of France. In 1793
she made war upon England; in 1812 against Russia; and in 1813 against Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 3. The Crimean war against Russia folugh,lt in alliance with England, Turkey, and Sardinia-firom 1854 to 1856. 4. The war against Austria, in behalf of Sardinia, in 1859. 5. The Mexican war, from 1862 to 1864. 6. The war with Germany, in 1870. Prussia-one of the strongest of monarchies-cannot compare with us in our record of peace, although its boast is that its policy is peaceful. In 1792 she made war upon France for the purpose of undoing the work of the Revolution. Peace was made in 1795. In 1806 Prussia again made war upon France, and continued it with but a slight interval of peace until 1815. In 1848 she made war upon Denmark, in aid of the Duchies, continuing the struggle until 1850. In December, 1863, she again a;.;sailed Denmark in the Schleswig-Holstein war, which continued until November, 1864. In 1866
occurred the “seven weeks’ war” with Austria, and in 1870 the war withll France. Russia has been almost constantly at war during the century.

In.1793 she had war with Poland, growing out of the partition of that country, and lasting several years. The war for the conquest of the Crimea, which began in 1769, was continued until 1784. In 1796 there was war between Russia and Persia, and in 1798 Russia joined tlhe alliance of England and Austria against revolutionary France. In 1805 she joined the coalition against Napoleon. Peace was made with France in 1807. In 1809
she declared war with Turkey; and in 1812 war again broke out between Russia and France. In 1826 war was begun with Persia, and was continued until 1828. In 1828

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. another war began with Turkey. In 1840 a new war broke out with Persia. In 1849 Russia took part in the Hungarian war in support of Austria. In 1853 Russia began the war with Turkey, which resulted, in 1854, in the Crimean war. In 1872 war was declared against Khiva. Austria is perhaps the most peaceful of the nations of continental Europe, and hlas not infrequently submitted to dishonor and loss ol territory in order to indulge her love of peace. Yet even Austria cannot compare with us in the enjoyment of peace d(luring the century. In 1777
she made war upon Bavaria. Peace was made in 1779. In 1788 she engaged in a war with the Turks, which lasted until 1780. In 1792 Austria joined the coalition against the French Republic, and from this time until the downfall of Napoleon, in 1815, was almost constantly engaged in war with France. In 1848 she was engaged in the fierce struggle with Hungary, which was decided only by the intervention of Russia. In the same year war broke out between Austria and Sardinia. In 1859 there was war between Austria, France, and Sardinia. In 1864 she engaged with Prussia against Denmark, in thle Schleswig-Holstein war; and in 1866 fought Prussia in the “seven weeks’ war,” which resulted in her expulsion from Germany. Neither Spain nor Italy can compare with us in immunity from foreign war. The former has had twice as many wars as the Americ,an Republic, and the latter has been drawn into every European struggle of importance during the period we are con sidering. The history of the century shows, then, that the only important nation of the civil ized world that has been comparatively free from foreign war, and has remained at peace with its neighbors, is the United States of America. Monarchical government has not saved Europe from almost constant war, while republican institutions have preserved for this country an almost unbroken peace with all the world. It would seem a fair inference, then, that a free republican government is more calculated to keep peace with other nations than a monarchy. As our Country h-as been freer from foreign war during the century, so also has it been safer from defeat. In all our foreign wars we have been successful. England has been defeated several times-in the American Revolution and in the first war of the French Revolution. France was defeated and crushed at the end of Napoleon’s wars, and again in the war with Germany, in 1870-71. Prussia was beaten in the first war of the French Revolution, and again by Napoleon in 1806. Russia was defeated in the Crimean war. Austria was conquered in her wars with Napoleon; in the Italian war of 1859, and in the war with Prussia in 1866. Italy was repeatedly conquered during the wars of the French Revolution and of Napoleon, and in 1866 was beaten by Austria and saved only by Prussia. Spain was defeated in her war with England in 1796, and was conquered by Napoleon in 1808-09. Thus it would seem that a republic is as well fitted as a monarchy to conduct successful foreign wars, and to preserve the integrity of its territory. We have not lost a foot of ground by foreign war, but on the contrary have gained a vast extent of country by it. There is not a European power that has not been compelled to part with some of its possessions during the past century as the price of peace. The only civilized power that has never experienced this humiliation is the American Republic, which, it was predicted at the opening of the century, would be torn to pieces by the stronger nations of Europe. W-have had but one civil war or rebellion during the century. It was predicted at the outset that we would be constantly exposed to such struggles, and that our Government would not possess sufficient strength to quell them and preserve domestic 1219

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1220 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. peace by force. Our civil war lasted four years, and was one of the most formidable known to history. It was conducted, however, with less brutality, less violence and p)illage than any internecine struggle the world has jver known. Our Government was found amply sufficient to maintain its authority, to conquer the most formidable revolt ever known, and yet to remain true to its constitutional obligations, and to respect the rights and liberties of its people. Nay, more, as we have said elsewhere, it was strong enough also to treat the conquered people as citizens of a free country, and to restore them to the enjoyment of their citizenship within a few years after the return of peace. England has had her Irish rebellion of 1798, and her Sepoy revolt of 1857. France was plunged into civil war almost immediately upon the breaking out of the Revolution in 1789, and in 1793 the terrible struggle in La Vendee began. She has had since then the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848; the Coup d’Etat and civil war of 1851; and the rebellion of the Commune in 1871. Nor has Prussia, with all her strength and admirable administration, been free from civil war. The liberal rebellion of 1848
was a short but severe struggle, and extended over all Germany. The war of 1866 was in many respects a civil war as regards the Prussian territory of to-day. Russia haed just quelled the great rebellion of the Cossacks, and was engaged in suppressing a similar revolt in the Crimea at the opening of our century. In 1795 the first revolt of the Poles took place, and required a bloody struggle to suppress it. In 1830 Poland again revolted and was crushed with merciless severity. In 1861 a new insurrection broke out in Poland and continued until the next year. In 1840, and again in 1872, there were severe outbreaks in the Russian dominions in Asia.

Austria has suffered severely from the same cause. In 1797 a revolt in Lombardy cost her that province. In 1848 there were outbreaks in Milan, Venice, and her other Italian possessions. In the same year a formidable outbreak at Vienna compelled the emperor to fly from his capital. In 1848

Hungary rose in revolt, and the insurrection was quelled only by the intervention of Russia, who feared the disturbance would extend to her own dominions. Spain has been almost constantly engaged in civil war. In 1808
there was the outbreak in the Asturias. In 1820 the Revolution began in January, and lasted until the middle of the year 1823. In 1834 the first Carlist war began, lasting until 1839. In 1841 an uprising was made by the friends of Queen Christina against the Regent Espartero. He crushed it, but a new outbreak began at Barcelona the next year, only to be quelled.

In 1843 a general uprising took place throughout the kingdom, resulting in the banishment of Espartero. In 1851 Cuba rebelled against Spain. In 1854

Espartero, by a successful military insurrection, made himself prime minister. In 1856 there was a new insurrection at Valencia, Madrid, Barcelona, and Saragossa. In 1866 an insurrection under General Prim took place. In 1868 Primn and Serrano led another revolution which overthrew the monarchy, drove the queen from the country, and resulted in the formation of a provisional government under Primn. In 1869 there was an outbreak of the Carlists and Republicans against the’provisional govern ment. In 1873, Amnadeus having resigned the Spanish crown, a revolt ensued, which resulted in the establishment of the Republic. Another revolt overthrew this govern ment in 1874 and restored the monarchy. In 1872 the Carlist war began in the northern provinces, and at the close of 1875 is still going on, without any immediate prospect of peace. Italy has been the home of revolution and civil war during our century. The wars which followed.he French Revolution were largely civil. In 1820 there was civil

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. war in the kingdom of Naples, followed by an insurrection tha next year in the kingdom of Sardinia. In 1831 there was an outbreak in central Italy. In 1848 almost the whole of Italy was engaged in civil war. In 1859, upon the commencement of the final efforts for Italian freedom and unity, civil war again began and continued for several years until the kingdom of Italy was formed, and included in its limits all Italy. From this survey it will appear that a free republic is less inclined to civil war and rebellion than a monarchy, is equally capable of dealing with and settling such troubles when they do come, and is able to settle them upon better and more patriotic terms than a monarchy. With regard to minor insurrections and riots, our country has been singularly free from such disturbances. We have had but seven worth mentioning in all our history. These were: 1. The whiskey rebellion. 2.

Shays’ rebellion. 3. The Kansas troubles. 4. The Mormon insurrection. 5.

The John Brown raid. 6. The draft riots in New York in 1863. 7. The Orange riot in New York in 1871. Riots and local insurrections are of common occurrence in Europe, and European governments are obliged to keep strong forces of military and police in readiness for instant service in suppressing them. England suffers greatly from the periodical disturbances in her mining districts. In Ireland riots between the Orangemen and the Roman Catholics, or between the Fenians and the royal police, are well known. France suffers from the same cause, her riots being largely due to political causes, and being of a very desperate and brutal character.

Prussia has had a large number of riots during the century, many of them arising from socialistic causes, or being due to the high price of bread or beer. In Russia political and religious causes have produced a number of riots and local insurrections, some of which have been quite formidable. We might extend these remarks to Austria, Italy, and Spain, and to the little kingdom of Belgium, which has given some very marked specimens of disturbance of this kind since its foundation, less than half a century ago. From what we have shown it seems clear that a free republic is less liable to insurrections and riots than a monarchy. The reason is evident. The discontent which prevails among the less favored classes of Europe does not exist here, where all mlen are secured equality before the law, and filll protection of their liberties and privileges, and where each one may rise to the highest point of wealth or distinction to which his individual genius will carry him. During the century we are considering our Government has stood unclhanged. As we have stated elsewhere, the secession of the Southern States in 1860-61 was not all effort to destroy the Government, but merely an attempt on the part of those States to withdraw from the Union. The Government of the Union was not even attacked by any one. AVe have had no revolution nor attempt at revolution since the formation of our Government. Since our century began there have been many changes in monarchical Europe. England and Russia alone have avoided an overthrow of government. France has had ten revolutions, Prussia one, Austria orfe, Spain fifteen, and Italy five.

Although England has had no violent revolution, the Government has been compelled by its opponents to make great and important changes. 11n 1801
the British Empire was formally reconstructed. Ireland was included in it, and the title of the State was changed to the “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” The King of England dropped his title of King of France at the same time. A series of reform measures has been steadily forced upon the Government during the past fifty years, which have made England a better, happier, and freer country. Still, while 1221

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1222 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. there have been these changes, it must be admitted that England has not experienced a revolution in the fullest sense of the word. England and Russia, therefore, are the only Governments of Europe which can comnpa::A with that of the United States in stability.

The Government of Prussia was forcibly overthrown by the insurgents in 1848, and the king was obliged to accept a new Constitution at their dictation. In 1848, also, the Kings of Bavaria and Greece were compelled by the nsurgents to abdicate their thrones. In Austria there have been several changes. In 1806 the Holy Roman Fonpire came to an end, and Francis II. formally resigned the imperial crown. Upon tihe ruins of this ancient establishment was erected the Hereditary Empire of ~ustria. In 1848 the Emperor Ferdinand I. was driven from his capital, and was finally obliged to abdicate his throne in favor of his nephew, the present Emperor Francis Joseph, who came to the throne with a new Constitution and new dynastic principles. By the treaty of Prague, in 1866, Austria was forever excluded from Germany, and this change was soon followed by another, in 1867, by which the entire Austrian Empire was remodelled. A new and liberal Constitution was adopted; Hungary was made an independent kingdom, witi the Austrian Emperor as king. In 1870 the official title of the State was changed to “The Austro-Hungarian Monarclhy.” In France the era of change began with the great Revolution of 1789. In 1792 the Republic was established. In 1795 the Directory and Council of Five Hundred were overthrown and the Consulate established. In 1804 the Empire was established upon the ruins of the Consulate. In 1814 the Kingdom of the Bourbons was restored. In 1815 the Empire was reestablished. In the same year the Kingdom was again set up after Waterloo. In 1830 the Liberal Monarchy was established under Louis Philippe. It was overthrown in 1848
and succeeded by the Republic. In 1851 this was overthrown by Louis Napoleon, and in 1853 the Second Empire was established. In 1870 the Empire was overthrown and the Republic set up. If we turn to Spain the record of revolution and change is bewildering. In 180( Charles IV.

abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand, who was overthrown by Napoleon, who in the same year made his brother Joseph King of Spain. Before the close of the year Joseph was driven from Madrid and was restored by the French army. In 1814 the Government of Joseph was overturned and Ferdinand was restored to his throne. In 1820 a successful revolution compelled the king to accept a new Constitution, and placed a new Cortes in power. In 1823, by the aid of the Holy Alliance, constitutional government was overturned in Spain and despotism was reestablished. In 1833, at the death of Ferdinand, the Infanta Isabella was placed on the throne. In 1840
the Queen Regent abdicated and left Spain, Espartero becoming Regent. In 1843 Espartero was driven from Spain, and the young queen, Isabella, was declared of age. In 1854, by a new revolution, Espartero made himself Prime Minister and actual ruler of Spain. In 1856 he was forced to resign.

In the:ame year the disturbances were so great that dictatorial powers were conferred upon Marshal O’Donnell, the Prime Minister. He was compelled to resign, and Narvaez succeeded him as Prime Minister. In 1868
a successfl revolution drove Queen Isabella out of Spain, and placed Prim and Serrano at the head of affairs. In 1870 Amadeus of Savoy became king, but resigned a year or two later. In 1873 the Republic was established. In 1874 it was overthrown and the monarchy restored under the present king, Alfonso XII. Italy, besides her ninor revolutions, has experienced several great changes in her form of government. The wars which grew out of the French Revolution changed

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A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. the entire political system of Italy, and in place of the old Germanic Italian Empire established a series of republics, which, in 1802, were consolidated into the Italian Republic, with Napoleon Bonaparte as President. In 1805 the Re)public was changed into the Kingdom of Italy. In 1814 the Austrian rule was restored. In 1861
the Kingdom of Italy was established under Victor Emmanuel, and has rapidly absorbed all of Italv. It appears, then, that a free republic is as apt to avoid revolutions and changes of government as a monarchy. “The map of Europe has been all changed over and over again, and Europeall history, instead of being fixed like the mountains, is changeable like the sea. WViiile, therefore, our Republic has stood like a house founded upon a rock, without being so muich as shaken by the storms of surrounding wars and revolutions, the European monarchies have yielded to every popular wave, and been often swept away by the slightest gusts.” If it is said that our comparison is unfair, inasmuch as the European monarchies are single States and our own a confederation, we answer that our own confederacy has remained unshaken while Europe has witnessed the downfall of several of lher own of a monarchical character. The German Empire or Confederation has been overthrown four times. The Confederacv of Italian States has been broken up four times. The Austrian Empire has been overturned three times. The little Republic of Switzerland is the only European confederacy that can, during the past century, in the least degree compare with our own in stability. D)lring the century we are considering our Republic has not lost a foot of its territory, but has steadily increased in its territorial area. There is scarcely an important power in Europe but has met with some loss of this kind, either in actual territory or authority over it. England opened the century with the loss of her Almerican colonies. France has lost Itlayti and her provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, and has parted with her vast American territory of Louisiana. Prussia has lost all control over Denmark and over Bohemia.

Italy has lost Savoy and Nice. Austria has lost her Italian possessions, and has been driven out of Germany. Spain has lost Mexico and her South American colonies. Comparing our acquisitions with the losses of Europe, we are justified in the conclusion that a free republic is better qualified to retain and enlarge its territory than a monarchy. It would seem, then, that in all the essentials of a free, firm Government, in its capacity for conducting its affairs upon a safe and solid basis, in its freedom from violence and change, in its ability to secure protection and happiness to its citizens, and to preserve their freedom and advance their interests in those relations of life over which the legitimate powers of government extend, our free Republic is in all things the equal of any monarchical system of Europe, and in many the superior. Such, then, is one great lesson of the century. Our whole history and that of other lands urge us to cherish our free republican system as our most precious possession, as the basis and prime cause of our greatness and prosperity as a people; and to frown ilidignantly upon the first dawning of an attempt to inaugurate changes in its vital principles. Let us keep it pure and undefiled as it came down to us from our fathers, and so transmit it to our children. 1220’

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IF

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H IS T 0 IR Y OF THE C0ENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. BY J. S. INGRAM. ATHER more than threequarters of a century since-in 1797-the first Exposition of the National Industry of France took place in the chateau of St. Cloud, under the presidency, and through the agency, of the Marquis d’Aveze. During the troubles of the Revolution, he found that the royal mnanufactories at Sevres and Gobelins had suffered, and that the workmen were wanting bread, though the warehouses were full of the choicest tapestry, china, and rich wares. To remedy this sad state of things, he bethought him of the sale of these products in a bazaar; and in a few days, he tells us, the castle walls were gay with hangings, and the floors bright with the carpets, and the tables with china and bijouterie. Before, however, it could be opened, and before ever the first attempt to realize the idea of a National Exposition could be inatligurated, a decree of the Government closed the chateau and banished the Marquis, along with the other nobility expelled by the Directory from the country. But the idea was not to be thus untowardly thrust aside; the next year, when the Marquis returned from banishment, a similar bazaar wvas organized, and held in the house and grounds of the Maison D’Orsay; the success of which was so great, that the Government of the day adopted the idea of instituting them annually. Fate, and the exigencies of continental politics, however, willed otherwise, and the next Exposition did not take place till the year 1801. Upon this occasion a quadrangle of the Louvre was used, and the greatest success 1225

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HISTORY OF THE attended the experiment. Similar Exp)ositions took place in 1802. 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1849. The last was esteemed the most splendid and successful of’ aIIny litllerto held in Paris. It took place in a temporary palace erected in the Champs Elysees, which covered more than five acres of ground. There were 4494 exhibitors, and the productions, ranged for the inspection of the curiouIs, were considered as evidencing a decided advance on everything of the like kind before exhibited. In these last two Expositions, an immense variety of raw material, machinery and imanuiactures was exhibited. In every department an increase of taste \was apparent; and cheapness of production seemed to have been an object of as earnest pursuit as those of quality and taste.

Indeed, after these two Expositions, France may well claim the high hlonor of having originated, cherished and completely establishled 5ational Industrial Exhibitions. The Bavarian and tlhe Belgian Goverinments have instituted Industi;ial Exhibitions, in imitation of those of France, and they have been attended( with great success and popularity. In Spain, also, National Expositions of Industry have been held with more or less success. Thle first Spanish Industrial Bazar was held in 1827, and had 297
exhibitors; the second, in 1828, with 320 exhibitors; the third, in 1831, withl 228 exhibitors; the fourth, in 1841, with 214 exhibitors; and the fifth, in 1845, when 325 exhibitors represented the genius, trade and industry of Spanish manaiufacturers. From these dlisplays undoubtedly sprang the idea of the great International Exhibition at London in 1851, the first World’s Fair ever held. Cork and Dublin soon afterwards followed the example of London next came the Paris Exposition of 1865, and then an art exhibition in Manchester, where the magnificent loan collections of rare palitings, beautifuil sculpture, and finely executed engravings entirelv changed the taste of the hard-working denizens of that neigl]borhood. Two exhibitions were next held in Hollalid, one at Amsterdam, the other at Harlemn. They were purely industrial, and were such successes, and of such direct and indirect benefit, that the I)Dutch have ever since appeared in similar enterprises in all parts of the world.

At about the same time exhibitions were given in Florence, Brussels, Naples, Rome a(nd several of the French provinces; and all were of great 1226

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. benefit, because thev taught the people of the several localities what they did not klnowv, but should be familiar with.

In 1862 the second great exhibition in London was held, and though there was, as is usual in such cases, widely expressed fear of failure, the affair proved a marvellous success, and the English people learned more and more of the great lessons taulght tlheml by the first international display. In 1862 the English had a fine art exhibition, whlicli has never Minee been equalled. The stimulus given by all these displays had its e.fect in all parts of the world, and Norwvay, Sweden and( Denmiark were soon holding most successful exhibitions every three years. In the great Paris Exposition of 1867 there was a widening of the first idea, and nationalities were compared and contrasted as never before. The houses, customs, people, sciences, arts, and industries of every itation were kept separate and distinct frdom all others, and a visitor :ould learn more in one glance than from a library of precious ,oluumes. We had our first WVorld’s Fair in the Newv York Crystal Palace inii 1853, at which there was a very fine display, and the President of the United States, with the members of his Cabinet, participated in the opening ceremonies. The idea was still further carried out in the last of these International Expositions, held at Vienna in 1872. And now the Centennial Exposition of the United States, of 1876, )romises to be the grandest and the most complete realization of the idea of a World’s Fair at which every nation and every country shall b)e represented, the whole to form one of the most magnificent and at the same time most practically instructive and usefiil Exhibitions the world has ever seen. Though like all others it was not warmly received at first, owing to the petty opposition always manifested when such projects are undertaken, the nations had soon found that the Americans were in earnest, and all had come forward with a determination to aid in (carrying out the magnificent enterprise to a grand success.

While thle Americans would be great gainers by the Exhibition about to be opened, the Europeans would be no less benefited, for they would come to realize what seemingly insurmountable obstacles could be overcome by persistence and talent, and how wonderfully a young iation had advanced, not only in material but in esthetical wealth. AMore tl-han that, they would learn that the people of this country are 1227

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HISTORY OF THE their own kith and kin, and their equals if not their peers in general kindness and hospitality, love of culture and right. There has been considerable discussion as to whom shotld be awarded the honor of having been the first to originate the idea of celebrating the One Hundredtli Anniversary of American Inde pendence by holding an International Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and it seems to lie between several, as for instance, General Charles B. Norton, now Secretary to the Centennial Board of Fiuance, Professor Campbell, now Secretary to the United States Centennial Commission, M. R. MuckIle, Esq., of the Philadelphia Public Ledger, and the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia; all of whom at different times, and through different channels, broached the idea and suggested the celebration of our Centennial Anniversary by an International Exposition. To these gentlemen, then, is rightly due the honor of the inception of the grand idea, the realization of which is even now just dawning upon the mind and the eye of an astonished world by the grandeur and magnificence with whlich it has been developed, far beyond the wildest dream of the originators themselves. No more fitting or more appropriate mode of celebrating the most important event in the history of this country could have been adopted than this, conferring, as it does, the most substantial and lasting benefit to all participating. The subjeet was started and discussed through a period of years by distinguished citizens, and the press of the country, until at last application was made to Congress, and in February, 1871, the first step was taken by that body in the form of an Act of Congress, entitled “An act to provide for celebrating the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence, by holding ati International Exhil)ition of Arts, Manufactures and Prod(ucts of the Soil and Mine, in the City of Philadelphia, and State of Pennsylvania, in the year eighteen hundred and seventy-six.” This act was approved March 3, 1871. In pursuance of this declaration, Congress, in the same act, made provision for the appointment, by the President, of a National Centennial Commission to represent the several States and Territories, and to be charged with the duty of conducting the enterprise to a successful issue. In 1872 Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance, clothed with authority to raise capital not exceeding $10,000,000, by selling its own capital stock in shares of $10 each, “the procecds of said stock, together with the receipts from all other 1228 0

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. sources, to be used by said corporation for the erection of suitable buildings, with their appropriate fixtures and appurtenances, and for all other expenditures required in carrying out the Act of Congress of Maarch 3, 1871, and which may be incident thereto.”

Section 10 of the act creating th-is Board of Finance provides, “That, as soon as practicable after the exhibition shall have closed, it shall be the duty of said corp)oration to convert the property inlto cash, and, after the payment of all liabilities, to) divide its remaining assets amiong its stockholders pro rata, in filll satisfaction and discharge of its capital stockl.” On July 5, 1873, Secretarv Fish sent official notes to foreign ministers in the United States, containing the following clause: Thle President indulges the hope that the government of will be pleased to notice tile subject, and may deem it proper to bring tlhe exhibition and its objects to the attention of the people of that couIntry, and tlhus encourage their cooperation in the proposed cel(eb)ratioln. And he fuirther hopes that the opportunity afforded by the exhibition for the interclhange of national sentiment and friendly intercourse lbetwveen the people of both nations, may result in newver and still greater advantagces to scicuce and industry, and at thile same time serve to strengthen the bonds of peace and friendship which already happily subl)sist between the government and people of, and those of the Iirn iied States. The Location of the Exhibition. The choice of a location for the exhibiition vwas fortunaate in e very respect. Tle DI)eclaration of Independence was inade i:i Plhiladelpl,lin, in 1776, and it was there that the N>ational Conventi(o of 1787 perfected and adopted the Constitution inder whilch the P’epiblic has attained its present greatness. The grounds selected for the purposes of the exhibition are un tile midst of Fairmount Parlk, one of the most convenient and attractive locations to be found in the United States, some four hundred and fiifty acres of which was by deed presented to the Centennial Commission, and dedicated to its uise in the presence of the President of the United States, and a vast multitude of people, on the 4th day of July, I 873.

Althloulgh the language of the Congressional Act of 1871 in(lirectly recognized the propriety of giving to the exhibition an international character, the government had taken no steps in that direction ulntil the edication of the grounds above alluded to, when 1229

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HISTORY OF THE the President, by his chiosel) representative, not oinly commended the proposed celebration to the favor and support of the people of this country, but also called to it the attention of the goverlnments of other countries, with a view to their participation therein. The last Congress, although, like the preceding, it did not think best, in the present condition of the national finances, to appropriate money to carry on the work, passed laws facilitating the raising of capital, providing for the admission of articles for exhibition from other countries free of duty, and requesting the President “to extend, in the name of the United States, a respectful and cordial invitation to the governments of other nations to be represented, and take part in the International Exhibition to be held at Philadelphia, under the auspices of the Government of the United States, in the year 1876.” The present Congress has passed an appropriation of $1,500,000, which was required to complete the buildings, so as to have them ready by the day fixed uponI for the opening of the exhibition. The above invitation was accepted by every country to whom it was extended, and a most hearty and cordial response has been given by liberal appropriation to cover their respective expense. The claim of Philadelphia to be the scene of the exhibition is sanetioned by her place and part in the Revolution. In a plain old brick strtucture in the heart of the city, built in 1734, the Dec]aration of Independence was signed a hundred years ago. The chandelier used then, and afterwards by the Continental Congress, hangs there in its old place. The Liberty Bell, bearing the motto, “Proclaim liberty throughout the land, and to all the inhabitants thereof,” and which proclaimed liberty on the first celebration of independence, July 8, 1776, rests on a pedestal in the vestibule. To this pile Philadelphia, and indeed all Peninsylvania, point with the pride of MIassachusetts at Bunker Hill, of Neiw Hampshire at Concord, of New York at Saratoga, of South Carolina at the Cowpens. Here, too, close by, are the battlefield of Germantown, and a hundred other neighborhoods connected by history and tradition with the outburst and the long struggle of the Revolution. And fiten Philadelphia provided a site for the exhibition buildings, the like of which could hardly be afforded by another American city. Fairmount Park, the great park of Philadelphia, a lower slice of which has been assigned to the Centennial Commission, comprises 2740 acres. But one park in the world surpasses it in extent, the royal park of Windsor. Its natural beauties are stately heights, over 1230

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. looking the city and distant towns; deep-wooded ravines, groves of century elms and oaks, immnense meadows, which have been turned into lawns and commons; bosky undergrowths, and two beautiful streamns, steeply banked with foliage, grass and flowers-the Schuylkill and the Wissahiclkon. Historical dwellings dot its surface. 1tobert Morris, the Jay Cooke and more of the Revolution, at his home on Lemon Hill, entertained his guests like a prince before his iutiin. The Belmont mansion, the home, antecedent to and during the Revolution, of Judge Peters, Secretary of War, stands converted, without much alteration, into a house of public entertainment. Covers are laid there for couples and parties, and on a window-pane, in one of’ the snuggest and smallest of the second-story chambers, is written with a diamond ring: JOIIN DIXON, Junie 3d, 1769, Took leave of Belmnont. The finest drive in the park, “Lansdowne,” is named after the magnificent residence of John Penn, the last Colonial Governor of Pennsylvania. On the Lansdowne plateau, one hundred and twenty ieet above the Sclhuylkill, the exhibition buildings are located. Encouraged by the action of the government, and sustained by the munrificent liberality of’ Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania, the Centennial Commission and the Board of Finance went to work in a manner that promised well for its timely completion. A permanent organization was effected by the election of the following officers: President-Hon. Joseph R. Hawley, commissioner from Coniecticut.

VicePresidents-Hon. Orestes Cleveland, commissioner from New Jersey; Hon.

Henry Probasco, commissioner from Ohio; Hon. William M. Byrd, commissioner from Alabama; Hlon. John Dunbar Creigh, commissioner from California; Hon.

Robert Lowry, commissioIer from Iowa. MIr. Lewis Waln Smith was at the same meeting chosen temporary secretary, which he filled until the present secretary, Professor John IA. Campbell, was elected. The commission held a second session in Mayav, 1872, at the Continental Hotel, and continued to hold sessions tilere, in May and December of each year. At a meeting of the commission held in Common Council c hamber, 74 1231. F

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HISTORY OF THE Inidependence Hall, March 11, 1872, Mr. Atwood, of Wisconsin, offered tlhe following, whichi was iiun-animously adopted: WHEREAS, A conference has been had with the authorities of the City of Philadelph)llia (including the Park Commissioners), ill accordance with the second section of the act creating this conmmission, in regar(l to the site for the exhil)ition; be it therefore Itesolred, That the site for holding the International Exhiblition in 1876 be fixed at Fairmount Park, within the corporate limits of the City of Philadelphia. At a session held on the 28th of May following, the Committee on Plans and Architecture, consisting of Messrs. Goshiorn, of Ohio; Parsons, Texas; Atwood, Wisconsin; Cleveland, N\ew Jersey, and B3atcllelder, D)akota, was authorized to locate the exact spot for the MIain Building, after conferring with the citv authorities and the Park Commission. This was followed out, and the site on which the Main Exhibition Building now rests was chosen. When the Committee on Ground and Architecture made thleir first report, d(ated April 1, 1873, their intention then was that the entire huildiigs connected with the exhibition should cover at least fifty acres *f ground. How far short of the present actual condition of this grand enterprise the conception of the committee wvas, is now seeii fromn the fact that TwO HUNDIRED AND THIRTrY-SIX acres are now enclosed for the purposes of the exhibition, in which there are over one hundred and fifty structures of all kinds. This exhibition is the largest ever held. The following table shows the size of previous exhibitions in acres and tenths: England, 1851, 18.6; Paris, 1855, 22.1; London, 1851, 23.9; London, Crystal Palace, 1871, 25.6; Paris, 1867, 31; YAienna, 1874, 56.5; Phliladelphia (buildings), 75. It was originally proposed by the Centennial Commnission to follow the mode of arrangement at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. There obljects of various kinds were grouped in a single enormous building, comp)osed of concentric elliptical aisles, and each of these aisles was devoted to the products of one of the departments of classification. Thus a visitor, desirous of studying some particular industry, had only to find( its location, when, following the passage around the buildin(,, he could observe the progress made by each nation in that especial branch. If hlie wished to see the general exhibition made by a particular oeiuntr)y, he started from the centre or circumference 1232 I

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. crossing the aisles, and examined its contributions to each department in turn. The advantages of this method were great. Its disadvantages were the external appearance of the building, which resembled a huge gasometer; its concentration of great masses of people in a single crowd, and its lack of that variety afforded by structures adapted to peculiar forms of display. It could not be made to take in the agricultural exhibition, which had to be detached from the rest on1
account of the noise and dirt of its ponderous machinery. At the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, a separate machinery hall was introtduced, but the system of classification was exceedingly ill-devised. The Centennial Commission has retained the advantages of the Paris systein, avoided the mistakes of Vienna, and provided for the nmost comprehensive and varied exhibition that has ever been collected. It has classified the articles to be exhibited in seven departments, which are located in five different buildings, covering nearly fifty acres, as follows: Departments. Mining and Metallurgy, Manufactures, Education and Science, Art, Machinery, Agriculture, Horticulture, 1.05 ;, 1.4.00 ng, 10.00 hag, 1.05 Total, 48.47

The Main Exhibition Building. This is in the form of a parallelogram, extending east and west 1880 feet in length, and north and south 464 feet in width. The framework is of iron. The foundations consist of 672 stone piers. The larger portion of the structure is one story in height, and shows the main cornice upon the outside at 45 feet above the ground, the interior height being 70 feet. Upon the corners of the building there are four towers 75 feet in height, and between the towers and the central projections or entrances there is a lower roof introduced, showimg a cornice 24 feet above the ground. All the corners and angles of the building upon the exterior are accentuated by galvanized iron octagonal turrets, which extend the full height of the building, from the ground level to above the roof. Small balconies, or galleries of obser 1233

Eiiilding.-,. Acres covered. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 21.47 Main Building, Art Gallery, Machinery Building A.griciilttiral Buildi I-lorticultural Build

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HISTORY OF THE vationi, have been provided in the four central towers of the building, st the heights of the different stories. These will form attractive )laces, from which excellent views of the whole interior may be obtained. The main promenades, through the nave and central transept, are each 30 feet in width, and those through the centre of the side revenues and transepts 15 feet each. The east entrance will form the ,rinicipal approa ch for carriages, visitors being allowed to alight at the (()ors of the building under cover of the arcade. The south entrance will be the principal approach from street cars, the ticket offices being locanted upon the line of Elm avenue, with covered ways provided for entrance into the building itself. This edifice cost $1,420,000, excltusive of drainage, water-pipe, plumbing, painting, and decorations. Ground floor, U)l))per floor, in projections, t” ” towers, 872,320 sq. ft. 37,344 ” 26,344 “

936,008 The lain Building is intermediate in character between the Hyde Parkl structure of 1851 and the Vienna structure of 1873. It is Surger and more ornate than the former, less ostentatious and more p)actical than the latter. The interior surpasses, in general effect, not only the Vienna build., but all its predecessors. In the former, the central rotunda etfcetually cut okf from one wing the vista of the other, while the mullttitde of small transepts, like so many cul-de-sacs, existed for themseives, and not for the spectacle as a whole. Here the sweep of vision an unobstructed from end to end, not only through the central nave of !‘20
feet, but also throl,ugh both side naves of 100 feet span. The ‘ron network of the supports is just what is required for the roof, and nio more. The colors are subdued, yet sufficiently hlarmonious; there i.s red enough in the panelling between the pillars to relieve the blue gr!,ay of the rafters, but not so much as to interfere with the gay tinlts of’ the fabrics to be displayed below. Some idea of the immensity of this building may be gathered from thle following details of the quantities of materials used by the contractor in its construction: 7,600,000 lbs. of wrought iron. 250,000 lbs. of cast iron. 7,000,000 feet of lumber. 1234 20.02
acres. -.85 cc .60 c-‘ 21.47

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I I yj$jjj;;j%; \\ii\L\‘Y;i"’'~~l~I.yj\~' ;> j i I ~”/iif I I ii IIIIIIIIW I

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if - MACHINERY HALL. — AGRICULTURAL HALL.

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 1,100,000 square feet of tin roofing. 250,000
square feet of glass. 450,000 bricks. Two miles and a half of water pipe.

Two miles and a half of sewer and drain pipe.’ Total number of men employed, 3,000. Machinery Hall. A careful perusal of awards to American citizens exhibiting laborsaving machinery abroad indicates the high degree of excellence wec have attained in this art, and is a signal triumph for the inventive genius of the country. Of all departments none will receive such close attention from forei,gners, none will be viewed with more interest and pride by our own people; and that it may be a perfect exposition of our rapid advancement has been the aim of the able Chief of Bureau, John S. Albert. Machinery Hall is 542 feet west of, and onl a line with, the Main Building, which gives it the appearance of an extension of the same. From east end of the latter to west end of Hall the distance is 3824 feet, nearly three-qularters of a mile. From George’s Hill, on the northl and west, the best view of the Exhibition Grounds and BuLildings can be obtained; and it is onily on an elevation where the whole can be seen, that anything like a true idea of the magnitude and grandeur of the structures can be obtained. The appearance is at once striking and beautiful, the entrances on endls and centre being flanked by towers, ornamented with handsome fagades and crowned by eflective pinnacles. To break the long, straighlt line of the terraced roofs, pointed projections, like dormer-windows, have been introduced, each surmounted by a flagstaff and flag. The cornice of the main part of the building is forty feet from the ground, and to top of ventilators in the aisles it is the same. In the avenues the height is seventy feet, while the towers are still higher. The main entrances open on avenues 90 feet broad, 1360 feet long, and 70 feet high. Besides, there are a central and two side aisles of the same lengthl and 60 feet wide, making a total width of 360 feet. At the centre is a transept 90 feet broad, whichl is continued at the south end into the annex for hydraulic machinery. The promenades ;n the transe-t are 25 feet wide, in the avenues 15 feet, and in the 1237 F’

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HISTORY OF THE aisles 10 feet. All other walks across the building are 10
feet wide, ending at either side in exit doors. The Annex begins 36 feet fromnt the Main Building, and continues 208 feet. It is flanked on either side by aisles 60 feet wide, and contains a tank 60 by 106 feet, to be filled by water 10 feet deep. At the south end of the tank will be a waterfall 35 feet high and 40 teet wide, the whole to be supplied by water drawn from the Schuylkill by pumnps on exhibition. The outer walls to a height of five feet are of masonry. Then between the columns, to the cornice, are glazed sash; glass is also [)laced betweenl the supports of roofs over the aisles and the higher roofs over the avenues, thus, in effect, lighting the whole building by side light,-an advantage that gives good light without glare. The ground-floor covers 558,440 square feet, or 12.82 acres. 5,000,000 feet of lumber, 1,270,000 pounds of iron, 700,000
square feet of tin roofing, 175,000 square feet of double-thick American glass, weighing 150,000 pounds, and 750 tons of stone have been used in its construction. It cost $792,000. Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery. Three hundred feet northward of the Main Exhibition Buildings, on Lansdowne plateau, is located the Art Gallery-the queen of the exhibition buildings-a repository for paintings, statuary, and other works of art. It is 365 feet long, 210 feet in width, 59 feet in height, and is located on an eminence 116 feet above the level of the Schuylkill, on a terrace 6
feet above the general level of the Lansdowne plateau, which commands a view southward over the whole city. There is a spacious basement 12 feet in height, and over all a dome; the entire structure being in the modern Renaissance style of architecture. The entrance is by three arched doorways. The central section is 95 feet long, 72 feet high; the pavilions 45 feet long, 60 feet high; arcades, eachi 90 feet long, 40 feet high, there being two of the latter connecting the pavilions with the centre.

The dome rises from the cenitre to a height of 150 feet, of glass and iron, terminating in a colossal bell, from which Columbia rises, with protecting hands. The hall at the main entrance is 82 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 53 feet high; the centre hall is 83 feet square, the ceiling rising over it in a dome 80 feet high. The galleries, 98 by 88 feet, and 35 feet in height, admit of temporary divisions for the more advantageous dis I 1238

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CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. play of the paintings. The centre hall and galleries form one grand hall, 287 feet long, 85 feet swide, capable of holding 8,000 persons, or twice the dimensions of the largest hall in the country. The pavilion rooms have two side galleries, 210 feet long. All the galleries are lighted from above, and the pavilions and studios from the sides. This magnificent structure is a lasting monument to the liberality of the State of Pennsylvania, being built at a cost of $1,500,000 by the State, under the supervision of the Centennial Commission, from designs furnished by H. J. Schwarzmann, architect; R. J.

Dobbins, of Philadelphia, builder. Agricultural Hall. Agriculture being the foundation of our material welfare, this interest will be the most important department of the Centennial Exposition. In this department are shown the great staples of the farm, plantation, and ranch; the natural products of the soil, as the giant trees of California, the palmetto of Carolina, and the fruits of the tropics; also, the different varieties of animals of service to mankind; the tools, implements, and appliances used in agriculture, and the appurtenances applicable to rural domestic economy. As we have in this country a widely extended system of agricultural societies, anid as these organizations are everywhere cooperating with the Centennial authorities, the Department of Agriculture will undoubtedly make a full, valuable, and most interesting exhibit. Agricultural Hall is one of the most original of the Centennial buildings, and is located northward from Horticultural Hall, about as far removed from it as the latter is from the Main Building. It covers an area of seven acres and a quarter, and is supplemented by tnany minor structures, as barns, stables, storehouses, etc. The idea embodied in the design, by Mr. James H. Windrim, is that of the gothic or pointed arch, springing directly from the ground. The plan consists of a main section 826 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 75 feet high. This is crossed by a central transept of the same dimensions, and two subdividing transepts, each 70 feet high and 80 feet wide. These main constituents of the structure are, as indicated, formed by bold arches, requiring no interior supports whatever, giving the whole enclosed space entire freedom from obstruction. The arches are composed of Howe trusses, the material used being wood. At the intersection of the main and the transept arches, a dome rises to the height of 130 feet, and each exterior angle of the entire 1239

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HISTORY OF THE building is flanked by a tower of similar design. The courts elnclosed by the three transverse sections are roofetl over, and included in the outline of the ground plan, giving this outline an extent of 826 feet in one direction by 630 feet in the other. Each of the great arched divisions is traversed by an avenue 70 feet wide, dividing the ground plan into four compartments, each 240 feet long by 184 feet wide, and each subdivided by four aisles, 18 feet wide. This gives 16 separate spaces for exhibition, each 184 feet long by 42 feet wide. There is, besides this wide area, an immense extent of wall space all around the interior of the building, admirably adapted for the display of farm produce. Horticultural Building. The city of Philadelphia contributed liberally to the expense of this buildiing,. It is located on Lansdowne Terrace, a little north of the Main Exhibition Building, and commnands a view of the Schuylkill river and portions of the city. The building is 383
feet long, 193 feet wide, and 72 feet highl. This edifice is intended as a permanent ornament to the Park. It is in the Miauresque style of architecture of the twelfth century, the external materials being principally iron and glass. The location of this building, together with its extremely ornate appearance, render it one of the most attractive of the group erected by the Commission. The main floor is occupied by the central conservatory, 230 by 80 feet, and 55 feet high, surmounted by a lantern 170 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 14 feet high. Running entirely around this conservatory, at a height of 20 feet from the floor, is a gallery 5 feet wide. On the north and south sides of this principal room are four forcing houses for the propagation of young plants, each o)f them 100 by 30 feet, covered with curved roofs of iron and glass. 1)ividing the two forcing houses in each of these sides is a vestibule 30 feet square.

At the centre of the east and west ends are similar vestibules, on either side of which are the restaurants, reception rooms, offices, etc. From the vestibules ornamental stairways lead to the internal galleries of the conservatory, as well as to the four external galleries, each 100 feet long and 10 feet wide, which surmount the roof of the forcing houses.

These external galleries are connected with a grand promenade, formed by the roofs of the rooms on the ground floor, which has a superficial area of 1880 square yards. The east and west entrances are approached by flights of blue marble steps from terraces 80 by 20 feet, in the centre of which stands an open 1240 I

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CENTENNIAL EXIIIBITION. kiosque. Eigllt ornamental fountains adorn the main conservatory. Jolini Rice, the contractor, was paid $253,937 for the erectioli, excltisive of the expense of heating apparatus. Tlhe location of the al)ove five principal Exliibition Buildings insi(le the enclosure is as follows: Main Exhibition Building occul)ies t!le most level territory with thle Art Gallery northl, elevated on a commandig, plateau.

The IMachlinery Hall occupies the next level portion, leaving a distance of 500 feet between each, required for tlhe entrance of the railroad tracks. The HIorticultural Hall, imost admiira-bly situated, is in the centre of the grounds, containing sixteen acres, well sldeltered and adnmirably adapted for horticultural piur)oses. Two bridges, over deep ravines, connect the Horticultural grounds north and south with the other building. The Agricultural Grounds (thirty acres) and Building, at the north, are also well located, and the ground is likewise well adapted for its purpose. The following figures will be of interest to our readers: Area of grounds, 236 acres. Lineal number of feet of the enclosure, 16,000. Numbl-)er of entrances, 13. Art Gallery, 210 feet by 365 feet, 1~
acres. Machinery Hall, 360 feet by 1402 feet, 14 acres. Horticultural Hall, 160 feet by 350 feet, 1 }1-acres. Agricultural Hall, 540 feet by 820 feet, 10 acres. Avenues and walks, 7 miles. Length of proposed horse railway, 4 miles. Average distance between the buildings, 550 feet.

Leingthl of railroad tracks inside the groun(l for the deliver) of mnlterial and goods of every description, 3-‘ miles. In addition to the principal or Exhibition Buildings proper, whichi wNe have here so cursorily described, there are numerous subsi(diary ktrncuures, which have now reached tlhe enormous aggregate of oNi: tIUNDRED AND NINETY,whiel we have not the sl)ace here to imore tilan merely allude to. Among the more striking and prominent of these are the Government Building, Woomen’s Pavilion, Japanese Building, the Buildings erected Iy)v Foreign Governments as Headl(iiarters for their Commissioners, twentyfour in number; State Builditngs, seventeen in all; Judges’ Hall or Jury Pavilion, Dep)artment of Public Comfort, and a host of Industrial Buildings, w\hi(ch testify to the enthusiasm and deep interest felt by all classes througllout the land in promoting the success of this, the grandest enterprise of the ag,e, and to make it a fitting, celebration of the One Hundretli Anniversary of the Independence of our country. 1241

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In all respects the most complete as well as profusely and beautifully Illustrated edition of the Book of Books ever published. THlE COMPLETE

DOMESTIC BIBLE, AND ILLUSTRATED SCRIPTURE CYCLOPEDIA, CONTAINING NOT ONLY
and New Testaments, Apocrypha, Concordance, and Psalms in Metre, BUT ALSO

A COMPREHENSIVE PRONOUNCING BIBLE DICTIONARY; AND Improved Comprehensive helps to the Study of the Bible, COMPRISING A HJistory of the Books of the B]ible, Fac-similes of the ANCIENT BIBLE MANUSCRIPTS. An index showing the seven great Epochs of the World, from Adam to Clirist, and many Valuable Tables, Important Treatises, &c., all written to increase the interest in, and aid materially in the study of THE WORD OF (O)D. The bindings are finished in new designs of rare beauty and deep signification, (a combination of Ancient Symbols of the Christian Faith,) executed by the finest artists in our country. These Bibles are also ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER

21000 HIHLY FINISHED ENGRAYINGS, AND CONTAIN IEARLY ONe HUNIDRED

THIIOUSAND POLYGLOT REFEIRENCES. W’e confidently assert that this splendid volume far excels, in new and valuable features, number and quality of its tlhl.trations, originality and beauty of binding, as well as excellence of mechanical execution throughout, anything now lbXere the American people, and this at a scale of prices considerably lower than any edition of the Bible now in market. q’l-prove this, we invite the strictest scrutiny and comparison with other editions. STYLES AND PRICES. The New Complete Domestic Bible is printed from large, clear, new type, on fine toned paper, made expressly for this Bible, and bound in the handsomest and most substanrial manner. The designs for the side and back stamps were drawn by the celebrated artists J. & J. Berry, and for strikingbeauty are unsurpassed. It contains nearly Ioo pages, and is splendidly Illustrated with nearly 40o highly-finished Engravings, on steel and wood, by Gustave Dore and other celebrated artists, and will be furnished to subscribers at the following low prices, payable on delivery: A.-Handsomely Bound in Arabesque Leather, Panelled Sides, Marbled Edge. Eight Full-Page Engravings, but without Dictionary, Illumination or Marriage Certificate, at……………………………………………… $ 7.50

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Fine Edition r 9.0 C.-Elegantly Bound in Arabesque Leather, Panelled Sides, Gilt Edge. ” with 10.00 D.-Splendidly Bound in French Morocco, Panelled Sides, Full Gilt. ” all the 14.50 F.-S)Splendidly Bound in French Morocco, Massive Raised Panel, Full Gilt…………………………

features. 16.00 G.-London Antique, Turkey Morocco, Extra. Ten Extra Steels. Superfine………………………. 20.00 WE FURNISH A erman Qrbition OF THIS BIBLE, unriform in bindings, and containing all the features of the English, except the Dictionary and additional matter, which, though slightly different, is equally interesting and valuable. All but the lowest-priced contain the additional matter. PRICES OF THE GERMAN

EDITION. A, - - - $8.501 C, - - - $10.50 1 D, - - $14.50 Full Descriptive Circulars will be furnished to those desiring them. A Complete Prospectus Book, showing exact samples of all styles of binding, sample pages of all the inside matterI nclud ing ILLUSTRATIONS, ILLUMINATION, MARRIAGE C

ERTIFICATE, ALBUM, etc., etc.-will b furnished to such as will e. ga,6e earnestly in the canvass at Cost of Manufacture. Agents wanted in every Town, to whoom the mos8t liberal terms will be given Address the Publishers. (SEE TITLE PAGE@) The Old

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IXPORTANT TO HORSE OWNERS. THi:E SECRET REVEALED; ART OF TAMING HOR&ES, AS

DISCOVERED AND PRACTICED BY WILLIS J. POWELL and J. S. RAREY, Whose triumphant success in bringing into perfect obedience to their will the proudest, most intelagent, and useful of beasts A STO I S HlED TME O3 - R

LD This book contains the whole secret of the art as practiced by them, written in plain language BY THESE CELEBRATED HORSEMEN THEMSELVES, so that any in 5~.‘9 Q ~~~~teiligent man may easily comprehend, and by a little careful stuldy successfillly practice. ~f [l\,’\ This art, for whlich THOUSANDS W2 lingly paid our authors $5 to see illus8 trated, is here given by thecn in compact, convenient, and permanent form, easy of x?~.

w ~~ reference, and with the most important facts truthfully illustrated and filrnished, very neatly bound, for tihe trifjing sum ~.V

Qlll,xltll~l~lo.. J T Nof $1.50 per copy. Be /0” Ii \l lo.A__In all ages and countries the art of as 1/1111/i yS N, GusTaming Animals has possessed a peculiar Oi/ JIt!1’ l a m fascination for mankind. The pride of tamp\> l G man has led him to assert and show his power, through reason over instinct, over {/ >E \li,/ the beasts of the forest, or the untamed animals of the plain. i f,,’/ MAX7 The horse being the most useful, and possessing more intelligence than most other animals, has been particularly a L.~ /i~ - - …..matter of study, not only in subduing __m, Af him to nian’s will, but breaking him to cod use. Until within a few years past no thoroughly intelligent method was adop ted; it was left to WILLIS J. POWELL, wlio discovered the secret of Taming Wild Horses, to first bring it to notice. His early death prevented his giving his wonderful secret to the world with all the publicity that his pupil, John S Rarey, has done in this volume. No one should pretend to handle a colt, or to own a horse, without making himself master of tl c,rntents of this wonderful and practical work, WIICE GIVES FULL INSTRUCTIONS AND

DIRECTIONS How to Break and Ride Colts, to Tame the most Vicious Horses and Gentle them to all rinds of Vehicles or Work, to Break them of Kicking or any other Bad Tricks, to Teach “hem any kind of Tricks or Actions, etc., etc.; with numerous Valuable Receipts for Diseases of Horses, Mules, Cows, etc.; How to Fatten Horses, Cows, etc.; How to Teach Turkeys and Animals to Dance; How to Tame Deer, etc., etc. BEST ENGLISH CLOTH, GOLD

SIDE AND BACK, - $1.50 per copy. .AGENTS WVAN TED. Address the Publishers, (SEE TITLE PAGE.) v,, Om:, THE

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A.Splendid Volume upon a 8plenadi Theme, Profusely hT?ustrated. OCEAN’S

STORY; OR, TRIUMPHS OF THIRTY CENTURIES. BY THE CELEBRATED AUTHORS, P. B.

GOODRICII, (son of the world-renowned historian, “PETER PARLEY,”) and EDWARD IHOWLANiD, THE MATURE PRODUCT OF GREAT HISTORICAL RESEARCH. An Authentic and Graphic listory of the Bo and Prom s of Sip Buildini and Naviation utponh Hih seas; COVERING AND INCLUDING INNUMERABLE MARITIME

ADVENTURES AND MOST NOTED DISCOVERIES. ‘ It unfolds many CURIOUS LEGENDS
of ancient times, regarding the vast unknown desert of waters, and is richly spiced with thrilling accounts of NAVAL CONFLICTS, FRIGHTFUL

DISASTERS, DARING PIRACIES, BLOODY MUTIIriS, and abounds with illspiring incidents of HEROIC DEEDS and GLORIOt7S ACHIEVEMENTS. Over VERITABr, HISTORY this masterly writer throws the CHARM of ROMANCE of “A Life on the Ocean Wave and a Home on the Rslling Deep.” Such another picture of all its wondrous wildness and wealth of incident is hardly to be found in literature. IT ALSO TREATS OF THE WORKS AND WONDERS BENEATH THE SEA. DEEP
rWATER DIVING; How it is done, and what it accomplishes. DEEP SEA SOUNDING
and DREDGING; peculiar processes and important results. SUBMARINE

TELEGRAPHING; History and extent of the GREAT FISHERIIES; how conducted, their magnitude and wealth. The MARVELS of the CORAL REEFS and ISLANDS.

The MANIFOLD INHAmTANTS of the great deep; habits, peculiarities, etc., etc. It embraces the gradual discovery of the world, ITS FORMs ILYItABITAXTS, FWONDERS AND TREASURES, With details of the GREAT VOYAGES

OF DISCOVERY TO ALL QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE: introduces the reader to nearly every race of MANKIND, SAVAGE and CIVILIZED; describes numberless species of FISH AND FOWL,, GREAT AND SMALL, SEA MONSTERS, ETC. With many other matters of lively interest. THE WHOLE ZNRICBZD WITH OVER 200 SPIRITZD

ILLUSTRATIONS. Threefourths of the earth’s surface is covered by water, yet this immense mass is no dreary liquid waste; its depths are as pregnant with life as the land, while thousands of mariners people its surface, and sails of every rnation enliven its bosom. To the triumphs attained by man over the formidable barriers presented by Ocean in tlhe early ages are we indebted for our knowledge of the earth, our immense commerce, our luxuries, and largely our wealth and happiness. Yet this has not been the work of a year or an age; neither accomplished without great sacrifices, large expenditures, deeds of heroism and daring, many inventions, fearless voyages upon unknown seas, hardships, perils, etc., etc. The checkered story of the accomplishment of these mighity results, and of the wonderfal works beneath the sea, is a theme which must enchain the attention of every thoughtful or inquiring mind, as worthy of profound study, and is here told in a style of unusual vivacity and attractiveness.

This work is the result of years of close study and observation, and has been prepared with the utmost care ty Authors of remarkable ability, in order to give to the public an Authentic and Comprehensive Library of HISTORY, ADVENTURE, EXPLORATION, DISCOVERY, INVENTION, Etc., AGENTS

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C-E.,V

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A Book of Inestimaole Value to Every Woman. It is not very agreeable to contemplate the brevity of human life, when observation teaches us that a principal ~/tawli is 111 017S on inlli)rudellce.’ “Tri, fict is. n,-ttu,‘e las her laws and they must not be violated.” “It is lamentable that for lack of a little klnowledge, so much misery, deformity, and di,sease should prevail. st be confessed tilere is a deplorable igoirance of the causes,, ate anid e1tt0t of f ale diseases” “ihlere need be very, few caIses of female disease wlhere the charmtling delicacy, whici is woniais’s richest ttent, must be olfended by the exposure inciden tt to a me(dical examination, did she at a suitable age carejuly stilly as’d comprehend, as is ler privilege, the simnple yet all-intp,’ ta.lt luaws o/‘l he be irg.” ‘As this voluime is in,ten,ded as a G(SPEL OF IIEALTH to suiffering woman, desigined to present information whiclh,ill tend to the imilrovement of her phlysictl stamina and the maintenance of her dignity, grace, beauty, aid longevity, I hlve no atpology t offer f,’ the hint s and sentiments ich r yet to follow, as embodied in mny ile’poretatiotl of the laws oj’nature in.regard to thefeu)ctions of the fesale oi-galism.”-S.

PANCoAsTr. ITTI such pure and manly sentiments as are expressed in these few extracts froni his book, our distinguished author approaches the delicate silubject haadled in the work we offer: T Hl E Ladies’ Medical Gui e. BY S. PANCOAST, M.D., Professor of Jficroscopic Ana/or~zy, Pliysiology, and the Instiftute of A-ledicine in Penn lfedical Usziversity, Phitadelthia, Pennzzsylvanzia, author of “Curability of Consumption,” etc., etc. E-. - I G AN INSTRUCTIVE TREATISE ON THE

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS, DISEASES OF FEMALES

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There is no reason why an honest, intelligent, and chaste work, on even so delicate a sutject as Dr. Panc,tsI has choseni, should be issued hesitatingly by so eminent a physician. Ile c,,)nsideirs the “fttniily state nature’s own institute,” and has with singular carefuln,ess and thocoughness sut-ci’ lrs’ess instrticted woman in all those mysteries of h r own eorganisms and unirel’nting laws of humasi natulre in whlich her heallth tld highest happiness are involved. The pv ues t rerierece for atsmaii, the wife and mnother, glo)ws on every page.‘lThe sincerest desire for the truest ailn fullest fainily lhappiness pervades the entire volinme. I’The vwork is snot limited to the treatment of tllose matters l!‘ring inmmeliatelvy o womani’s relations in m;.‘icntge. It covers the whole groundl tf health; the chtilcl, all its diseases ansil the evils that threaten it-how th e,ire thenm or ward them off; the mailen, the dantgers and inmportanlt attentions; the yosung womanS; t n mother; st11
are treattedl of wVitl equal thoroughness. As a Scieizlific Treatise of tlis ALL-IIIPORTANT th,iugli DELICATTE SIBiECrT, it is WITHI-)UT AN EQUAL, and;is a 340i~a (C~iA(O) it is C,Ml’LETE,, TIIOROtIGHLY RELIABLE, of a H0IG MORAL TONE, aud in a word, all that could be desired; cert.a.ily thle best that Dr. Pancoast, one of America’s most learned and skilful physicians, aided by the freest use of the ablest works extant, could produce and enlmbody within the compass of this volume. It is issued in one large 1lmo. volume, of OVER 600 PAGES, and contains over 120

IiLLUSTRATIVE EErG.AVNOS. It is printed on fine tinted paper, bound in neat and substantial binding, and furnislhed in EXTRA ENGLISH

CLOTH…………………………….$2.00 Where we have 110no agent this book will be mailed, postage paid, on receipt of price. - AGENTS

WANTED. Addtress the Publ ishers. (SEE TITLE PAGE.) 0

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By far the CHEJPEST as weZ7 as most COMP1PLETE ard DESIBIBL~9 edMiz of this UNRI PFLLED work extant. I1W AXEIA Fi IZR:DIDE ZI I10 OF Cotaining BTE, the Life and strange surpsing adventu res of ” ROBINSON CRUSOE,” of YORK, MARINER. Also, a FULL and ACCURATE MEMOIR of its justly celebrated author, PANEL E FOIl And a Life of the veritabl7e ALEXANDER SELKIRK, whose strangely adventurous career sug gested the plan of this unparalleled work, now regarded as the BICH EST GEMI IN LITERATUIRE. SPLENDIDLY

IELUSTRATED It contains over 100 more pages than the English edition, which is without either the memoir of the author or the Life of Alexander Selkirk. As a RciC intellectual repast, for NATURALNESS, TRUTH and SIMPLICITY, DELICATE ‘ITT PURE MORALITY, INSTRUCTIVE VINDICATlON of the WAYS OF PROVIDENCE] and many other unmentioned beauties, the judgment of the most enlightened men of all nations has placed “Robinson Crusoe” upon a height unequalled by any other work. What pleasure has this wonderful tale given, and still gives. All readers find its pages an unfailing source of pure delight. It blends instruction with amusement in a way no other production of human intellect has ever succeeded in doing. Its excellence of mechanical execution is RARELY EQUALLED. No pains or expense having been spared to make it in every respect the most elegant, substantial and desirable possible; and anticipating a popularity and consequent sale unparalleled in modern bookselling, the prices have been fixed FAR below the ordinary rates. CONENS STES AND PRICES. This work will be sold by subscription. It is printed on extra super callendered paper, of a delicate cream tint, contains 528 large octavo pages, and 4(0 superb illustrations, nearly all full pages. It will be furnished to subscribers at the following remarkably low prices, payable on delivery. In 13Extra English Cloth, richly ornamented on back and sides, by new designs in black and gold, - - - - - - $2.50. Same style, with gilt edges, - - - - -

8.00 lf Turkey Morocco, VERY ELEGANT, gilt edges, - 5.00. .GEVTS WANPED.

Address the Publishers. (SEE TITLE PAGE.) .0 THEX: Alllkxe tR~g

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A Library of Pleasing Anecdotv and GraphiG Description, TREATING OF THE

HABITS AND PEOULIARITIES OF NEARLY EVERY KNOWN SPECIES OF ANIMAL LIFE, Birds, Beasts,FisheIs, IIInsects,Rpt llas ][lnca,and An0ma cum BY REV. VM.

BINGLEY, A.M., Ahe ACCOMfPLIS$IEED SCHOLAR, EMIINENT DIVINE, and POPPUTAR

AUTTTOR of “.U-emoirs of British Qitadrupeds,” “Aniinal Biography,”

“Useftel Ks.owtledge,” etc., etc. A Splendid Volume of 1042 Pages and 1070

Illustrations, over 60 of them full-page. i THIS work is the result of years of close observation and laborious research on the part of an ardlent lover and most careful student of Nature, aided by the extensive labors of CUVIER, BUFFON, WOOD, )DALLAS, WILSON, AUDUBON, BONAPARTE, NUTTALL, AGASSIZ, JARDINE, BREWER, and others. All works hitherto published on this subject have either been mere toy books for children, or so scientifio, and so filled with technical terms, as to be well nigh incomprehensible, except to those scientificr.lly educated; but this work is written in a style that any one who can read can understand. The style adopted is that of description and anecdote, being at once attractive to both young and old, and thus rendering the acquisition of a large amount of invaluable information easy and pleasurable. This subject is one of immense range and inexhaustible interest to every inquiring minid, speaking. as it does, of nearly every existing species of ANIMAL LIFE that the GREAT CREATOR has made to live upon the face of the earth. Here we find the whole MIONKEY family (man’s first cousin, according to DARWIN), from the powerful and savage ORAN-OUTAN to the mischievous SQUIRREL and WHIlTE:-NOIrD species. The ferocious beasts of the forests and jungles of ASIA and AFRICA; the LION, the kiing of beasts; the LEOPARD, noted for his spots; the TIGER, JAGUAR, PANTHER, etc.; the 1lumberilg RHINOCEROS, the mo,strous ELEPHANT, the faitlhful CAMEL, the beattiful GIRAFFE and ZEBRA.

The HORSE TRIBE, from the proud, prancing steed of the plains to the docile family pet ant pride. The FEATIIHERED TRIBE, from the lofty EAGLE
family, who soar among the clouds, and rear their young far above and away from the haunts of men, to the thousand warblers of the woods; the beautiful SWAN, or the sweeet4;ilgiug CANARY. The denizens of the SEA, from the tnonstottus WHALE, the largest of living creatures, sen, le specimens of which often yield $3000 to $5000 worth of oil, to the marvellous little CORAL, which silently builds CITIES in the great deep.

The DOG family, from the ST. BERNARD, benefactors8 of humanity, to(, the cuilnning, delicate LAPDOG of the parlor. The INSECT TRIBE, from the busy BEE, storing away tho sweets of a thousand flowers, the GLOW-WORM making luminous the summer eve, and the wonderful and valuoable SILKWORM weaving the delicate CocooN, to the mischievous MOTH, the industriotus ANT HTLL

13UILDERS, and the troublesome FLEA. The disgusting REPTILE TRIBE is not overlooked, but the poicerful Bow CONSTRICTOR, the dangerous RATTLESNAKE, the deadly VIPER, etc., receive their proper attention In fact, well nigh TIs herein minutely described, and their thousand and one singular peculiarities and curious hobitn in the most fascinating manner forcibly illustrated by means of the most interesting anecdotes, some ludicrous in the extreme, many marvellous, others thrilling in their scenes of terrible danger, and others still full of fond affection, etc., etc. The volume is also enriched by some 1070 Illustrations, nearly 70 of which are fill-page, and printed on fine plate paper. It is a work of far more than ordinary interest. The subject is one which once contemplated grows in interest to an almost unlimited extent, and in which every person arrived at mature years immediately feels a lively interest, as full of basis for profitable contemplation upon the wonderful works of God, and also as full of instruction and amusement for many a quiet hour; while the little folks find the great number of pictures of DOGS, HORSES, CATS, BIRDS, MONKEYS, LIONS, WHALES, etc., a never-failing koarce of attraction and delight. It is a book that proves a TREASURE in EVERY HOUSEHOLD and to EVERY MEMBER of it. It is also the only really comprehensive low-priced work on the subject published in this country. It is a book, too, that, considering its size, nearly 100 veey lIrge octavo pges, the wealth of its illustrations, some 1070, and the excellence of its mechanical execution, must commend itself at one to all as remarkably low in price. Published in ONE ELEGANT OCTAVO VOLUI.ME of 1042 pages, embellished with 1070 FINE

ILLUSTRA4TIONS. It is BOUND in the MIOST SUBSTANTIAL MANNER, and furnished as follows: In Extra Eaglish cloth, beveled boards, plain edges, new elegant designs, black, enamel, and gold………………… $4.50 AGENTS

IVANTED. Address the Pt-.tlishers. (SEE TITLE PAGE.) ]X Y’T -Y _I

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F,E~ 78. AGENTS The Subscription 1or Poplar WM A N T E D J BOOK BUSINESS.

WORKS HOW IT IS CONDUCTED. The method we adopt of selling books exclusively by canvassing agents is an established, legitimate, and reputable branch of the book-trade, and is the medium through which th, moIt)st popular books have been and are circulated. Through its agency, many of the mot reliable, instructive, and entertaining books published for the past ten years or more, have reached the public, and it is generally conceded that it will ultimately supersede the book stares as a means of giving circulation to firstclass books of a standard character.

Our Subscription Books are not Sold in Book Stores. Our exclutsively subscription publications are never sold by us to be again sold in book st)res, but onlly to canvassing agents, and all persons who desire the work must purchase At’ regular agents, or not at all. It is our settled purpose and resolve to keep them entirely ouit of book stores. $1,000 to $3,000 a Year realized by Agent The income derived by our regular agents is usually from $1,000 to $3,000 a year, and the latter sum is often exceeded. We can give you the names of manuy agents who make this amount; the sum realized depending upon their industry, their adaptability to the business, the judicious and proper direction of their efforts, and upon other things, as in other pursuits. The business requires but little capital, is not attended with risk, and tha daily sale of a few books amounts to a large sum in the course of a year. Any intelligent and industrious agent of either sex, if at all adapted to the business, ought to, and can, with perseverance, realize in it at least $1,000 the first year, and muon more if circum stances are favorable. The income derived will as readily increase, in proportion as their knowledge of the business increases. We can truthfully say that we know of no other occupation that will, with so little outlay and preparation, yield so large an income.

High Character of many Agents engaged in it. Many persons of both sexes, who make it their sole business, and always expect to, are both intellectually and morally of a good standard. Clergymen, school teachers, and others, often leave desirable positions to permanently engage in it.

This being the case, it is evident that it is, at least, an honorable, lucrative, and healthy business, if properly pursued; and it should not be, in any sense, confounded with peddling, nor be conducted in a similar manner. Most agents like the business after becoming familiar with it, and prefer it to any other they can engage in. Cash Capital Required. The Canvassing Books for any of our publications, together with a book of private instructions, teaching the agents how to proceed successfully in the business, will be sent by mail, postage paid, on receipt of price. The Canvassing Book is substantially bound, and is all that it is necessary for an agent to have, as it fully and perfectly represents the work, showing the different styles of binding, quality of paper, thickness of the volume, size of page and type, and contains the complete table of contents, with Engravings, printed on fine tinted paper, and about 100
pages of reading matter, consisting of selections from interesting portions ef the work. We furnish it to agents at less than cost price, in order t. make as little expense as possible to the agent when he commences the business. Our plan of Operations. We allot our agents certain specified territory to canvass, consisting of one or more Town. ships, to test their ability; after this is thoroughly and successfully canvassed, their field win, be enlarged. No others of our agents are allowed to operate on that territory, so long as the agent to whom it is assigned, canvasses thoroughly and reports regularly. It is best noi to deliver any books until at least one town is canvassed. We require agents to report te us, once each week, the number of subscribers obtained in said week, and in what district or village, If you can act as agent for us, please signify your willingness at your earliest possible convenience. If unable to do so, please oblige us by handing this to some intelligent person, male or female, whom you can recommend for the business, and by so dcloing you may assist a friend to a lucrative employment. If you contemplate engaging in this business, send at once for complete cats of our publications, and circulars of our best sellina works with tms which will be sent on aplication N. B.-We allow a liberal commission to Agents who give their whole attention to the sale of our works. Address tihe Publishers nearest you (See Title Page).

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